Introduction
Asia is rich in natural resources like oil, minerals, and forest products, which are in
high global demand. This abundance has led to conflicts, particularly over oil
reserves and water scarcity. Since the early 19th century, European nations
colonized several Asian countries, including India and Palestine, exploiting their
resources. Japan similarly sought resources by colonizing regions like Korea and
Indonesia in the early 20th century. Today, political influence from countries like the
U.S. and European nations continues to shape access to these resources,
sometimes resulting in armed conflict. The extraction of resources often occurs in
regions with poor infrastructure and weak legal protections, raising significant
human rights and environmental concerns. Additionally, the unequal distribution of
resources contributes to the wealth disparity across Asia.
Climate and Agriculture
Asia, the largest continent covering 44.6 million square kilometers, features diverse
climates that significantly influence agriculture.
In the north-central region, particularly Siberia, cold Arctic winds and permafrost
make agriculture challenging, with hardy grains like wheat being the primary crops.
The melting permafrost due to climate change is creating uneven land, hindering
farming and leading to the formation of lakes and swamps. Animal husbandry, vital
in this region—especially in Mongolia, where about 80% of agricultural output
comes from livestock—is threatened by overgrazing and climate change, as the
Gobi Desert expands, forcing herders into smaller areas. Despite the high demand
for cashmere, many herders remain in poverty and often ignore government limits
on herd sizes.
The southwest, including the Gobi Desert and Arabian Peninsula, experiences arid
conditions with limited moisture, primarily producing irrigated crops like barley and
wheat, as well as heat-resistant crops such as dates and olives.
In contrast, Southeast Asia benefits from the summer monsoon, creating ideal
conditions for rice production, which is crucial for the continent—about 90% of
global rice production occurs here. Major producers include Thailand and Vietnam.
However, rice farming contributes to climate change through greenhouse gas
emissions from paddies, while also being vulnerable to rising temperatures and
unpredictable storms. Experts are exploring sustainable rice farming methods.
Southeast Asia is also a key player in tropical fruit production, with India leading in
mango production and Vietnam supplying fruits like durians to China.
Forestry and Fishing
Forestry is a vital industry in many Asian countries, with the continent accounting
for about 18% of the world's forest land. Russia and China together comprise 25% of
global forest cover, while Indonesia hosts the world's third-largest tropical forest
area. However, Western Asia has very low forest cover, with countries like Saudi
Arabia having only 0.5%.
In regions with dense forests, forestry products significantly contribute to the
economy. China leads as the world's largest wood product exporter, with Russia
closely following. Southeast Asian countries also export teak, a highly sought-after
wood.
Deforestation is a pressing issue across Asia, prompting governments to take
various measures for sustainable forest management. China has increased its
forested areas since the 1980s through organized plantations. Conversely,
Indonesia faces severe deforestation, largely driven by palm oil production and
illegal logging, leading the government to enforce laws ensuring that exported wood
is sourced legally.
Political factors also impact the forest industry. In 2022, the EU banned Russian
wood products due to the Ukraine invasion, but trade routes via Kazakhstan and
Turkey continued to facilitate timber exports. Similarly, the U.S. banned teak
imports from Myanmar amid military regime concerns, although some companies
found ways to bypass these sanctions.
Asia dominates global fisheries and aquaculture, producing around 70% of the
world's seafood, with China, Indonesia, and India as top producers. Aquaculture
significantly boosts fish production, but overfishing concerns arise due to Chinese
fleets operating in international waters. Affected nations, particularly in Africa, are
calling for more regulation to protect their fishing rights.
Fishing is culturally significant in many Asian communities. For instance, Indigenous
peoples near the Aral Sea rely on fishing for their livelihoods and cultural
expression. However, Soviet-era water diversion caused the sea's decline,
threatening local cultures. Efforts are underway to preserve the remaining
ecosystem and support fishing traditions.
Seafood consumption varies widely across Asia. China consumes about one-third of
the global fish catch, partly due to its large population. The Maldives has the highest
per capita seafood consumption after Iceland, while landlocked Afghanistan has the
lowest.
Mining and Drilling
Mining and drilling are crucial to the economies of many Asian countries,
particularly China and Russia. China emerged as the leading gold producer in the
early 2020s and is a significant player in coal and copper production. Russia’s
Siberian region is rich in coal, crude oil, and natural gas. Both countries are
investing globally in mines to secure rare earth elements and other minerals
essential for technologies like electric vehicles, driven by the rising demand for
sustainable energy resources. However, the pursuit of these minerals often leads to
human rights violations and environmental degradation in low- and middle-income
countries.
Southeast Asia has valuable resources for sustainable energy technologies, but
exploratory mining has declined due to safety and environmental concerns.
Indonesia, a top copper producer, has implemented export bans to bolster its
domestic mining industry, attracting significant Chinese investment. Nonetheless,
safety issues persist, exemplified by a 2023 incident in a Chinese-run nickel mine
that resulted in 19 worker fatalities. A coalition led by the U.S. and Australia
proposed investments in Indonesia's mining sector with assurances of improved
safety standards, highlighting the geopolitical tensions between China and Western
nations.
The Arabian Peninsula is home to vast oil and natural gas reserves, fueling global
demand and conflicts, such as Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. In the 2020s, U.S.
and Chinese interests continued to shape the region's conflicts, including the
ongoing civil war in Yemen involving the Houthis, who have targeted oil
infrastructure to challenge the Yemeni government. The geopolitical struggle for
access to oil also plays a role in Myanmar's Rakhine State, where resource control
has been linked to ethnic violence against the Rohingya minority.
Political unrest can linger long after conflicts end. For example, after the U.S.
invasion of Iraq in 2003, expectations for stability in the oil-rich Basra province were
unmet. Instead, government systems benefited the political elite rather than local
communities, leading to toxic pollution from oil fields that severely impacted public
health and access to essential services for residents.
Industry and Innovation
Asia is home to some of the fastest-growing cities in the world, both in population
and economic development, with many cities investing heavily in technology and
innovation. Hyderabad, India, known as “Cyberabad,” has become a tech hub
focusing on software development and information technology (IT), leading to
growth in sectors like pharmaceuticals, healthcare, and banking. Similarly, Ho Chi
Minh City in Vietnam has transitioned from traditional manufacturing to the tech
sector, producing semiconductors.
However, this shift towards technology has also highlighted significant wealth
disparities. Dubai, the wealthiest city in Southwest Asia, has a high concentration of
millionaires, but wealth is primarily held by the top 1%. A large portion of the
population consists of foreign-born residents, many from South Asia, who often face
poor living conditions, exploitative job situations, and limited rights. Despite
legislation aimed at protecting migrant workers, issues of inequality, health, and
safety remain prevalent.
Another challenge facing Asian countries is balancing innovation with environmental
sustainability. While projects like China's Three Gorges Dam have advanced
renewable energy efforts—producing record amounts of hydroelectric power—they
have also caused significant environmental and social consequences. The damming
of the Yangtze River displaced over 1.2 million people, submerged towns and
culturally significant archaeological sites, and contributed to the decline of local
wildlife, including the near extinction of the Yangtze giant softshell turtle. These
challenges illustrate the complexities of fostering economic growth while addressing
environmental concerns.
Challenges
Asia faces significant challenges related to territorial disputes over land and
resources. Many conflicts arise from historical colonization, where foreign powers
drew borders without regard for ethnic or cultural divisions. Examples include the
border clash between India and Nepal and the disagreement between India and
China over the Aksai Chin plateau.
A particularly contentious area is the South China Sea, which borders several
countries, including China, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, Brunei, and Taiwan. In
recent decades, China has expanded its claims over the region and its resources,
leading to conflicts with neighboring countries like Vietnam and the Philippines,
occasionally resulting in armed confrontations.
While resources are essential for survival and can generate wealth and power, they
also often become sources of conflict among individuals, groups, and nations.
FAST FACT
Highest Elevation
Mount Everest (called Chomolungma in Tibetan), Nepal: 8,848
meters/29,029 feet
FAST FACT
Most Renewable Electricity Produced
Bhutan (99.9%, hydropower)
FAST FACT
Largest Urban Area
Tokyo-Yokohama, Japan (38.2 million people)
NORTH AMERICA
North America, the third-largest continent, extends from the tiny Aleutian Islands in
the northwest to the Isthmus of Panama in the south.
North America's physical geography, environment and resources, and human
geography can be considered separately.
North America benefits greatly from its fertile soils,
plentiful freshwater, oil and mineral deposits, and forests. With a
strong domestic and export economy focused on this abundant array of natural
resources, North America has become one of the most developed regions in the
world.
AGRICULTURE
North America is characterized by diverse climates and ecosystems, ranging from
the Arctic to tropical jungles, supporting a wide variety of agricultural industries
categorized into climate zones: tropical, subtropical, cool temperate, and dry.
In tropical regions, farmers grow crops like oranges, sugar cane, coffee, and
bananas, while the drier intermediate zone sees cotton and hemp cultivation, which
are crucial exports for Central American countries. The subtropical zones in northern
Mexico and the U.S. produce fruits, vegetables, cotton, and tobacco, benefiting from
favorable rainfall and warm air currents.
However, agriculture in these regions faces challenges from monoculture, which can
deplete soil nutrients and increase the risk of disease. Farmers often rely on
fertilizers and pesticides to combat these issues, though their extensive use can
lead to environmental pollution.
The cool temperate zones support hardy fruits like apples and peaches, with notable
agricultural areas including New York's Finger Lakes and the Niagara Peninsula in
Canada. This region includes the Dairy Belt, Corn Belt, and Wheat Belt, each
specializing in specific crops and livestock.
In contrast, the dry zones of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico are
primarily suited for livestock ranching, although irrigation for crops has reduced
local water supplies, making it challenging for ranchers to sustain large herds. Corn
from the Corn Belt is often used as feed for livestock in this region.
FORESTRY
Forestry is a significant economic activity in North America, with the timber industry
thriving in the U.S. Pacific Northwest, Gulf states, and South Atlantic coastal plains,
as well as in Canada's Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia.
Forestry involves the management, cultivation, and harvesting of trees and
vegetation in forests. In the Pacific Northwest, logging companies harvest trees like
cedar, fir, and spruce, producing lumber for global construction and supporting
some of the continent's largest paper mills, which also manufacture cardboard and
fiberboard.
However, overharvesting timber poses a risk to forested land, threatening
biodiversity and the timber industry's sustainability. To combat this, the logging
industry and local governments must collaborate on sustainable harvesting
practices. For example, Mexico's ProArbol campaign aims to conserve and restore
forests by planting over 250 million trees, promoting biodiversity, and enhancing
human health.
MINING
Extractive activities, including mining and drilling, are central to the North American
economy, providing billions in revenue and millions of jobs. The continent is a major
producer of coal, bauxite (for aluminum), iron, copper, and nickel, with gold and
silver mines primarily located in the west. Mining has historically driven
development, notably during the 19th-century gold rushes in California and Alaska.
Coal remains a significant industry, particularly in the Appalachian region, where it
is mined underground or through open-pit methods for electricity generation.
However, mining poses dangers, including the risk of explosions, toxic coal dust,
and mine collapses. Tragic incidents, such as the 2006 Sago mine disaster in West
Virginia, have led to increased safety regulations.
Environmental concerns also arise from mining, particularly from practices like
mountaintop removal, which can devastate entire ecosystems and harm public
health. A notable incident occurred in 2008 when a coal slurry spill in Kingston,
Tennessee, released 1.1 billion gallons of waste, damaging homes and killing fish
populations in nearby rivers.
DRILLING
North America possesses significant oil and natural gas reserves, making extraction
a vital part of its economy, with the U.S., Canada, and Mexico ranking among the
world’s top producers. The Athabasca tar sands in Alberta, Canada, are the largest
source of heavy crude oil, hosting over 20 extraction projects. However, the
environmental impact of extracting this crude oil includes the destruction of boreal
forests and substantial water diversion from local rivers, alongside higher carbon
emissions compared to lighter crude oil.
Oil and gas extraction is particularly prevalent in the Gulf and Arctic regions, with
Mexico being a leading exporter due to its Gulf reserves. While the U.S. and Canada
produce more oil, they consume significantly more, resulting in net imports. As
nonrenewable resources, global demand for fossil fuels has pushed companies to
drill in increasingly remote and hazardous locations, often employing advanced
technology, though the long-term effects of such activities remain uncertain.
The safety and sustainability of these high-tech extraction methods were called into
question following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in April 2010. This disaster,
resulting from an explosion on an offshore rig in the Gulf of Mexico, led to the
deaths of 11 workers and caused a massive spill that impacted the U.S. coastline
from Texas to Florida for months.
THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
North America's advanced economic development has led to the rise of megacities,
engineering feats, and sophisticated infrastructure. Megacities, defined as urban
areas with over 10 million inhabitants, include Mexico City, New York City, and Los
Angeles. Mexico City, with 21.2 million residents, is the largest metropolitan area in
the Americas. Its population surged from 3 million in 1950 due to industrial growth,
although it is now shifting towards a service-based economy, experiencing slower
growth and suburban migration. The city faces environmental challenges such as
flooding, pollution, and geological instability.
Los Angeles is the second-largest U.S. city, known as the Entertainment Capital of
the World, with a diverse population, including a significant Latino demographic.
Toronto, Canada, is recognized for its ethnic diversity, with over half its residents
born outside the country, making it one of the most livable cities globally.
Engineering accomplishments in North America include the Panama Canal,
completed in 1914, which dramatically shortens maritime routes between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the Hoover Dam, finished in 1936, which provides
flood control and water supply but has also harmed the Colorado River ecosystem.
The continent is home to iconic structures like Toronto's CN Tower, the tallest
freestanding structure in the Western Hemisphere, and advanced infrastructure
systems, including New York City's extensive subway network, which served over
1.575 billion rides in 2009. Additionally, Mexico's Pemex manages one of the world's
largest petroleum networks, transporting crude oil and natural gas through
thousands of kilometers of pipelines.
FAST FACT
Population Density
The continent contains 57 people per square kilometer (22 people per square mile).
FAST FACT
Highest Elevation
Denali, Alaska, United States (6,190 meters/20,310 feet)
FAST FACT
Most Renewable Electricity Produced
96.7 percent of the power of Belize comes from hydropower and biomass.
FAST FACT
Largest Urban Area
23.7 million people live in the metropolitan area of the New York City, New York, United
States.
FAST FACT
Largest Watershed
The Mississippi River has an area of three million square kilometers (1.15 million square
miles).
SOUTH AMERICA
South America, the fourth-largest continent, extends from the Gulf of Darién in the northwest to the
Tierra del Fuego archipelago in the south.
South America has diverse agricultural products, vast mineral wealth and plentiful freshwater. It also
has rich fisheries and ports on three bodies of water: the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and Pacific
Ocean. The continent’s economy is centered on the export of diverse natural resources.
AGRICULTURE
South America spans from an equatorial zone in the north to a sub-Arctic zone in the south, with four
climatic regions: tropical, temperate, arid, and cold. Tropical climates dominate the north, with tropical
rainy areas, like the Amazon Basin, receiving 180–250 cm of rainfall annually, and tropical wet/dry
areas experiencing distinct rainy and dry seasons. These warm climates support the growth of key
exports like coffee and cacao. Brazil is the world’s largest coffee exporter, while Ecuador is emerging
as a top cacao producer.
In temperate regions, such as the Andes and Chile, corn and soybeans are major crops, with Brazil
leading in their exports. The Pampas region is central to South America’s ranching industry, with Brazil
and Argentina being top beef exporters.
The arid and cold regions, less suited for most crops, excel in grains and potatoes. Peru, which has
cultivated potatoes for thousands of years, is the leading exporter of potatoes in Latin America.
Quinoa, another indigenous crop, has gained global popularity. The cold climates also support livestock
like alpacas, llamas, and sheep, which are bred for their wool and meat, contributing to high-quality
textile exports.
FORESTRY AND FISHING
Forestry is a significant economic activity in tropical South America, especially in the Amazon Basin,
where high-value trees like mahogany and rosewood are harvested and exported for cabinet and
flooring production. Brazil has become the world's largest producer of eucalyptus, a non-native tree,
and South America has the second-largest area dedicated to tree plantations globally.
Marine fisheries along the Pacific coast are also vital, with Peru and Chile ranking among the top ten
countries in fish catch volume. Their abundant anchovy catches are processed into fishmeal, while
Chile leads in farm-raised salmon production, and Ecuador is a key shrimp exporter.
MINING DRILLING
The mining industry is a crucial economic driver in South America, which is a major producer of copper
and lithium, essential for modern technology and clean energy. Chile leads with 27% of global copper
production, and Peru follows with 10%. Copper demand is rising due to its use in wind turbines and
solar panels. Chile is also a leading producer of lithium, critical for electric vehicle batteries and
electronics. South America supplies 35% of the world's lithium, with more than half of global reserves.
The continent is also a significant producer of iron ore, with Brazil being a top global exporter. Nickel
and graphite, essential for clean energy, are also mined in the region. Additionally, South America has
deposits of oil and natural gas, with Venezuela possessing the world's largest oil reserves. While
natural gas has been vital for Argentina and Bolivia, production has fluctuated, facing increased global
competition.
INDUSTRY AND INNOVATION
South America is home to notable engineering feats, primarily aimed at managing natural resources.
The Itaipu Dam, located on the Paraná River between Brazil and Paraguay, has been operational since
1984 and is one of the top energy-producing dams globally. In 2016, it generated a record 103.1
million MWh, earning recognition as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American
Society of Civil Engineers.
Rapid economic growth over the past 50 years has fueled urban expansion in South America. São
Paulo, Brazil, is the continent's largest industrial city, with 12 million residents in the metro area.
Migration has led to the rise of favelas, dense, underserved neighborhoods, now better connected
through public transportation and cultural hubs for music and dance.
Lima, Peru, is the second-largest desert city in the world, with 11 million residents. Known for its rich
gastronomy, Lima faces infrastructure challenges like heavy traffic congestion. Recent projects, such
as airport expansion and new highways, aim to address these issues.
CHALLENGES
South America faces significant challenges in protecting its natural resources, exacerbated by climate
change. Key industries like beef production, fishing, and forestry contribute to environmental
degradation. In Brazil, deforestation for cattle grazing and eucalyptus production harms ecosystems
and contributes to global climate change. The non-native eucalyptus plant, in particular, inhibits other
vegetation from growing.
Indigenous communities, such as the Kawésqar in Chile, are affected by the salmon industry, which
damages ecosystems and disrupts traditional fishing. The fishing industry also suffers from pollution,
especially microplastics, which harm marine life.
Additionally, drug trafficking, particularly the production of cocaine from coca plants in Bolivia,
Colombia, and Peru, remains a major issue. Drug cartels fuel violence and instability, particularly in
Colombia. Efforts to curb coca production have shifted from plant destruction to incentivizing
alternative crops for farmers.
