Hausa

Northern Nigeria has long been dominated by the Muslim Hausa, who since the 19th
century have been ruled by Fulani emirs. For centuries their buildings have been
decorated inside with molded and painted low-relief decorations, which have more
recently been applied to the exteriors. Both decorative and of a high technical standard
are their crafts: leatherwork for saddles, bags, hilts, and sheaths; gold and silver
jewelry; ironwork; pottery; weaving; and embroidery.
Nupe
The Nupe have been Muslim for some centuries and are best known for their weaving,
embroidery, beadmaking, wood carving, and sheet metalwork. They have produced
many doors carved in low relief in a blend of decorative designs. Carved and painted
masks are made for the elo, a purely secular performance intended only to entertain
(nowadays held on the Prophet’s birthday). The elo mask has a human face with a motif
(sometimes a human figure) rising above it, flanked with stylized horns.
The gugu masquerader wears a cloth mask decorated with cowrie shells, but
sometimes Yoruba masks are used. The ndako gboya appears to be indigenous; a spirit
that affords protection from witches, it is controlled by a small secret society that
cleanses communities by invitation. The mask consists of a tall tube of white cotton
supported inside on a bamboo pole about 12 feet (366 cm) long.
That Nupe art should have been influenced by the Yoruba is not surprising. Yoruba live
among the Nupe, and there are bronzes in the Nupe villages of Tada and Jebba—one
of them apparently an Ife work and another in a more recent Yoruba style. Others of this
group, which include the largest castings ever made in sub-Saharan Africa, share
features with Benin sculpture and have other elements that are widely distributed in time
and space on the lower Niger. Nupe tradition says these sculptures were taken from
Idah, the Igala capital, in the early 16th century. Many were probably already ancient,
but nothing is known of ancient Igala bronze casting.
Other groups in northern Nigeria
There is a great diversity of sculptural tradition among peoples inhabiting the Niger and
Benue valleys, the mountainous regions around the Jos Plateau in the centre of the
area, and Adamawa to the east. This is altogether an area of astonishing diversity.
Some of the better-known traditions include those of the Igala, the Idoma, the Afo,
the Tiv, and the Jukun, all of the Benue valley.
Central Africa
Cameroon grasslands
Bamum beaded throneBamum king's beaded throne, Cameroon grasslands; in the
Ethnological Museum, Berlin. Height 83.2 cm.(more)
The Cameroon grasslands area can be divided into three stylistic regions.
The Bamileke area is composed of a number of separate chiefdoms, the best-known
ones being the Bangwa and the Bacham. Here sculptured human figures are composed
of a highly expressive blend of rounded and angular forms. The Bamum kingdom
developed roundness of form almost to its extreme, producing figures with big inflated
cheeks. Among the Tikar, the Bekom, and the Babanki, the forms are rounded but not
exaggerated. Throughout the grasslands there have been exchanges of art objects
and diffusion of the brass-casting technique, confusing the more-detailed stylistic
picture. In general, however, all of these societies are hierarchical, with sculpture mainly
intended to reflect the power and importance of the king.
Frank WillettJohn Picton
Gabon
Three major groups live in the equatorial rainforests of Gabon: the Fang and related
peoples; the Ogowe (Ogooué) group, including the Ashira and the Mpongwe; and the
Kota.
Fang masks and figures are characterized by schematic simplicity. Typical of Fang work
are bieri, boxes containing the skulls and bones of deceased ancestors and carved with
figures intended to represent their protective influence. Fang masks, such as those
worn by itinerant troubadours and for hunting and punishing sorcerers, are painted
white with facial features outlined in black.
The art of the Ogowe tribes, particularly the Mpongwe, is closely tied to death rituals.
Their masks, painted white to symbolize death, represent dead female ancestors,
though they are worn by male relatives of the deceased.
The Kota create stylistically unique reliquary figures, called mbulu-ngulu, which are
covered with a sheet of brass or copper. Like the Fang, the Kota keep the skulls and
bones of ancestors in containers, which consist here of a basket surmounted by the
carved figure.
Congo (Kinshasa) and Congo (Brazzaville)
Lega culture: initiation objectLega iginga figure (an initiation object), wood with plastic
beads, Lega culture, Northern cultural area of Central Africa (in what is now the
Democratic Republic of the Congo), late 19th–early 20th century; in the Brooklyn
Museum, New York. 27.9 × 9.5 × 6.4 cm.(more)
The region formerly referred to as the “Congo” consists of the modern republics of
Congo (Kinshasa) and Congo (Brazzaville), which are separated by the Congo River.
The area falls into two major geographic divisions: the northern half is an equatorial
rainforest inhabited by peoples who hunt, farm, and fish; the southern half is a savanna.
It is in the villages of this southern region that the most highly developed political, social,
and artistic culture has evolved.
In general, the styles of the two nations can be characterized as a combination of
symbolism and realism, wherein naturalistic forms—predominantly human and animal
figures—are rendered not in precise imitation of nature but in an exaggerated manner. It
is this “nonnaturalistic reality” that distinguishes the art of this region from West African
art.
The sculptural forms are most commonly wood carvings: masks, ancestor
figures, fetishes, bowls, boxes, cups, staffs, pots and lids, pipes, combs, tools,
weapons, and musical instruments. Similar objects are also carved in ivory, and in some
cases copper, brass, and iron are used. In rare instances, stone figures have been
found.
Painting is not greatly utilized as a separate medium, but carved pieces frequently are
painted. Masks and other pieces are covered with polychrome, the colours applied in
wide patches and often in planes and angles upon smooth surfaces. In the huts in which
rituals take place, wooden figures are hung on brightly painted walls.
Reeds are woven into decorated mats, used for sleeping and for wrapping the dead,
and into baskets and boxes, which are used to contain foodstuffs as well as ritual
objects. Basketry patterns and sometimes container forms have been imitated by wood-
carvers; textile weavers also use decorative motifs derived from basketry.
Pottery making has depended on four forming techniques: molding, ring building,
modeling on a board, and, more recently, throwing on the potter’s wheel. Pottery forms
are influenced by those of basketry and wood carving as well as by vegetal forms such
as the calabash; decoration consists of traditional geometric incised or painted patterns.
The pots are used for cooking and for carrying and storing food or as ceremonial
objects.
Pottery and embroidery are arts practiced by women, whereas sculpture
and weaving are male activities.
Stylistic differences within the two major regions of the southern savanna and the
northern rainforest can best be seen by subdividing the areas according to the
kingdoms that have determined the social, political, and artistic lives of the people. The
savanna falls into the lower Congo, Kuba, and Luba cultural areas; the rainforest, into
the northern, northeast, and northwest areas.
Lower Congo (Kongo) cultural area
In the lower Congo area three substyles can be identified: the areas known as the
coastal region, the Kwango River area, and the Teke region.

mother-and-child sculptureMother-and-child sculpture, wood, beads, glass mirror, metal,

(possibly) Kongo culture, Yombe subgroup, Congo (now Democratic Republic of the
Congo), 19th century; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York. 27.9 × 12.7 × 11.4 cm.
(more)
Seated mother-and-child figures are found throughout the lower Congo region. The
human figure is used by the peoples of the lower Congo in the decoration of almost
every work—from ceremonial objects and domestic utensils to pieces of furniture and
architectural ornament. Although the majority of carved figures are made of wood, many
important pieces in metal and ivory have been found. Among them are numerous metal
figures clearly influenced by the Portuguese missionaries—statuettes of Christian
saints, for example. In addition to the figures, crucifixes were also produced, in brass
or bronze (using the lost-wax, or cire-perdue, method of casting).
Ancestor figures and fetishes carved by the Kongo and related peoples, who live along
the coast and in the Mayombé forest, are more realistically expressive than the figures
of other areas. Every detail is rendered; the deceased ancestor is portrayed standing,
seated, or kneeling, each attitude revealing the dignity and pride with which he is
viewed. The fetishes are less realistically portrayed; although the head is treated in
great detail, the arms and legs are stylized, appearing to be of equal size, and often the
sex of the figure is not indicated. Whereas the ancestor figure typically appears serene,
the countenance of the fetish can be protective or malevolent.

Mangaaka (Kongo power figure)Kongo power figure (Mangaaka), wood, paint, metal,
resin, ceramic, from the Democratic Republic of the Congo or from Angola, second half
of the 19th century; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.(more)
The nkongi, a group of fetishes characteristic of the coast and the Mayombé forest,
consist mainly of human figures, but there are some that combine the forms of a dog
and a leopard, sometimes with two heads. The nkongi fetish is often completely covered
by nails and other sharply pointed metal objects driven into its surface; these objects
mark each appeal made to the spirit embodied in it. All fetishes, whether they represent
humans or animals and whether they are made of wood, horn, ivory, or even calabash,
must contain a number of magical substances such as blood along with animal,
vegetable, and mineral matter. These ingredients, called bilongo, are placed in a cavity,
usually in the figure’s stomach but sometimes in the back or head. The opening of the
cavity is covered by a shell or, in some modern fetishes, by a piece of mirror. The
magical substances are believed to invest the fetish figure with power and make it
possible for the devotee to establish contact with the spirit (nkisi).
Another object common to the lower Congo area, produced primarily by the coastal
peoples, especially the Woyo, is a wooden pot lid carved with pictorial narratives
representing proverbs. The pot lid, which covered the meal served by a wife to her
husband, illustrates a particular complaint about their marital relationship—a wife’s
displeasure with her husband, for example; when that lid was used, the husband
was obliged to discuss and resolve the problem publicly with the help of mealtime
witnesses. This manner of family arbitration was traditional, and each woman was given
a variety of carved pot lids on the occasion of her marriage.
The Kwango River area is the home of the Yaka, the Suku, the Mbala, and the Pende,
whose masks, figures, and other carved objects show a dynamic stylization.
Characterized by geometric patterns formed by the relationship of stylized body
parts, Yaka figures lack the organic integration of naturalistic forms produced by the
neighbouring Kongo. The turned-up nose is a characteristic of Yaka figures and masks.
Large life-size carved figures stand at the entrances of Yaka initiation huts, the inside
walls of which are covered with painted bark panels. Tudansi masks, worn by the young
men at their initiation into manhood and decorated with polychrome and raffia collars,
are topped with animal figures. The dramatically painted kakungu mask worn by the
leader of the initiation rite represents a gaunt face with exaggerated nose and cheeks.
This mask is thought to embody terrific powers and is kept in its own hut. Similar to the
Yaka tudansi mask is the hemba mask of the nearby Suku, which is only slightly less
grotesque. Carved Suku figures show more rounded forms than do the Yaka.
Mbala figures have three different types of faces: elongated, wide, and lozenge-shaped.
The features (especially the forehead and chin) project forcefully, and the head is
surmounted by a crestlike coiffure. Mbala mother-and-child figures are much more
powerfully rigid in style than others in the Congo region.
Pende masks, made in a realistic style, are among the most dramatic works of all
African art. Like the Yaka, small Pende masks fit over the head, helmet-style.
Representing the mysterious powers to which boys are introduced at initiation, Pende
masks are worn in comic entertainments performed during the ceremonies. The masks
have facial forms that repeat the angular pattern established by the heavy triangular
eyelids, and they are topped by a bushy coif of raffia. Smaller versions of these masks
are made as amulets in ivory or wood. The Pende fashion their figures in a style
identical to that of their masks. One type of figure, called tungunlungu, representing the
female ancestry of the tribe, is placed in front of the chief’s house.

Teke maskTeke (Bateke) mask, painted wood, Teke tribal region, Lower Congo cultural
area; in the Musee de l'Homme, Paris. Diameter 34.9 cm.(more)
The Teke live on the banks of the Congo River. They are best known for their fetishes,
called butti, which serve in the cult of a wide range of supernatural forces sent by the
ancestors, who are not worshiped directly. Each figure has its own specific purpose not
related directly to its appearance. When a figure is carved for a newborn child, part of
the placenta is placed in the stomach cavity of the figure while the rest is buried inside
the father’s hut (where the family’s fetish figures are kept). The figure serves to protect
the child until puberty. Figures of identical appearance serve for success in hunting,
trading, and other activities, each figure’s specific purpose being known only to the
owner. Teke figures are characterized by an angular geometric form with linear
ornamentation. Teke face masks, flat disks painted in bright polychrome, are highly
schematic forms bearing no naturalistic associations.
Kuba cultural area
Kuba palm wine cupPalm wine cup, wood, Kuba culture, Lulua province, Congo (now
Democratic Republic of the Congo), 19th century; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York.
21.6 × 11.4 × 13.3 cm.(more)
The art of the Kuba is one of the most highly developed of all African traditions, and
significant cultural accomplishments are part of their heritage. Mucu Mushanga, their
27th king, was credited with the invention of fire, and he was the first to make clothing
out of bark cloth. Shamba Bolongongo (c. 1600), the 93rd king, who introduced weaving
and textile manufacture to his people, was also the first Kuba ruler to have
his portrait carved in wood. Shamba Bolongongo’s portrait established a tradition of
such portraiture among the Kuba people. The kings typically sit facing forward with legs
crossed, the left in front of the right; the right hand, with fingers extended, rests on the
right knee, and the left hand holds the royal dagger. Geometric patterns cover the
stomach and are continued on the back of the figure. The sculptures also include
objects significant to each particular king, identifying his own personal
accomplishments. Developing from the court style was a popular style, which utilized
geometric forms instead of the well-modeled full-volumed forms of the court figures.
Kuba fetishes, emphasizing only essential organs, are highly schematic. The popular
style can also be found in the utensils and textiles produced by the Kuba.
Kuba maskKuba mashamboy mask, fibre, shells, and beads, Kuba cultural area; in
Hampton University, Hampton, Va. Height 41 cm.(more)
The Kuba metalsmith worked with copper, iron, and brass, making weapons and tools
to be admired as well as used. In some cases, one metal was inlaid with
another. Mashamboy and other masks—made of raffia and decorated with shells,
beads, and even bells and feathers—were traditionally used to dramatize the founding
of the royal dynasty and its matrilineal system of descent.
Luba cultural area
Luba ancestral statueFemale Luba ancestral statue of carved wood; in the Musée de
l'Homme, Paris.
Although the history of the Luba people (southeastern Congo [Kinshasa]) is one of
violence and warfare, their artistic style is characterized by harmonious integration of
organically related forms. Female figures are carved more often than male figures.
Some are freestanding, almost always in a frontal position with their hands on their
breasts; others are kneeling, sitting, or standing figures whose upraised hands serve as
supports for bowls, seats, and neck rests. A popular form consists of a kneeling or
sitting female figure holding a bowl. Such mendicant figures are used to appeal to spirits
for health and aid for pregnant women; neighbours, seeing the figure in front of a
woman’s hut, will fill it with gifts to help her avoid hardship in pregnancy. The female
figures are modeled in rounded forms and have what is called dodu—that is, a stylistic
tendency toward plumpness.
One well-known Luba substyle has been called the “long-face style” of Buli. It contrasts
strongly with the roundness of other Luba figures. The faces are elongated, with
angular, elegant features.
The Songe, who conquered and were conquered by the Luba, created a sculptural style
of intense dynamism and vitality. The style of their fetishes, carved from wood or horn
and decorated with shells and polychrome, is not as realistic as the classic Luba style,
and their integration of nonnaturalistic, more geometric forms is impressive. The Songe
also produce ceremonial axes made of iron and copper and decorated with interlaced
patterns. One group is known for its kifwebe masks, which combine human and animal
features painted in red, black, and white.
In the 19th century the Chokwe and the Lunda conquered the Luba kingdom; today
these hunters and farmers live in an area that includes part of northern Angola as well
as southern Congo. Their styles are often indistinguishable from one another. The forms
they create are monumental and weighty, and both male and female figures are carved
in an impressively vigorous style. Also made by these peoples are chairs decorated with
figures posed in genre and legendary scenes. Zoomorphic motifs are found on all
objects—even utensils such as combs and knives. In ceremonial rites of initiation, men
wear painted bark cloth masks and net costumes.
Northern cultural area

1 of 2

Lega carved ivory figureLega carved ivory figure, Zaire; in the Carlo Monzino Collection.
Height 14.5 cm.
2 of 2

Lega three-headed figureThree-headed figure, wood, fibre, pigment, Lega culture,

Democratic Republic of the Congo, 19th century; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York.
14 × 5.1 × 2.9 cm.(more)
The Lega, who inhabit the area between the Luba and the northernmost peoples, have
produced figures and masks, mostly carved from ivory in a schematic style. These
objects are used, together with a vast assemblage of artifacts and natural objects, in the
initiation to successive grades of the Bwami association.
Northeast cultural area
In the northeast area live the Mangbetu and the Zande. Mangbetu sculpture—in wood,
ivory, and pottery—is often characterized by the elongated skull forms produced by
binding the heads of young children. Zande sculpture seems largely of Mangbetu
derivation.
Northwest cultural area
The Ngbaka and the Ngbandi are the peoples whose sculptures are of major
significance in the northwest area. There is no single Ngbaka sculptural style: at times
the figures are fleshy and rounded; at other times they are considerably more angular.
Small animal figures are used as fetishes in hunting. The masks used in circumcision
ceremonies are roughly executed. Both the Ngbaka and the Ngbandi make clay images
to be used in funeral rituals. The Ngbandi are also known for wooden fetishes and
figures. Small carved ivory or wood figures were worn by Ngbandi warriors, who carried
shields made of decorated woven fibre. It is often impossible to distinguish the few
Ngbandi masks from those of the Ngbaka.
Peggy WagnerJohn Picton
East Africa
Sudan and South Sudan
Agriculture and cattle raising are widespread in southern Sudan and neighbouring
South Sudan, though the former is often despised and is engaged in with great
reluctance. Among peoples such as the Nuer and the Dinka, cattle are a source
of aesthetic satisfaction. The prize ox could indeed be regarded as their sculpture.
There is little scope for differentiating local styles of surviving wood carvings, all of
which are highly schematic in form. Some of the larger ones, 3 feet (90 cm) or more in
height, are attributed to the Bongo and appear on the graves of important people. The
Bongo also made smaller figures, which were used in murder trials to identify criminals
by oracular divination. Other peoples, especially the Bari, also made figures; these are
of uncertain significance.
The Shilluk made life-size representations of their first king, Nyikang; clay figurines of
bulls; clay pipe bowls and figurines in hyena form; and masks, typically fashioned of a
piece of gourd with applied facial features made of cattle dung and fishbone teeth.
Some peoples decorate their houses with wall paintings and reliefs; the Burun, for
example, paint animal murals reminiscent of rock paintings. The Nuba make mural
paintings and fine pottery of clay or cow dung, sometimes embellished with finely
painted geometric patterns. The southeast Nuba are particularly famous for the
body painting of their young men. Artistic taste appears in weapons, such as throwing
knives, and in domestic utensils, elaborate coiffures, and personal ornaments.