CONTEXT OF 1990s

The 1990s were a transformative decade for Indian politics and society, shaped
by economic liberalization, social upheaval, and the rise of identity-based
politics. These years marked a departure from India’s post-independence
political and economic trajectory, laying the groundwork for a new era in
governance, economic strategy, and social structure. Let's break down this
context in depth.

1. Economic Crisis and Liberalization

Balance-of-Payments Crisis: By the late 1980s, India's economic situation
had deteriorated significantly. Foreign exchange reserves were dangerously
low—barely enough to cover a few weeks of imports—while public sector
inefficiency, high fiscal deficits, and excessive borrowing had left the
economy on the brink of collapse. The Gulf War (1990-91) further
exacerbated the crisis by increasing oil prices, which further strained
India’s finances.

IMF Loan and Structural Reforms: Facing a potential default, India sought
assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), securing a loan
under the condition that it implement structural reforms. This marked the
beginning of liberalization, with India embracing a more market-oriented
economic model. The reforms, led by Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh
under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao’s government, included:

Reducing Trade Barriers: Tariffs were lowered, and trade restrictions

were eased to encourage foreign investment.

Deregulation and Privatization: Many industries were deregulated, and

public sector enterprises were partially privatized to improve efficiency.

Promotion of Foreign Investment: The government opened several

sectors to foreign investment, laying the foundation for India’s
integration into the global economy.

Impact on Society and Economy: The immediate effects were

transformative. India’s GDP growth rate improved, with sectors like
information technology, telecommunications, and financial services driving
growth. Urban areas, particularly metropolitan cities, witnessed a boom in
job creation and a rise in consumer culture. However, this economic shift

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 also led to widening income disparities, as rural areas lagged behind,
creating economic polarization and tensions that would have lasting effects
on political dynamics.

2. Rise of Identity Politics and Caste-Based Mobilization

Increased Caste Awareness and Mobilization: The 1990s saw heightened
awareness of caste identities, partly fueled by economic changes that
exposed the social hierarchy’s impact on access to opportunities. Political
mobilization along caste lines became more pronounced, particularly with
the implementation of the Mandal Commission’s recommendations (which
we’ll discuss shortly) and the subsequent response from caste-based and
social justice-focused political movements.

Regional Parties and Caste-Based Parties: Caste became a central

organizing principle for political representation in the 1990s, with parties
emerging to represent specific caste groups. For example, the Samajwadi
Party (SP) and the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) represented Other Backward
Classes (OBCs), while the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) focused on Dalit
empowerment. This shift challenged the dominance of national parties like
Congress, as regional parties gained influence by championing caste-
based rights and social justice for marginalized communities.

3. The Mandal Commission and its Implementation

Mandate and Recommendations: The Mandal Commission, established in
1979, aimed to identify India’s “socially and educationally backward
classes” (SEBCs) and recommend policies to uplift them. The Commission’s
report, submitted in 1980, recommended a 27% reservation for OBCs in
public sector jobs and educational institutions, in addition to the existing
quotas for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).

Implementation by V.P. Singh’s Government: In 1990, Prime Minister V.P.

Singh, under intense political pressure and seeking to secure OBC support,
announced his government’s decision to implement the Mandal
Commission’s recommendations. The decision sparked protests,
particularly among upper-caste students, some of whom resorted to
extreme measures, including self-immolation. The opposition to Mandal
catalyzed a deep social divide, while the support from OBC groups
consolidated their political identity.

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 Lasting Political Impact: The Mandal issue reshaped Indian politics, as
caste-based mobilization became an essential factor in elections. Regional
parties focusing on OBC and Dalit rights gained traction, with leaders like
Lalu Prasad Yadav (RJD) in Bihar and Mulayam Singh Yadav (SP) in Uttar
Pradesh rising to power by aligning with OBC and Dalit constituencies.
National parties, particularly the Congress, faced a loss of dominance as
regional and caste-based parties began challenging their control.

4. Religious Mobilization and the Rise of Hindutva

The Ayodhya Dispute: The Ayodhya issue, centered on the Babri Masjid-
Ram Janmabhoomi controversy, gained momentum in the late 1980s. The
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), which had been relatively marginal in Indian
politics, capitalized on this religious sentiment by promoting the
construction of a Ram temple at the disputed site. The party aligned with
organizations like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Vishwa
Hindu Parishad (VHP) to mobilize Hindu voters.

Babri Masjid Demolition: In 1992, a large gathering of Hindu nationalists

demolished the Babri Masjid, leading to widespread communal riots and
fundamentally altering Hindu-Muslim relations in India. This incident marked
a turning point in Indian politics, as religious identities became prominent
political tools.

Hindutva Politics and BJP’s Rise: The Ayodhya movement and subsequent
communal polarization fueled the rise of the BJP, which positioned itself as
the defender of Hindu interests. Hindutva, or the ideology promoting India
as a Hindu nation, became central to the BJP's political platform. This
rhetoric, which appealed to a section of the Hindu middle class and
nationalist groups, challenged the secular ideals promoted by Congress. By
the end of the decade, the BJP emerged as a significant political force,
ushering in a new era of religious-based politics.

5. Decline of Congress and Fragmentation of Political Power

End of One-Party Dominance: Until the late 1980s, the Indian National
Congress had largely dominated Indian politics. However, the Mandal issue,
the Ayodhya movement, and the economic changes introduced under
Congress-led governments led to dissatisfaction among various groups.
The 1990s thus marked the end of single-party dominance, with Congress
facing challenges from regional, caste-based, and religious parties.

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 Fragmentation and Rise of Regional Parties: Regional parties gained
strength, particularly in states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, and
Maharashtra, where they focused on local issues and represented specific
linguistic, regional, or caste interests. The decline of national dominance led
to a fragmented political landscape, where coalition governments became
the norm. This shift granted regional parties unprecedented influence, as
they held significant bargaining power in coalition formations.

Coalition Governments: With no single party able to secure a majority,

coalition governments emerged, beginning with the National Front coalition
in 1989, which was followed by the United Front government in 1996 and,
later, the BJP-led National Democratic Alliance (NDA). These coalitions
represented diverse ideological interests and, therefore, required
compromises to govern. While coalition politics enabled a more inclusive
governance approach, it also created instability, as regional parties often
leveraged their support to gain concessions, resulting in policy
inconsistencies and frequent political turmoil.

6. Shift in Political Rhetoric and Priorities

Focus on Social Justice and Identity: The 1990s shifted the focus of Indian
politics from ideological debates over socialism and secularism to identity
politics centered around caste, religion, and regional identity. Social justice
became a major theme, with political parties competing to represent the
rights and aspirations of various marginalized groups. Policies promoting
reservation and affirmative action dominated discourse, and identity-based
appeals became common in electoral strategies.

Economic Growth and Urbanization: With liberalization driving economic

growth in cities, urban issues like job creation, infrastructure, and public
services began to gain prominence. The burgeoning urban middle class,
benefiting from the economic boom, increasingly demanded efficient
governance, which influenced the BJP’s appeal among urban voters.
However, the rural-urban divide also became more visible, as rural
populations often felt neglected, leading to differing political priorities and
the need for policies addressing rural concerns, such as the Public
Distribution System (PDS) and employment programs.

7. Legacy of the 1990s in Indian Politics

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 Foundation for Modern Economic and Social Policies: The economic
liberalization of the 1990s set the stage for India’s rapid economic growth in
the following decades. India’s IT and service sectors flourished, eventually
positioning the country as a global player in these industries. However, the
disparities created by liberalization also made inclusive growth a political
priority, leading to policies like rural employment guarantees and social
welfare schemes.

Enduring Influence of Identity Politics: The Mandal and Ayodhya issues

left a lasting legacy on Indian politics, with caste- and religion-based
mobilization remaining central to the strategies of many parties. Even today,
identity-based politics plays a crucial role in elections, and both national
and regional parties continue to grapple with the complexities of caste and
religion in policy-making and governance.

Establishment of Coalition Governance: The 1990s solidified coalition

governments as a norm in Indian politics. The era’s fragmentation of
political power continues to influence the parliamentary system, with
regional parties often holding the balance of power in the formation of
governments. As a result, coalition-building has become a skill essential

THE ERA OF COALITION

The Era of Coalition in Indian politics emerged in the late 1980s and became a
defining feature of the political landscape through the 1990s and 2000s. This
period transformed how governments were formed, how power was exercised,
and how policy was shaped, as no single party could secure a clear majority in
the Parliament. Coalition politics introduced new dynamics, as national parties
had to partner with regional and smaller parties to form governments. This shift
brought both opportunities for more inclusive representation and challenges
related to policy stability and political cohesion.

Let’s examine this era in greater depth:

1. Background to the Era of Coalition Politics

Decline of Congress Dominance: The Indian National Congress had
dominated Indian politics since independence. However, by the 1980s,
public dissatisfaction with Congress had grown, fueled by corruption

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 scandals, economic challenges, and a sense of political disenfranchisement
among various groups. The assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in
1984 initially led to a sympathy wave that saw Congress return with a strong
majority under her son Rajiv Gandhi, but allegations of corruption, notably
the Bofors scandal, tainted Congress's image, and its support dwindled.

Fragmentation of the Electorate: As political and social movements

emerged in various parts of India, many communities—based on caste,
region, and religion—sought representation. This increased political
diversity led to the rise of regional parties, which began representing
localized issues and identities more effectively than national parties. By the
late 1980s, it became clear that Indian politics was moving toward a multi-
party system, where alliances and coalitions would be essential to gain
parliamentary control.

2. Alliance Politics and the Formation of the National Front

(1989-1991)
Formation of the National Front: The first significant coalition experiment
was the National Front government formed in 1989. Led by V.P. Singh, the
National Front was an alliance of parties, including the Janata Dal and
supported externally by both the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Left
Front. This marked the first time that multiple ideologically diverse parties
aligned for a common political goal—defeating Congress.

Mandal Commission and the Rise of Identity Politics: During this period,
V.P. Singh’s government implemented the Mandal Commission report,
which granted 27% reservations to OBCs in government jobs and
education. This decision triggered both support and backlash across the
country, leading to intensified caste-based politics. The National Front’s
inability to manage such polarizing issues highlighted the challenges of
coalition governance, as differing interests within the coalition often led to
instability.

Fall of the National Front: The National Front government was short-lived.
In 1990, the BJP withdrew its support due to disagreements over the
Ayodhya issue, leading to the government’s collapse. This underscored a
critical challenge of coalition politics: without a cohesive ideological
foundation, alliances could fracture easily, especially when individual
parties prioritized their agendas over the coalition’s unity.

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 3. Instability and Emergence of the United Front (1996-1998)
Formation of the United Front: The 1996 elections resulted in a hung
Parliament, with neither Congress nor the BJP securing a majority. A new
coalition called the United Front emerged, consisting of 13 regional parties
and backed externally by Congress to prevent the BJP from taking power.
The United Front was a loose alliance that brought together parties with
diverse regional interests and ideologies.

Short-Lived Governments: The United Front faced severe instability. H.D.

Deve Gowda was initially chosen as Prime Minister but was replaced by I.K.
Gujral after Congress withdrew support. The lack of cohesion within the
United Front and external pressures made it difficult to sustain the
government, and policy-making was often compromised as leaders focused
on coalition management rather than long-term agendas.

Political Challenges and Fragmentation: The constant power shifts and

lack of a unifying ideology within the United Front exposed the difficulties
of coalition governance. Congress ultimately withdrew support again,
leading to the fall of the United Front government in 1998. This period
highlighted the limitations of coalitions driven by short-term goals rather
than shared ideological or policy agendas.

4. The Rise of the BJP and the National Democratic Alliance

(NDA)
Formation of the NDA and Strategic Coalition-Building: Learning from past
coalition challenges, the BJP created the National Democratic Alliance
(NDA) in 1998, strategically partnering with regional parties by
accommodating their interests and avoiding highly polarizing issues. This
pragmatic approach helped the NDA maintain unity. Atal Bihari Vajpayee,
who was seen as a moderate leader within the BJP, became the face of the
alliance and helped broaden its appeal across diverse sections of Indian
society.

Stability under the NDA: The NDA brought a level of stability that previous
coalitions lacked. Although the first NDA government fell within a year, the
BJP-led alliance returned to power in the 1999 elections and governed
effectively until 2004. Vajpayee’s leadership was instrumental, as he
balanced the coalition’s needs while maintaining BJP’s core support base.

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 Achievements and Policy Focus: The NDA government focused on
economic growth, infrastructure development (such as the Golden
Quadrilateral highway project), and social welfare programs that had broad
appeal. While the BJP continued to advocate for its Hindutva agenda, it was
kept in check to avoid alienating coalition partners. This pragmatic
approach helped the NDA maintain political stability and complete a full
term, setting a precedent for coalition governance.

5. Congress-Led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and the Era

of Inclusive Development (2004-2014)
Formation and Victory of the UPA: In the 2004 elections, Congress formed
a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), uniting various
regional parties and gaining the external support of left-wing parties. The
UPA’s platform emphasized inclusive development and social welfare,
contrasting with the BJP’s “India Shining” campaign, which many saw as
catering mainly to the urban middle class.

Influence of the Left Parties: With the Left Front supporting the UPA from
outside, the government adopted more welfare-oriented policies, focusing
on rural development, employment generation, and social justice. The
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), for example, became
a flagship program, aimed at providing livelihood security to rural
households. This focus on social welfare resonated with voters, especially
in rural areas, and helped the UPA maintain support.

Challenges of Coalition Dynamics: The UPA faced challenges in balancing

the demands of diverse allies. Regional parties such as the DMK, Trinamool
Congress, and Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) often used their leverage
to secure special concessions for their regions or support base.
Additionally, the coalition had to navigate the Left’s opposition to further
economic liberalization, resulting in a compromise between growth and
social equity.

6. Challenges and Limitations of Coalition Governance

Policy Instability and Delayed Decision-Making: Coalition governments
often had to balance conflicting interests, leading to indecision or delays in
policy implementation. For example, the UPA government faced difficulties

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 in pushing through reforms like the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in retail
due to opposition from certain coalition partners and left-leaning allies.

Regional Influences on National Policies: Coalition governments needed

the support of regional parties, leading to policies that sometimes favored
specific states or groups to keep these allies satisfied. This dynamic, while
ensuring regional representation, also created inconsistencies in policy, as
coalition partners focused on securing benefits for their constituencies.

Frequent Electoral Uncertainty: The coalition system created a climate of

frequent electoral uncertainty, as regional and smaller parties often wielded
significant bargaining power and could withdraw support at any time. This
led to a focus on short-term goals and appeasing allies, sometimes at the
cost of broader, long-term national interests.

7. Lasting Impact of the Coalition Era

Regional Parties as Power Brokers: The coalition era established regional
parties as powerful players in national politics. States like Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar saw their regional leaders play influential
roles in shaping coalition governments at the national level. This trend
democratized political representation, as regional issues gained more
prominence.

Emergence of Multi-Party Federalism: Coalition politics ushered in a new

form of federalism where regional parties had significant influence over
national policies. This was a shift from the unitary nature of Indian
federalism, as regional governments gained more bargaining power within
the coalition framework.

Shift in Political Strategies: The era of coalitions forced national parties like
the BJP and Congress to adapt by creating alliances and adjusting their
platforms to appeal to broader constituencies. This period set the stage for
new forms of political mobilization, where coalition-building became as
important as traditional campaigning.

8. Coalition Politics in the Contemporary Context

Return to Majority Governments and Future of Coalitions: The 2014 and
2019 elections marked a shift, with the BJP securing clear majorities under
Narendra Modi. This appeared to signal a potential end to the coalition era,

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 as the BJP-led NDA became less dependent on smaller regional allies.
However, regional parties remain influential in many states, and coalition-
building is likely to continue playing a significant role in future political
alignments.

Continued Relevance of Coalition Politics: Despite the recent trend

towards majoritarianism, coalition politics remains relevant, especially at the
state level. In states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal,
regional parties continue to wield significant power, influencing

Political Rise of the Backward Classes

The political rise of the Backward Classes in India represents one of the most
significant shifts in Indian politics, particularly from the 1990s onwards. This
rise reflects the empowerment of marginalized communities, primarily the
Other Backward Classes (OBCs), as they sought greater representation, social
justice, and economic opportunity. The era witnessed major policy changes,
social movements, and new political alignments that challenged traditional
hierarchies and reshaped the country’s political landscape.
Let's examine this development in detail:

1. Historical Context and Caste Hierarchies in India

Traditional Social Structure: India’s caste system has traditionally divided
society into hierarchical groups based on occupation and birth. This
structure placed Upper Castes (e.g., Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas) at
the top, with OBCs, Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs)
placed lower on the social ladder. The OBCs, a diverse group comprising
various occupational and artisan castes, have historically faced social and
economic discrimination.

Early Political Movements: In the pre-independence era, leaders like

Jyotirao Phule and B.R. Ambedkar criticized caste-based discrimination and
advocated for social equality. The Non-Brahmin Movement in South India,
led by leaders like Periyar and the Justice Party, also focused on
empowering marginalized communities, which set the stage for the future
political mobilization of backward classes.

2. The Mandal Commission and Reservation Policies

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 Formation of the Mandal Commission: In 1979, the Mandal Commission
was established by the Janata Party government under Prime Minister
Morarji Desai, with B.P. Mandal as its chair. The commission was tasked
with identifying India’s socially and educationally backward classes and
recommending measures for their advancement.

Recommendations of the Commission: The Mandal Commission’s 1980

report identified OBCs as a group in need of affirmative action,
recommending a 27% reservation in public sector jobs and educational
institutions to increase their representation. This was in addition to the
existing reservations for SCs and STs, aimed at addressing historical
discrimination.

Implementation of the Mandal Report (1990): In 1990, Prime Minister V.P.

Singh announced the implementation of the Mandal Commission’s
recommendations. The decision led to widespread protests, particularly
from upper-caste students, some of whom even resorted to self-
immolation. However, the move had profound political consequences,
galvanizing OBC communities and leading to a new era of caste-based
political mobilization. It also highlighted the deep-rooted social divisions
and intensified debates on affirmative action, social justice, and
meritocracy.

3. Political Fallout and Rise of Caste-Based Parties

Mobilization of OBC Leaders and Parties: The Mandal decision acted as a
catalyst for OBCs, who began demanding greater political representation
and influence. This led to the rise of regional parties that championed the
cause of OBCs and other marginalized groups, such as the Samajwadi
Party (SP) in Uttar Pradesh and the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) in Bihar.
Leaders like Mulayam Singh Yadav (SP) and Lalu Prasad Yadav (RJD)
emerged as prominent figures advocating for the rights of backward
classes.

Shift in Political Power: Caste-based parties focused on social justice and

empowerment of backward classes, which helped them gain political
traction in states where OBC populations were significant. This shift altered
the balance of power, challenging the dominance of traditionally upper-
caste political parties and ushering in a new era of politics in the Hindi
heartland.

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 Impact on National Parties: The rise of OBC-dominated parties and leaders
forced national parties like Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
to reevaluate their strategies. Both parties began incorporating OBC leaders
and adopting policies to appeal to the backward classes, leading to a more
inclusive political framework at the national level.

4. Consolidation of OBC Identity in Politics

Formation of a Distinct OBC Identity: The Mandal implementation and the
rise of caste-based parties contributed to the consolidation of a distinct
OBC political identity. OBCs, previously fragmented among various regional
and occupational groups, found common ground in their shared
experiences of discrimination and exclusion.

Electoral Mobilization and Voting Blocs: Caste became a major organizing

principle in electoral politics, with political parties specifically targeting OBC
voters through caste-based campaigns. This led to the formation of
powerful OBC voting blocs in many states, particularly in the northern and
western regions, and significantly influenced electoral outcomes.

Increased Representation: The political mobilization of backward classes

resulted in greater representation of OBCs in legislative bodies at both the
state and national levels. This shift altered the socio-political landscape, as
OBC leaders advocated for policies prioritizing social welfare, reservation
expansion, and economic opportunities for backward classes.

5. Challenges and Criticisms of Caste-Based Politics

Social Fragmentation: While caste-based politics empowered backward
classes, it also led to the fragmentation of society along caste lines. Caste-
based mobilization and identity politics created divisions among
communities, sometimes leading to tensions and conflicts. Critics argued
that this focus on caste impeded social unity and hindered a broader class-
based approach to addressing economic disparities.

Internal Division Within OBCs: The OBC category encompasses various

sub-castes and communities with different socio-economic conditions.
Certain dominant OBC sub-castes, such as Yadavs and Kurmis, often
benefited more from political mobilization and reservations, while many
marginalized OBC communities continued to face exclusion. This internal
inequality led to demands for greater inclusivity within OBC representation.

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 Debates on Reservation Policies: Reservation policies for OBCs sparked
debate about meritocracy, equality, and social justice. Opponents argued
that reservation policies should be time-bound and limited to economically
disadvantaged groups rather than caste-based quotas. However,
proponents emphasized that social discrimination against backward classes
could not be addressed solely by economic means, as caste discrimination
continued to impact opportunities.

6. Impact on Policy and Governance

Focus on Social Welfare and Economic Empowerment: With OBC leaders
gaining political power, state governments in states like Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar introduced policies focused on social welfare, healthcare, education,
and economic empowerment of backward classes. Welfare schemes and
developmental projects for marginalized groups became central to
governance, leading to the prioritization of inclusive growth.

Broadening the Scope of Affirmative Action: OBC political mobilization

encouraged the expansion of affirmative action to include greater
representation in local bodies, public sector jobs, and educational
institutions. This widened the scope of affirmative action beyond the
traditional SC/ST categories to include OBCs and even economically
disadvantaged groups among the upper castes in some cases.

Reservations in Local Governance: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional

Amendments (1992), which mandated reservations for SCs, STs, and
women in local government bodies (Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban
Local Bodies), further strengthened political representation for OBCs at the
grassroots level. This decentralized governance structure allowed
backward class leaders to assume leadership roles in local governance,
which improved community representation and gave OBCs more say in
local decision-making.

7. Legacy and Continued Political Influence

Lasting Influence in Regional and National Politics: The political rise of
backward classes continues to influence Indian politics. OBC leaders and
parties remain powerful forces in several states, especially in the Hindi
heartland, where caste continues to play a significant role in electoral

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 politics. Even national parties have adapted to this shift, integrating OBC
leaders and prioritizing policies addressing the needs of backward classes.

Intersection with Other Social Movements: The political empowerment of

backward classes has intersected with other social justice movements,
such as the Dalit and Adivasi rights movements, creating coalitions and
alliances based on shared struggles against discrimination and exclusion.
This alliance between backward classes and other marginalized
communities has occasionally led to unified fronts that advocate for
broader social and economic reforms.

Shift in Policy Discourse: The rise of backward classes has shifted Indian
policy discourse toward more inclusive economic development. There is
now greater emphasis on rural development, educational access,
healthcare, and economic opportunities for marginalized communities. This
shift reflects the influence of OBC leaders, who prioritize policies aimed at
addressing historical inequalities and social justice.

8. Contemporary Developments and Future Prospects

Emerging Demands for Economic Criteria in Reservations: With changing
socio-economic conditions, there is a growing demand to apply economic
criteria to reservation policies. Some argue that reservations should focus
on economically disadvantaged individuals across all castes, while others
insist that caste-based reservations remain essential given the persistence
of caste-based discrimination.

Growing Political Influence of Sub-Regional OBC Groups: In recent years,

there has been a push for greater representation for smaller, sub-regional
OBC groups that feel overshadowed by dominant OBC communities. This
has led to demands for sub-categorization within the OBC category to
ensure fair distribution of benefits.

National Political Strategies: National parties like the BJP and Congress
have increasingly sought to appeal to OBC voters, incorporating OBC
leaders and prioritizing backward caste representation in cabinet positions.
The BJP, for example, has sought to consolidate OBC support through
targeted welfare schemes, representation in party leadership, and symbolic
gestures to address the community’s aspirations.

Conclusion

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 The political rise of backward classes in India has fundamentally reshaped the
country

Communalism, Secularism, and

Democracy
Communalism, secularism, and democracy are key concepts in Indian political
discourse, each with its own meaning and implications, especially in a
pluralistic society like India. They are interlinked, with communalism posing
challenges to secularism and democracy, while secularism is seen as a
fundamental component of democratic governance.
Let’s explore each of these terms in depth:

1. Communalism
Definition: Communalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the
interests of a specific religious, ethnic, or cultural community over those of
other communities and the nation as a whole. In the Indian context,
communalism often involves the exploitation of religious differences to
mobilize groups against each other, primarily based on religious identities,
such as Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, or Christian.

Forms of Communalism: Communalism can take many forms, from mild

community pride to extreme forms of religious intolerance. It can range
from social discrimination and stereotyping to organized violence or
communal riots. When communal sentiment turns into hostility, it can lead
to violence, destabilizing social harmony and undermining democracy.

Historical Background: In colonial India, British policies encouraged

communal divisions through tactics like "divide and rule," resulting in
separate electorates based on religion. This deepened religious divisions,
which were later exploited by political leaders. The trauma of Partition in
1947 further fueled communal tensions, which have periodically resurfaced,
affecting social harmony and unity.

Impact on Society: Communalism erodes social unity, promotes hatred,

and leads to mistrust between communities. When political leaders or
groups exploit communal differences, it can lead to polarization, alienation,
and even violence, as seen in communal riots. Communalism also obstructs

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 the goals of a secular, democratic society by undermining equality and
justice for all citizens.

Contemporary Issues: In recent decades, communalism has affected

politics and society in India. Polarizing issues like the Ayodhya temple
dispute, anti-Sikh riots, and ethnic conflicts have all highlighted the
destructive potential of communalism. Today, communalism can manifest
through rhetoric, hate speech, and attempts to portray certain communities
as inherently superior or inferior, leading to discrimination and violence.

2. Secularism
Definition: Secularism is a principle that promotes the separation of religion
and state, ensuring that government functions without bias toward any
religion. In a secular state, all religions are treated equally, and religious
institutions and leaders do not interfere in governmental affairs. Secularism
seeks to maintain peace by ensuring that no religion is privileged over
others and that individuals have the freedom to follow any religion or none.

Secularism in India: India’s model of secularism is distinct from the Western

model. Indian secularism promotes "equal respect for all religions" (Sarva
Dharma Samabhava) rather than strict separation. The state can intervene
in religious matters to ensure equality, as seen in laws for social reform
(e.g., Hindu Code Bills, Triple Talaq ban). The Indian Constitution
guarantees freedom of religion under Articles 25-28, promoting religious
diversity and tolerance.

Importance in a Diverse Society: India’s diversity, with multiple religions,

castes, and ethnicities, makes secularism essential for social harmony. It
promotes inclusivity by protecting minority rights and preventing religious
majoritarianism. A secular approach allows citizens to coexist peacefully,
reducing religious conflicts.

Challenges to Secularism: Secularism in India has been tested by

communal politics and religious extremism. Political groups sometimes
engage in "vote bank politics"—appealing to specific religious groups for
electoral gain, which undermines secular principles. When the state aligns
too closely with any particular religion or fails to address communalism
impartially, secularism is weakened.

Role in Promoting Democratic Values: Secularism complements

democracy by promoting equality, freedom, and justice. It ensures that

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 individuals can exercise their democratic rights without religious
interference, safeguarding individual freedoms and protecting minorities
from discrimination or coercion.

3. Democracy
Definition: Democracy is a system of government where power is vested in
the people, either directly or through elected representatives. It emphasizes
principles like equality, freedom, justice, and participation in governance.
A democratic government is accountable to the people, and regular
elections allow citizens to choose their leaders and influence policies.

Democracy in India: India is the world’s largest democracy, with a

parliamentary system and a Constitution that guarantees fundamental
rights to all citizens. India’s democratic framework ensures universal adult
suffrage, where every adult citizen has the right to vote regardless of
religion, caste, gender, or economic status. Through elections at local,
state, and national levels, citizens actively participate in governance.

Democratic Values and Institutions: India’s democracy is sustained by

several institutions—an independent judiciary, a free press, and a multi-
party system that enables choice and competition. Key democratic values
include the rule of law, freedom of speech, and secularism, which help
protect citizens’ rights and ensure checks and balances in government.

Relationship with Secularism: Secularism is integral to Indian democracy

as it upholds equal rights for all citizens, regardless of religious identity. By
separating religion from politics, secularism creates a neutral ground for
democratic participation. It ensures that no religious group dominates or
marginalizes others, enabling every citizen to exercise their rights equally.

Threats to Democracy: In recent times, challenges to Indian democracy

include communalism, corruption, erosion of civil liberties, and electoral
malpractice. Communalism, especially, poses a major threat to democracy,
as it encourages divisions and undermines unity. Additionally, populist
politics, which sometimes exploit religious or ethnic identities, can erode
democratic principles.

Interrelationship between Communalism, Secularism, and

Democracy

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 Secularism as a Safeguard against Communalism: Secularism acts as a
protective measure against communalism by promoting tolerance and
equality for all religious groups. In a secular democracy, the state does not
favor any religion, which helps prevent communal divisions. When
secularism is respected, the influence of communalism is reduced, allowing
for peaceful coexistence.

Democracy’s Vulnerability to Communalism: Democracy relies on the

participation of diverse groups, but communalism can exploit religious
identities for political gain, leading to polarization. When political parties or
leaders mobilize support along communal lines, it threatens democratic
values, making governance more about appeasement than genuine
representation and inclusivity.

The Role of Secularism in Strengthening Democracy: Secularism

strengthens democracy by ensuring equal representation and non-
discrimination, which are core democratic principles. A secular democracy
provides a framework for justice and equality, protecting minorities and
ensuring that religious identity does not influence political rights or
opportunities.

Challenges of Balancing All Three: Maintaining secularism and democracy

in the face of communalism is challenging. Politicians may use communal
narratives to mobilize votes, undermining secular principles. Additionally,
social tensions and periodic communal violence demonstrate the difficulty
of maintaining a balance in a highly diverse society like India.

Conclusion
Communalism, secularism, and democracy are deeply interconnected in the
Indian context. While secularism and democracy aim to create an inclusive
society based on equality and respect for diversity, communalism poses a
challenge by promoting divisive identities. Maintaining secularism is essential
for India’s democratic health, as it enables individuals from different
backgrounds to participate equally in public life without fear of discrimination or
exclusion. Despite challenges, the resilience of India’s democratic institutions
and the commitment to secularism have helped the country navigate complex
issues, fostering a society where diverse communities can coexist peacefully.

Emergence of a New Consensus

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 The emergence of a new consensus in Indian politics refers to a period during
the 1990s and early 2000s when major political parties, despite their
ideological differences, gradually adopted a more aligned approach on
economic liberalization, governance reforms, and aspects of secularism. This
consensus came about as India faced both internal challenges—like social
divisions and economic stagnation—and external pressures in a rapidly
globalizing world. Here’s a deep dive into the context, factors, and outcomes
that defined this new consensus:

1. Background and Context

Economic Crisis of 1991: India’s economic crisis in 1991 marked a turning
point. With foreign exchange reserves dwindling, the country faced an
imminent balance-of-payments crisis. This urgent situation spurred the
government, under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister
Manmohan Singh, to embrace significant economic reforms, marking the
beginning of India’s liberalization era. Economic liberalization reduced the
state's role in the economy, opened India to foreign investments, and
dismantled the License Raj—a complex system of permits and licenses
needed for private enterprise.

Decline of Dominant-Centered Politics: The political landscape was also

transforming. Congress, which had previously dominated Indian politics,
lost its majority in 1989, making coalition governments the new norm. As a
result, political parties increasingly recognized the need to cooperate and
find common ground on certain key issues, especially economic policy.

End of Cold War and Shift in Global Politics: The end of the Cold War and
the beginning of U.S.-led globalization also influenced India’s new direction.
India reoriented its foreign policy and economic strategies to adapt to a
unipolar world, and closer economic relations with countries like the United
States and members of the European Union became a priority.

2. Key Elements of the New Consensus

Economic Liberalization: Across party lines, economic reforms became a
shared agenda. Liberalization policies, including reduced tariffs,
privatization, and deregulation, were broadly continued by successive
governments, whether led by Congress, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP),
or coalitions.

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 Infrastructure and Foreign Investment: Investments in infrastructure,
technology, and IT were encouraged to support economic growth. New
policies welcomed foreign direct investment (FDI) in sectors like
telecom, banking, and retail.

Mixed Reactions and Adaptations: While initially seen as pro-business,

liberalization policies came to be accepted, with parties adapting to the
idea of a free-market economy balanced by social welfare. Parties often
competed to be seen as business-friendly, but they also pledged to
protect labor rights and provide social safety nets, a necessary balance
in a diverse country like India.

Consensus on Coalition Governance: The era of coalition politics began

with the United Front (UF) government in the late 1990s, followed by the
National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by the BJP, and later the United
Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by Congress. As no single party could
secure a majority, consensus-building became essential for survival in
government.

Shared Governance Norms: Parties became more pragmatic, focusing

on common minimum programs (CMPs) that prioritized economic
growth, social welfare, and governance over divisive issues.

Regional Parties’ Rise: Regional parties gained importance, influencing

national policies through their coalition roles. Their priorities, focused
on regional issues, created a more decentralized approach to policy-
making, requiring major parties to adopt an inclusive governance style
that respected local and regional concerns.

Moderation on Identity Politics: Both Congress and the BJP, the two major
parties, moderated their stances on identity-based issues. This was partly
driven by the need for broader voter bases and to appease coalition
partners who often held varying views.

Secularism as a Shared Value: Secularism, though interpreted

differently by different parties, remained a pillar of governance. For
example, the BJP, traditionally associated with a pro-Hindu stance,
adopted a more moderate approach under leaders like Atal Bihari
Vajpayee, who emphasized inclusive growth and secular governance in
coalition with other secular parties.

Strengthening Federalism: States gained more power and say in the

governance process, with greater financial devolution to states. This federal

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 approach allowed for region-specific policies and fostered a new wave of
experimentation and decentralization.

Local Governance and Panchayati Raj: Initiatives to empower local

governance through the 73rd and 74th Amendments provided
autonomy and resources to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and urban
local bodies. This democratized governance further and made
decision-making more inclusive.

3. Major Policy Reforms in the New Consensus Era

Economic Reforms Across Sectors: Reforms extended into sectors like
banking, telecommunications, and insurance, allowing private and foreign
investment. These changes created a more competitive environment and
stimulated economic growth.

Education and Social Welfare Initiatives: Successive governments initiated

policies aimed at social welfare and educational reforms, like the Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan (Universal Education Program) and the National Rural
Health Mission (NRHM), focusing on health and education for rural
populations.

Employment and Poverty Alleviation: Programs like the National Rural

Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), introduced by the UPA in 2005,
exemplify policies aimed at job creation and poverty reduction. It provided a
guaranteed 100 days of wage employment annually to rural households,
reinforcing the government’s commitment to economic inclusion.

4. Impact and Outcomes of the New Consensus

Economic Growth and Emergence as a Global Player: The consensus on
liberalization resulted in high GDP growth rates, leading to India’s rise as a
key global economic player. Rapid growth in sectors like IT, services, and
telecom transformed India’s economic landscape and created a large
middle class.

Urbanization and Infrastructure Development: The consensus encouraged

the development of urban centers and infrastructure. Urbanization
increased as economic opportunities expanded in cities, leading to a surge
in real estate, construction, and service industries.

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 Reduction in Poverty, But Rising Inequality: Liberalization helped reduce
poverty significantly, but the economic gains were unevenly distributed.
This period saw rising income inequality, with urban areas and certain
states benefiting more than others. The growth model was criticized for
benefiting the middle and upper classes disproportionately, while rural and
marginalized populations sometimes missed out.

Stronger Regional Influence: The era of coalition politics gave regional

leaders more say in governance, leading to the rise of strong regional
voices and regional aspirations shaping national policy. This shift
contributed to a stronger federal structure and fostered more balanced
development across different regions.

5. Challenges and Criticisms of the New Consensus

Rising Economic Inequality: While liberalization spurred growth, it also led
to significant economic disparities, with wealth concentrated in urban areas
and certain sectors. Critics argued that the economic model benefited
corporations and the wealthy more than it did the poor and working class.

Pressure on Secularism from Identity Politics: The moderation on identity

politics was not absolute, and incidents of religious and caste-based
conflicts occasionally disrupted the political landscape. Controversies like
the Gujarat riots of 2002 showed the fragility of secular consensus, raising
questions about the sincerity of secularism in practice.

Environmental Concerns: Rapid industrialization and urbanization raised

environmental issues. The new economic policies prioritized growth but
often sidelined environmental sustainability, leading to deforestation,
pollution, and increased exploitation of natural resources.

Dependence on Coalitions and Political Instability: Coalition governments

allowed for broader representation but often came with inherent instability.
Aligning the priorities of diverse coalition partners required compromises,
sometimes slowing down decision-making or leading to diluted policies.

6. Legacy of the New Consensus

Enduring Economic Reforms: The economic liberalization policies
established during this period remain central to India’s growth model.

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 Successive governments, regardless of political affiliation, have largely
continued with liberalization and reforms.

Enhanced Global Standing: India’s integration into the global economy

made it an important player on the international stage. Trade partnerships,
strategic alliances, and participation in organizations like BRICS and the
WTO became pivotal to India’s foreign policy.

Shift Toward Inclusive Growth: Although the new consensus era

emphasized economic growth, recent years have seen a shift toward
inclusive growth. Policies like universal health care, social security
schemes, and continued focus on poverty alleviation reflect a more
balanced approach to development.

Conclusion
The emergence of a new consensus in India’s political and economic landscape
marked a transformative period. The political stability created by coalition
governments and the commitment to economic reforms set India on a path of
growth, modernization, and globalization. While there were significant benefits,
including rapid economic growth and global integration, challenges like
inequality, political instability, and social divisions persisted. Ultimately, this
new consensus has had a lasting impact on the nation’s governance, economy,
and society, shaping India’s trajectory into the 21st century.

Lok Sabha Elections 2004

The 2004 Lok Sabha elections were a pivotal moment in Indian politics,
marked by unexpected outcomes, new alliances, and a shift in the political
narrative. They resulted in the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA)
coming to power, ending the rule of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led
National Democratic Alliance (NDA) and signaling a shift in public priorities.
Here’s an in-depth look at the election and its implications:

1. Background Leading Up to the 2004 Elections

NDA’s Rule and Economic Liberalization: The NDA government, led by
Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, had held power since 1998. It
championed economic reforms, infrastructure development, and pro-
business policies. The NDA undertook initiatives such as the Golden

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 Quadrilateral highway project and fostered the booming IT sector, which
brought growth to urban areas.

“India Shining” Campaign: As the NDA approached the elections, it

launched the “India Shining” campaign to highlight the economic growth
and achievements under its tenure. The campaign emphasized rising GDP
growth, modernization, and a global image for India, projecting that the
country was progressing rapidly.

Rural and Agricultural Challenges: Despite these advancements, rural India

faced challenges like agrarian distress, lack of adequate infrastructure, and
rising inequality. Many rural voters felt excluded from the benefits of
economic reforms. This disconnect between urban prosperity and rural
hardships became a critical issue in the election.

2. Key Players and Alliances

National Democratic Alliance (NDA): Led by the BJP under Vajpayee, the
NDA coalition consisted of allies like the Janata Dal (United), Shiv Sena, and
other regional parties. The BJP campaigned on a pro-growth, development-
oriented agenda, leveraging its “India Shining” message.

United Progressive Alliance (UPA): The Congress party, led by Sonia

Gandhi, formed the UPA coalition with allies such as the Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam (DMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), and Nationalist Congress
Party (NCP). The UPA’s platform focused on inclusivity, pro-poor policies,
and addressing the grievances of rural and marginalized populations.

Left Front: The Left Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist)
(CPI-M), played a significant role in supporting the UPA after the election,
despite not being part of the alliance. The Left opposed the NDA’s liberal
economic policies and advocated for workers’ rights, agrarian reform, and
social equity.

Role of Regional Parties: Regional parties, such as the DMK, RJD, and
Samajwadi Party, wielded significant influence. Their agendas focused on
regional issues and the welfare of their specific electorates, and they
became crucial in forming coalitions and securing a majority in the
fragmented political landscape.

3. Main Issues in the 2004 Election

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 Economic Disparity and Rural Distress: The NDA’s reforms, while effective
in driving urban growth, left rural areas largely underserved. Farmers faced
crises due to poor crop prices, debt, and lack of proper irrigation or
electricity. This disenfranchised rural voters who felt ignored by the “India
Shining” narrative.

Secularism and Social Harmony: There was growing concern over

communal tensions, especially after events like the Gujarat riots in 2002.
Many voters viewed the BJP’s stance on issues of Hindutva (Hindu
nationalism) as divisive, which made secularism and religious harmony
important issues, particularly for the Congress-led UPA.

Employment and Social Equity: The UPA campaign emphasized social

equity, employment, and welfare, critiquing the NDA for focusing on
economic growth without addressing social welfare. The UPA promised
schemes that would support the poor and improve employment, health, and
education for the underprivileged.

Economic Reform with a Human Face: The UPA’s platform focused on a

balanced approach, promising to continue economic reforms but with
policies aimed at social justice and welfare, which would include
disadvantaged communities in the growth story.

4. Election Campaigns and Strategies

NDA’s “India Shining” Campaign: The BJP’s India Shining campaign
highlighted the achievements of the NDA government, especially in urban
areas. The campaign included advertisements and outreach focused on
growth, modernization, and India’s rising international profile. However, this
strategy largely ignored rural and agrarian issues, which proved to be a
significant miscalculation.

UPA’s “Aam Aadmi” (Common Man) Campaign: The Congress-led UPA

countered with the slogan “Congress ka haath, aam aadmi ke saath”
(Congress’s hand is with the common man), appealing to rural and lower-
income voters. The UPA campaign emphasized social welfare, equitable
growth, and policies aimed at reducing inequality.

Local and Regional Outreach: Both alliances heavily engaged with regional
issues through their respective local allies. However, the UPA’s coalition,
with strong regional parties focused on agrarian and working-class issues,
better aligned with local concerns and gained traction in rural areas.

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 5. Election Results and Surprising Outcome
UPA Victory: Contrary to predictions and the NDA’s optimism, the UPA won
a majority in the Lok Sabha, securing around 218 seats, while the NDA won
approximately 181 seats. Congress emerged as the single largest party with
145 seats.

Support from the Left Front: Although the Left Front did not join the UPA
coalition, it provided outside support to the UPA government, giving it the
majority needed to govern. This support came with an understanding that
the UPA would pursue policies focusing on social welfare and avoid rapid
privatization, aligning with the Left’s anti-capitalist stance.

Regional Parties’ Influence: Regional parties in the UPA alliance, like the
RJD, DMK, and NCP, played a critical role in securing the UPA’s victory.
Their focus on regional and rural issues helped the UPA consolidate its rural
voter base, which the NDA failed to engage effectively.

6. Formation of the UPA Government

Sonia Gandhi’s Decision and Manmohan Singh as Prime Minister: Despite
Congress’s victory, Sonia Gandhi declined the position of Prime Minister, a
decision influenced by opposition due to her foreign origin and her own
preference to stay out of direct power. She nominated Dr. Manmohan Singh
as the Prime Minister. Singh, a respected economist and former Finance
Minister, was seen as a unifying and credible figure who could balance
economic reform with social welfare.

Coalition Compromises: To maintain support, the UPA adopted a Common

Minimum Program (CMP) with an emphasis on inclusive growth, poverty
alleviation, employment generation, and rural development. The CMP
assured coalition partners and the Left of the UPA’s commitment to
addressing inequality and improving welfare policies, even as it pursued
economic liberalization.

Focus on Social and Economic Balance: Under Singh’s leadership, the UPA
implemented policies that sought to balance economic growth with social
justice. Key initiatives included the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act (NREGA) for rural employment, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan for universal
education, and Bharat Nirman for rural infrastructure development.

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 7. Impact and Legacy of the 2004 Elections
Shift in Political Narrative: The election results demonstrated that
economic growth alone was insufficient to win the support of the
electorate. Voters, particularly in rural areas, demanded policies that
directly improved their lives and addressed issues like employment,
poverty, and social welfare.

Emphasis on Inclusive Growth: The UPA’s tenure focused on inclusive

growth, a theme that continued through the years, with programs targeting
rural development, education, health, and employment. This approach
influenced subsequent governments, which prioritized social welfare along
with economic reforms.

Rise of Coalition Politics: The 2004 election underscored the importance

of coalition politics, with regional parties becoming key stakeholders in
national governance. This period saw the federal structure of Indian politics
grow stronger, with state-level concerns influencing central government
policies.

Secularism and Communal Harmony: The Congress-led UPA emphasized

secularism and communal harmony, responding to concerns over religious
tensions from the previous administration. This approach reasserted
secularism as a foundational value in Indian governance.

Long-Term Economic Policies with a Social Focus: The UPA’s approach to

economic policy, blending liberalization with social welfare, set a precedent.
Subsequent governments, even the BJP-led administrations, adopted a
similar approach, maintaining economic reform while implementing welfare
schemes like Jan Dhan Yojana and Ujjwala Yojana.

Conclusion
The 2004 Lok Sabha elections marked a critical juncture in Indian politics,
reflecting a shift in the electorate’s priorities toward inclusive growth, rural
welfare, and social equity. The Congress-led UPA’s victory and its adoption of a
balanced economic and social policy agenda reshaped the national focus. The
election underscored the limitations of an urban-centric, growth-only approach
and highlighted the importance of addressing rural and marginalized
communities’ needs within the framework of India’s democratic and secular
ideals.

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 Growing Consensus in Indian Politics
The Growing Consensus in Indian Politics refers to a period in the late 1990s
and early 2000s where, despite ideological differences, most major political
parties in India began to align on certain key issues, especially economic
liberalization, governance reforms, and a general commitment to a secular
democracy. This consensus emerged in response to both domestic and global
pressures, including economic challenges, coalition politics, and India's
increasing role on the world stage. Here’s an in-depth look at how this
consensus developed, its key components, and its impact on Indian politics.

1. Background and Context for Consensus

Economic Crisis of the Early 1990s: India’s 1991 balance-of-payments
crisis set the stage for a major shift in economic policy. The government,
under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan
Singh, initiated economic reforms that liberalized the economy, opened it to
foreign investment, and reduced the role of the state in business. These
reforms created the foundation for bipartisan support on economic
liberalization.

Rise of Coalition Politics: As single-party dominance faded, coalition

politics became the new reality. Parties needed to collaborate to form stable
governments, and this requirement for coalition-building fostered a spirit of
compromise on key policies to maintain alliances.

Globalization and a Changing World Order: The end of the Cold War and
the rise of globalization meant that India needed to adapt to a unipolar
world. Economic reforms, trade partnerships, and a stronger role in global
diplomacy became crucial.

2. Key Elements of the Growing Consensus

Economic Liberalization and Reform: Political parties across the spectrum
increasingly accepted the need for a market-oriented economy. The shift
started with Congress under Narasimha Rao in 1991 and continued with the
BJP-led NDA government under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
Despite different political ideologies, parties largely agreed on:

Promoting private sector involvement in economic growth.

Untitled 28
 Encouraging foreign investment across sectors like telecom, IT, and
finance.

Reducing the License Raj, allowing businesses to operate with fewer

regulatory hurdles.

Secularism as a Core Value: While there were ideological differences on

how secularism should be practiced, most parties agreed that India’s multi-
religious, multi-ethnic character required an inclusive approach to
governance. This broad consensus sought to avoid policies that could
alienate minority communities and focused on promoting communal
harmony.

Commitment to Social Welfare and Inclusivity: Although economic growth

was a priority, parties recognized the importance of addressing social
inequities. Programs to address rural poverty, unemployment, and
education received widespread support, regardless of the ruling party:

Employment schemes like the National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act (NREGA), which aimed to provide rural employment, and education
schemes like the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan for universal primary
education, were seen as vital for inclusive development.

Welfare schemes focusing on healthcare, sanitation, and rural

infrastructure became a common ground for all major parties.

Strengthening of Federalism: The growing importance of regional parties

in coalitions led to an emphasis on federalism and decentralization of
power. State governments gained a greater role in decision-making, and
parties across the political spectrum supported increased fiscal and
administrative powers for states.

3. Coalition Politics and Policy Compromise

Common Minimum Programs (CMPs): To manage coalition governance,
alliances like the NDA and UPA developed CMPs that focused on shared
goals and avoided divisive issues. These programs provided guidelines for
consensus-driven governance and ensured stability despite ideological
differences.

Regional Parties’ Influence: Regional parties’ rise forced national parties to

address regional issues in national policy-making. This shift led to a more
balanced approach to development, accommodating regional aspirations

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 and focusing on localized issues, such as water management,
infrastructure, and agricultural policy.

Moderation of Extreme Ideologies: The need to appeal to a broader base

and sustain coalition alliances led to moderation. For instance, the BJP,
traditionally associated with Hindu nationalism, adopted a more centrist
approach under Vajpayee to attract coalition partners.

4. Major Policy Initiatives Reflecting Consensus

Economic and Infrastructure Development: Key initiatives like the Golden
Quadrilateral project to improve national highways and the Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana to build rural roads gained bipartisan support.
Infrastructure development became central to economic policy across
parties.

Social Welfare and Rural Development: Programs such as NREGA, Midday

Meal Scheme, and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan aimed to address poverty and
education in rural areas, receiving support from successive governments.

Energy and Environmental Policies: Recognizing the need for sustainable

growth, governments across the political spectrum promoted renewable
energy projects and enacted policies to reduce pollution, though with
varying emphasis.

5. Impact of the Growing Consensus on Indian Politics

Stable Economic Growth: The alignment on economic liberalization and
infrastructure investment helped sustain steady growth rates, allowing India
to emerge as one of the fastest-growing major economies.

Institutional Reforms: Reforms in public institutions and governance

practices, like the Right to Information Act (RTI), brought greater
transparency and accountability in governance, enjoying widespread
support from multiple political parties.

Resilience of Secularism and Social Harmony: Although challenged by

communal tensions at times, the broad consensus on secularism as a
foundational principle of governance helped to uphold social stability and
allowed successive governments to address communal issues in a manner
that sought to protect India’s diverse population.

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 Strengthened Federalism and Local Governance: The growing consensus
emphasized the importance of regional governance and empowered local
governments through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments,
enabling Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies to play an
active role in governance.

6. Challenges and Criticisms of the Consensus

Growing Inequality: While economic liberalization fostered growth, it also
contributed to rising income inequality. Critics argued that the growth
model prioritized urban areas and left rural populations and lower-income
communities behind.

Compromise on Accountability: Coalition politics occasionally led to

political compromises that affected governance. This sometimes resulted in
policy paralysis, as diverse coalition partners prioritized regional issues
over broader national interests.

Inconsistent Secularism: The consensus on secularism was often

challenged by identity politics, with political parties occasionally resorting
to caste and religion-based mobilization for votes. This highlighted the
limits of the consensus on secular values.

7. Legacy of the Growing Consensus

Continuity in Economic Policy: Despite changes in government, the
economic policies of liberalization and growth-oriented reforms continued.
This consistency in policy across administrations helped foster foreign
investment and establish India as a global economic player.

Emergence of Bipolar Alliances: Coalition politics gave rise to two broad

alliances: the Congress-led UPA and the BJP-led NDA. This bipolar
structure brought some stability and predictability to Indian politics, with
both alliances competing on governance rather than purely ideological
lines.

Social Welfare and Inclusive Development: The emphasis on social

welfare left a lasting impact, with subsequent governments committed to
schemes that target healthcare, education, and rural employment.

Stronger Regional Influence and Federal Structure: The influence of

regional parties became a permanent feature of Indian politics. This

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 strengthened India’s federal structure, giving states a more active role in
governance and allowing regional interests to shape national policy.

Conclusion
The Growing Consensus in Indian politics reflects a period when parties across
the political spectrum found common ground on fundamental issues of
economic liberalization, federalism, social welfare, and secularism. This era of
consensus helped stabilize Indian governance in an increasingly globalized
world and underscored the adaptability of Indian democracy. While challenges
like inequality, regional disparities, and identity politics persisted, the period of
growing consensus paved the way for a balanced approach that sought to
reconcile growth with social equity, central governance with federalism, and
secular ideals with the diverse socio-cultural fabric of India.

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