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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

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Health Benefits of Anthocyanins and Their

Encapsulation for Potential Use in Food Systems: A
Review
a b cd c
Basharat Yousuf , Khalid Gul , Ali Abas Wani & Preeti Singh
a
Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Longowal, Punjab, India, 148106
b
Department of Processing & Food Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,
Punjab, 141004
c
Fraunhofer Institute of Process Engineering & Packaging, IVV, 85354, Freising Germany
d
Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of S&T Awantipora, J&K, India, 192122
Click for updates Accepted author version posted online: 06 Mar 2015.

To cite this article: Basharat Yousuf, Khalid Gul, Ali Abas Wani & Preeti Singh (2015): Health Benefits of Anthocyanins
and Their Encapsulation for Potential Use in Food Systems: A Review, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, DOI:
10.1080/10408398.2013.805316

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Health benefits of anthocyanins and their encapsulation for potential use in food systems:

A review

1
Basharat Yousuf, 2Khalid Gul*, 3,4Ali Abas Wani, 3Preeti Singh

1
Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering &

Technology, Longowal, Punjab, India, 148106

2
Department of Processing & Food Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,
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Punjab, 141004
3
Fraunhofer Institute of Process Engineering & Packaging, IVV, 85354, Freising Germany
4
Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of S&T Awantipora, J&K, India, 192122

Corresponding Author:

Khalid Gul

fud.biopolymer@gmail.com

Abstract

Anthocyanins are one of the six subgroups of large and widespread group of plant constituents

known as flavonoids. They are responsible for the bright attractive orange, red, purple, and blue

colors of most fruits, vegetables, flowers and some cereal grains. More than 300 structurally

distinct anthocyanins have been identified in nature. Earlier, anthocyanins were only known for

their coloring properties but now interest in anthocyanin pigments has intensified because of

their possible health benefits as dietary antioxidants, which help to prevent neuronal diseases,

cardiovascular illnesses, cancer, diabetes, inflammation and many such others diseases. Ability

of anthocyanins to counter oxidants makes them atherosclerosis fighters. Therefore, anthocyanin

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rich foods may help boost overall health by offering an array of nutrients. However, the

incorporation of anthocyanins into food and medical products is challenging task due to their low

stability towards environmental conditions during processing and storage. Encapsulation seems

to be an efficient way to introduce such compounds into these products. Encapsulating agents act

as a protector coat against ambient adverse conditions such as light, humidity and oxygen.

Encapsulated bioactive compounds are easier to handle and offer improved stability. The main
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objective of this review is to explore health benefits of anthocyanins and their extraction,

characterization, encapsulation and delivery.

Key Words: anthocyanins, flavonoids, encapsulation, health benefits, antioxidants, coloring

agent

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Introduction

Color plays an important role in the acceptability of foods. Colorants are being used in food

industry since centuries to enhance or at least restore original appearance of foods or to ensure

uniformity, as an indicator of food quality. Color is the first characteristic perceived by the

senses. Synthetic colorants have always been a question of controversy regarding their safety.

Consumers prefer natural colorants than the synthetic ones as they are increasingly concerned
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with the safety of synthetic colorants. Therefore, interest in natural colorants has significantly

increased as a consequence of both legislative action and consumer awareness. Anthocyanins

have a great potential in replacing many of these synthetic colorants.

Anthocyanins (Greek anthos = flower and kianos = blue) are the common coloring compounds

found in a large number of plants (Table 1). Chemically anthocyanins are phenolic compounds

belonging to the flavonoids, with two benzene rings joined by a linear three carbon chain,

possessing the C6–C3–C6 basic skeleton (Wilska, 2007). More than 600 different anthocyanins

and their substituents have been reported (Veitch and Grayer, 2008). Anthocyanins are formed

by modification of anthocyanidins by glycosyl and aromatic or aliphatic acyl moieties

(Castaneda et al., 2009; Oren, 2009). They may be present in leaves, flowers and fruits.

Anthocyanins are a group of myriad coloring compounds that represent different colors such as

purple, red, blue and orange. They play an important role in the color quality of both fresh and

processed fruits, vegetables, and other plants products. Anthocyanins are normally found

dissolved uniformly in the vacuolar solution of epidermal cells (Rogez et al., 2011).

Anthocyanin-rich extracts are increasingly attractive to the food industry as natural substitutes to

synthetic FD&C dyes and lakes, because of their coloring properties (Bueno et al., 2012). They

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are non- toxic and water soluble which leads to their easy incorporation in food systems and are

thus of great interest for their use as natural water soluble colorants (Pazmino et al., 2001a). The

stability of anthocyanins during processing and storage is an area of concern. Due to their poor

stability, they undergo degradation during processing. Incorporation of anthocyanins in different

food systems is therefore, a challenging task and encapsulation seems to be a way forward.

Anthocyanins find wide application in food and beverage industry. This includes use in products
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such as syrups, soft and alcoholic drinks, confectionery, sweet dressings, jams, jellies, dairy

products, powder mixes and bakery products. They also have potential application in

pharmaceutical industry.

Chemistry

Anthocyanins are phenolic compounds belonging to the flavonoid family responsible for the

color of the petals of flowers and the fruits of a great variety of plants (Strack and Wray, 1989),

as well as for the color of products that are made from colored vegetable matrices like wine

(Mazza, 1995).

Anthocyanins possess two benzene rings joined by a linear three carbon chain (C2, C3, C4), as

represented in Figure. 1. This means they possess C6–C3–C6 basic skeleton (Wilska, 2007).

Anthocyanins are chemically glycoside moieties of anthocyanidins derived from the flavylium or

2-phenylbenzopyrilium cation. Out of several anthocyanidins found in nature, six are more

common and widespread which include cyanidin, delphinidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin

and malvidin (Table 2). Being polar in nature anthocyanins are soluble in polar solvents such as

methanol, ethanol and water. This is the reason why most of the extraction processes are

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designed to use such solvents. These solvents are being acidified to stabilize anthocyanins in the

flavylium cation.

Anthocyanins show structural variations which are mainly due to differences in the number of -

OH moieties in the molecule, the degree of methylation of –OH moieties, the nature and number

of the sugar moiety attached to the aglycone molecule and the specific position of these

attachments. Additionally anthocyanins also vary in their quantity depending upon the source in
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which they are present (Table 3).

Role of anthocyanins in human health

In addition to coloring properties, anthocyanins exhibit strong anti-oxidant activity which helps

to prevent neuronal diseases, cardiovascular illnesses, cancer, diabetes, inflammation and many

such others diseases. Anthocyanins are reported to have effect on treatment of cancers

(Nichenametla et al., 2006) and human nutrition (Stintzing & Carle, 2004). They are reported to

be effective in suppressing tumor growth by arresting cell growth between S phase and G2 phase

of the cell cycle (Koide et al., 1996). Ability of anthocyanins to counter oxidants makes them

atherosclerosis fighters. Anthocyanins are found to relax blood vessels and protect the integrity

of the endothelial cells that line the blood vessel walls. Based on animal experiments, strawberry

has been shown to have inhibitory effect against esophageal cancer and reverses the neuronal and

behavioral aging in these experimental animals (Torronen and Maatta, 2002). This therapeutic

activity of strawberries has been correlated with anthocyanin content in these fruits. Other health

benefits of anthocyanins include allergy relief, healthy heart (Basu et al., 2010; Wallace, 2011),

better eyesight (Ghosh & Konishi, 2007), ulcer treatment and cognitive function (Moskovitz et

al., 2002). They have been found to have positive effects in the treatment of various diseases

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resulting from capillary fragility (Tamura, et al., 1994). For instance preventing cholesterol-

induced atherosclerosis and inhibiting platelet aggregation.

Therefore, due to the interesting coloring and heath properties, researchers are involved in

exploring the natural potential of anthocyanins. Large number of reports are found in the

literature regarding the techniques for purification and separation of anthocyanins (Blevea et al.,

2008), application of anthocyanins in food (Giusti & Wrolstad, 2003), identification and
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distribution in plants (Matera et al., 2012), stability (Cavalcanti et al., 2011; Durge et al., 2013),

quantitative analysis using chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques (Huang et al., 2009)

and their degradation kinetics (Reyes et al., 2007).

Bioavailability of anthocyanins

The bioavailability is the proportion of a particular nutrient that is digested, absorbed, and

metabolized through normal pathways. Bioavailability of anthocyanins is a major issue regarding

their biological effects. To perform their multiple effects the bioavailability of anthocyanins

present in different fruits and vegetables is important, but it still remains not so well understood

issue. Anthocyanins need to be ingested and distributed within the body successfully. However,

as anthocyanins are usually ingested in combination with different food sources, the effect of

food matrixes on their absorption makes bioavailability studies more complex.

Various studies have been carried out to investigate the bioavailability of anthocyanins (Clifford,

2000; McGhie & Walten, 2007). The bioavailability of anthocyanins is less than 1% (Bub et al.,

2001; Matsumoto, et al., 2001; Manach et al., 2005) Anthocyanins containing different

glycosides have different bioavaliabilities. In general, non-acylated anthocyanins are better

absorbed than acylated ones (Tsuda, et al., 1996; Zhang, et al., 2005).

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Bub et al. (2001) while studying malvidin-3-glucoside (M3G), an anthocyanin, occurring in red

wine and red grape juice reported that M3G is poorly absorbed and not anthocyanins themselves

rather yet not defined anthocyanin metabolites or other polyphenols might be responsible for the

observed antioxidant and health effects. Anthocyanins are rapidly absorbed and eliminated and

that they are absorbed with poor efficiency (Manach et al., 2005). As such, continuous intake of

anthocyanins may be needed for their systemic benefits.

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Extraction of anthocyanins

Various methods are available for the extraction of active components from plant sources.

However, the selection of suitable method depends on many factors such as the economic

viability and appropriateness of the process to the particular circumstance.

Anthocyanins are polar molecules, extracted from various fruits and vegetables and more

interestingly they can be obtained from otherwise waste materials as well (Clifford, 2000).

Aqueous mixtures of ethanol, methanol or acetone are used for anthocyanin extraction

(Kahkonen et al., 2001). As per the previous literature available, anthocyanins are most

commonly being extracted by solvent extraction method and more particularly by using HCl and

methanol (Durana et al., 2011). The extraction may be enhanced by using agitation or stirring

techniques. The extract so obtained can then be filtered and vacuum-concentrated using rotary

evaporator. In order to avoid thermal degradation of anthocyanins, membrane technologies such

as ultrafiltration and nanofiltration can be used for their concentration which gives concentrate of

similar quality as the initial extract (Cisse et al., 2011). They also concluded that membrane

processes could be of great interest to pre-concentrate the extracts without thermal damage

before final concentration (vacuum evaporation, osmotic evaporation) or spray drying. However,

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further research is needed to better explore the potential of membrane processes as attractive

alternatives for producing concentrate of anthocyanin extract and to evaluate economy of the

process at industrial scale.

Radish anthocyanins were extracted by using acidified methanol (concentrated HCl/methanol =

0.01:100 ml) (Jing et al., 2012). Recently the Aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE) was used

for the extraction or isolation of natural products from crude extracts, such as betalains
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(Chethana et al., 2007) in case of mulberry. ATPE is recognized as an effective, versatile and

important emerging technique for the downstream processing of biomolecules. Aqueous two-

phase extraction has recently been used in case of anthocyanins extraction from mulberry. The

extract showed a relatively high antioxidant activity compared with conventional extraction

without affecting the composition of the anthocyanin mixture (Wu et al., 2011).

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) can act as a potential alternative to organic solvent

extraction, a commonly used method for extraction of these compounds. Supercritical fluid

extraction (SFE) can be highly beneficial as it is rapid and automatically controlled process. SFE

methods are selective and they do not require the use of large quantities of toxic solvents. One

more advantage is the absence of light and air during the extraction and hence there is a

reduction in the degradation processes during extraction as compared to the conventional

extraction techniques. However, due to the polarity of anthocyanins the extraction of

anthocyanins by SFE method using CO2 requires high pressures and high percentage of an

organic co-solvent (Mantell et al., 2003).

Anthocyanins can also be extracted by microwave-assisted extraction procedure. In case of

microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), the energy from microwaves gives rise to molecular

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movements and rotation of liquids with a permanent dipole. This in turn gives rise to rapid

heating of the material. Microwave-assisted extraction leads to improved efficiency, low solvent

consumption and reduced extraction time. Yang and Zhai (2010) carried out microwave-assisted

extraction of anthocyanins from purple corn (Zea mays L.) cob and concluded that the

microwave assisted extraction was highly efficient and rapid in comparison with the

conventional solvent extraction Similar results were reported by Liazid et al., (2011) and Zou et
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al., (2012) for microwave assisted extraction of anthocyanins from grape skin and mulberry

respectively.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) is another potential alternative to time consuming and

comparatively low efficient conventional solvent extraction method. Ultrasound-assisted

extraction makes use of acoustic cavitations which cause molecular movement of solvent and

sample. UAE also has more or less same advantages over conventional solvent extraction

method as mentioned in case of MAE. In addition to this such techniques also achieve high level

of automation and increased yield of the target compound in comparison to conventional

extraction techniques. Chen et al., (2007) carried out ultrasound-assisted extraction of

anthocyanins from red raspberries and optimized the process conditions by using Response

surface methodology (RSM). In addition to being more efficient than conventional solvent

extraction process, UAE is efficient and rapid method to extract anthocyanins. This can be due to

the strong disruption of fruit tissue structure under ultrasonic acoustic cavitation (Chen et al.,

2007).

Characterization of anthocyanins

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Characterization of anthocyanins can be carried out by variety of methods developed so for.

Some commonly used techniques include high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin

layer chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy,

Electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy (ESI), and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry

(LC/MS).

In general, anthocyanins are purified by using C18 columns or by C18 solid phase extraction
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(SPE) cartridges. Then they can be analyzed by HPLC. Prior to this, anthocyanins are to be

extracted. For extraction of anthocyanins the raw material is first ground. The ground material is

treated with suitable solvents and the mixture is filtered through a Buchner funnel or Whatman

filter papers. It is then concentrated by rotary evaporator at 30°C. This will yield a crude extract

which is loaded on a C18 solid phase extraction cartridge. The loaded cartridge is then washed

with suitable solvents. The solvent fraction containing the anthocyanins is evaporated to dryness

on a rotary evaporator. The anthocyanins are resolubilized in an appropriate solvent and filtered

through a Millipore filter (0.45 pm) prior to high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

Identification of these anthocyanins can be made according to their HPLC retention times,

elution order and comparison with authentic standards. This process is summarized in a flow

sheet as described in Figure 2.

Vareed et al., (2005) quantified anthocyanins from various species of genus Cornus by using

HPLC. Cornus plants are widely grown as ornamentals throughout the United States.

Anthocyanins were extracted and separated by reverse-phase high-performance liquid

chromatography and Sephadex LH 20 chromatography from the flowers of pomegranate (Zhang

et al., 2011). They identified two anthocyanins namely pelargonidin 3,5-diglucoside and

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pelargonidin 3-glucoside. These two anthocyanins were identified from pomegranate flowers for

the first time.

Characterization and quantification of anthocyanins in black and green tea products processed

from some selected tea cultivars have been reported by Kerio et al., (2012). They found that

green tea contains significantly higher anthocyanin content than that of black tea. This can be

due to the degradation of anthocyanins during the (fermentation) process of black tea
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manufacture.

Lee and Choung (2011) identified and characterised seven anthocyanins from Liriope

platyphylla fruits by reversed-phase C18 column chromatography, NMR spectroscopy, and

HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS analysis.

Stability of anthocyanins

Some limitations that have restricted the use of natural colorants in food systems are their

relatively low stability to several processing conditions, formulation and storage conditions, and

that they may impart undesirable odor or flavor characteristics to the final product. However,

most of the foods that are natural sources of anthocyanins are often processed by subjecting them

to severe temperature, pressure, and pH conditions which may result in loss of these naturally

occurring pigments or at least reduce their antioxidant potential. The isolated anthocyanins are

highly unstable and very susceptible to degradation (Giusti & Wrolstad, 2003). The stability of

anthocyanins is affected by several factors such as pH, storage temperature, chemical structure,

concentration, light, oxygen, solvents, the presence of enzymes, flavonoids, proteins and metallic

ions (Rein, 2005). However, the chemical structure of anthocyanins is believed to be a major

factor influencing the stability of these pigments.

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The thermal stability of radish anthocyanin extracts from Tou Xin Hong area was investigated at

90 and 100 °C for 24 h. Multiple acylation with hydroxycinnamic acids contributed to

remarkable stability of radish anthocyanins towards heat in an acidic environment (Jing et al.,

2012).

Pelargonidin 3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin present in strawberries and is responsible for

their attractive, bright red color. The stability of pelargonidin-based anthocyanins at varying
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water activity levels was investigated by Garzon and Wrolstad (2001). According to their study,

anthocyanin degradation followed first order kinetics and their degree of degradation increased

with water activity. It was also observed that half lives of the anthocyanins ranged from 56 to

934 days.

Idham et al., (2012) studied the degradation kinetics and color stability of Spray-dried

encapsulated anthocyanins from Hibiscus sabdariffa concluding that encapsulation of

anthocyanins with polysaccharides followed by appropriate processing may enhance the stability

of anthocyanins for efficient utilization in food systems. They observed that combination of

maltodextrin and gum arabic had the highest encapsulation efficiencies.

The presence of ascorbic acid has been shown to have a negative impact on anthocyanin

stability. High ascorbic acid content has been found to be the main cause of the low stability of

anthocyanin extracts from acerola (Veridiana et al., 2006). Acerola is one of the rich and natural

sources of ascorbic acid and thus, its influence on the stability of anthocyanins from acerola

extracts has been determined and compared to those from acai, which contain no ascorbic acid.

They also observed that the color fading was becoming more prominent as higher level of

ascorbic acid was added to acai anthocyanin solutions.

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Stability of anthocyanins from black carrot in various fruit juices and nectars was investigated by

Kirca et al., (2005). Anthocyanin degradation, in all colored juices and nectars, followed first-

order reaction kinetics.

Encapsulation of anthocyanins

Although anthocyanins posses potential health-promoting properties and are regarded as

promising natural food colorants, their unstable nature unfortunately acts as an obstacle in their
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practical applications. Anthocyanins possess low stability towards environmental conditions

during processing and/or storage. The isolated anthocyanins are highly unstable and very

susceptible to degradation (Giusti & Wrolstad, 2003). Therefore, use of anthocyanin pigments in

foods has been hampered by their poor stability and in turn their incorporation into food and

medical products appears to be a challenging task. Encapsulation seems to be an efficient way to

introduce such compounds into these products. Encapsulating agents act as a protecting coat

against ambient adverse conditions, such as light, humidity and oxygen. Encapsulated bioactive

compounds are easier to handle and offer improved stability. Encapsulation techniques have

already been in wide use to reduce interactions of food and medicinal components with

environmental factors, such as temperature, light, moisture and oxygen.

Microencapsulation may be a useful method to protect sensitive food ingredients such as

anthocyanins until they reach the target organ. Maltodextrin is often used as a wall material for

microencapsulation. Idham et al., (2012) observed that microencapsulation of anthocyanins with

a combination of maltodextrin and gum arabic resulted in the highest encapsulation efficiencies.

They also reported that combination of maltodextrin and gum arabic as wall material gave the

longest shelf life and the smallest change in the pigment color. To encapsulate anthocyanins and

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betacyanins, maltodextrin with dextrose equivalents between 10 and 25 have been used (Ersus

and Yurdagel, 2007). Berg et al., (2012) carried out microencapsulation of anthocyanins and

investigated influence of different pectins on powder characteristics of microencapsulated

anthocyanins.

Different techniques that are used for microencapsulation include spray drying, coacervation –

phase separation process, pan coating process, solvent evaporation process, air suspension
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process, interfacial polymerization, and multi orifice centrifugal process.

Spray drying is commonly applied method for the microencapsulation of extracted plant

phenolics, like anthocyanins. Polysaccharides such as maltodextrin, inulin, gum Arabic, tapioca

starch, citrus fibre and other matrix materials like glucose syrup and soy protein isolate are

mainly used as matrix materials. Starches being widely available can be used for containment of

flavor essences and other components by spray drying in a manner that will provide an oxidative

protection and for a controlled release over defined period of time (Wani et al., 2012). The use of

natural polymers as coating material can enhance the anthocyanin stability and can help in

controlled release of these functional ingredients in the human body for more efficient

nutraceutical usage. By means of spray drying method, the encapsulated plant phenolics are

stabilized against degradation due to the impact of oxygen and light during dry storage. Previous

studies show that encapsulation conditions such as gelling agent and technique applied can

directly influence the anthocyanin degradation.

Encapsulation by freeze-drying of Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) anthocyanins using different

coating materials such as maltodextrin, trehalose and gum Arabic has been reported (Gradinaru

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et al. 2003; Duangmal et al. 2008; Selim et al. 2008). However, the freeze-drying method is

costlier than spray-drying (Diaz et al. 2006).

Coacervation is an expensive process and has recently been used for food grade encapsulation

only. This process was developed in the 1950’s as a means of providing a two ink system for

carbonless copy paper (Shahidi and Han, 1993). Coacervation consists of three steps which must

be carried under continuous agitation. First step is formation of three immiscible phases – a
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liquid manufacturing vehicle phase, a core material phase, and a coating material phase. Second

step involves deposition of the liquid polymer coating upon the core material followed by

rigidization of the coating usually by thermal or cross-linking techniques to form self-sustaining

microcapsules, which is the final step of coacervation.

Pan coating process, an oldest industrial procedure for forming small and coated particles has got

wide applications in pharmaceutical industry. In this process the particles are tumbled in a pan

while the coating material is applied slowly (Tiwari et al., 2010).

In air-suspension coating process solid particulate core materials is dispersed in a supporting air

stream followed by spray coating these air suspended particles. Air-suspension techniques can be

effectively applied to core materials comprised of micron or submicron particles, but

agglomeration of the particles to large size may occur (Bansode et al., 2010).

In solvent evaporation process microcapsule coating is dissolved in a volatile solvent which is

immiscible with the liquid manufacturing vehicle phase. A core material to be microencapsulated

is dispersed in the coating polymer solution. This core-coating mixture is dispersed in the liquid

manufacturing vehicle phase to obtain the appropriate size microcapsules (Dubey et al., 2009).

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Interfacial polymerization is characterized by the polycondensation of two reactants which meet

at an interface and react rapidly. Therefore, the technique is based on the polymerization of the

reactive monomers which form capsule shell on the surface of the droplet or particle. The

substances used are multifunctional monomers (Agnihotri et al., 2012). Polymerization occurs on

the interface formed by the dispersed core material and continuous phase.

Encapsulation of anthocyanins by techniques other than spray drying still remains an unexplored
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area and is therefore, a promising area of research.

Conclusion

Anthocyanins are important components present naturally in most of the fruits, vegetables and

in some cereals. In addition to the coloring properties they provide a number of health benefits

but are very sensitive to environmental conditions during processing and storage. Encapsulation

can be used to improve stability of anthocyanins. Till now no substantial work has been done on

microencapsulation of anthocyanins. Only a few researchers have worked on this area and use of

spray drying method for encapsulation has been reported. However, use of other techniques for

encapsulation of anthocyanins is still an unexplored field of research. Researchers have also used

maltodextrin as the coating material for microencapsulation of anthocyanins. Different coating

materials can be exploited to with stand different conditions of processing and for target delivery

of anthocyanins. Therefore, ample opportunities exist to explore this field of research and to take

it from its infancy to a well examined stage.

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Table 1: Major anthocyanins from selected plant sources

Plant source Anthocyanins

Apple, elderberry, blackberry, pear, peach, fig, cherry, Cyanidin

red onion, red cabbage, rhubarb, gooseberry

Banana, red radish, strawberry, potato Pelargonidin

Pomegranate, black currant, gooseberry, purple carrot, Cyanidin and delphinidin

blood orange, egg plant, green bean
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Pomegranate, passion fruit, eggplant, green bean Delphinidin

Plum, sweet cherry, purple sweet potato Cyanidin and peonidin

Mango Peonidin

Bilberry, red grape Petunidn and malvidin

Adapted from: (Bueno et al., 2012)

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Table 2: Six common anthocyanins found in nature

Anthocyanidin R1 R2 R3

Cyanidin OH OH H

Delphinidin OH OH OH

Malvidin OCH3 OH OCH3

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Pelargonidin H OH H

Peonidin OCH3 OH H

Petunidin OCH3 OH OH

Adapted from: (Kerio et al., 2012)

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Table 3: Quantity of anthocyanins reported from different sources.

Name of source Content /range Reference

Purple-skinned 4.10 (mg/g) Huang et al., (2009)

Jumbo

Cowart muscadine 2.60 (mg/ g) Huang et al., (2009)

Banana bracts 32–250 (mg/100 g) Pazmino et al., (2001)b

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Red radish 154 (mg/100 g) Giusti & Wrolstad (1996)

Different Chinese 63.77– 160.74 (mg/100 g) Jing et al., (2012)

radish cultivars

Red wine grapes 30 to 750 (mg/100 g) Mazza & Miniati (1993).

Strawberry 13–315 (mg/100 g) Silva et al., (2007)

Fresh blackberries 75 mg/100 g (Ju et al., 2005; Ngo et al.,

2007).

A hybrid of fresh 71.8 mg/100 g (Ju et al., 2005; Ngo, et al.,

strawberries 2007).

Capulin 31.7 (mg/100 g) Ordaz et al., (1999)

Black raspberries 145–607 (mg/100 g) Tian et al., (2006)

Acerola pulp 7.21 (mg/100 g) Rosso & Mercadante (2007).

Acai pulp 282.5 (mg/100 g) Rosso & Mercadante (2007).

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Roselle 230 (mg/100 g) Tsai et al., (2002)

Corncobs 290–1323 (mg/100 g) Jing and Giusti (2005)

Berries 23.7 (mg/100 g) Longo and Vasapollo (2006)

Kokum 1000–2400 (mg/100 g) Nayak et al., (2010).

Red onion 219±34 (mg/100 g) Donner et al., (1997)

Grape peel powder 171.42 (mg/100 g) Ma et al., (2012)

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Black rice cultivars 79.5–473.7 (mg/100 g) Chen et al., (2012)

Red rice 7.9–34.4 (mg/100 g) Chen et al., (2012)

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Figure 1: Basic structure of anthocyanins

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Adapted from: (Yi et al., 2009).

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Figure 2: General extraction and identification procedure for anthocyanins.

Raw material

Extraction with suitable solvents

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Crude extract HPLC analysis

Concentration

Application of extract onto C18 cartridge

Wash with suitable solvents other flavonoids

Anthocyanins

HPLC separation and identification

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