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KISII UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
DEPERTMENT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

COURSE TITLE: FRUIT PRODUCTION

COURSE CODE: HORT 342
CONTACT HOURS: L/P 30/30 Hours; CF 3.0
CLASS: YEAR THREE SEMESTER: TWO
GROUPS: BSC. AGED BSC AGRIC BSC AGERD
PREREQUISITE: NoNE
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: LYDIA KITONGA: E-mail address:lydiakitonga@kisiiuniversity.ac.ke

Course Description
Principles of fruit production. Economic importance, Ecology, cultural Practices, harvesting,
Postharvest handling and marketing of selected fruit crops.
Course Objective
To provide students with the general principles of fruit production
The Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Understand the socio-economic importance of fruits
2. Understand the basic principles of fruit production
3. Understand the production aspects of specific fruits (Tropical and Subtropical).
4. Understand the importance and methods of reducing post-harvest handling losses of fruits

1. INTRODUCTION
 Fruit Industry in Kenya
 Fruit Classification

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 Environment and Fruit Production

2. PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION
 Nursery Establishment
 Propagation
 Orchard Site Selection
 Orchard Establishment
 Orchard Maintenance Practices

3. CASE STUDIES:
 BANANAS
 MANGOES
 AVOCADOES
 PINEAPPLES
 PASSION FRUITS
 CITRUS FRUITS: ORANGES
 PAWPAWS

PRACTICALS:
1. Identification and Classification of fruits
2. Fruit Propagation Techniques
3. Cultural practices in fruit production
4. Maturity indices
5. Post-harvest handling of fruits
Mode of Delivery
Mode of delivery: Lecture method, Class discussions, directed readings, assignments, field
visits, Field demonstrations.
Instructional Materials and/or Equipment

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Textbooks, whiteboard, whiteboard markers, LCD, hand outs

Assessment and examination
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TESTS: CAT 1 WEEK 5 10%
CAT 2 WEEK 10 10%
PRACTICAL AND ASSIGNMENT 10%
FINAL EXAM: 70%
GRADING:
70 -100: A
60-69: B
50-59: C
40-49: D
Below 40: F

REFERENCES
Horticultural Crop Development authority (HCDA) Bulletins
Taiz, L and Zeiger, E. 2006. Plant Physiology. 4 th Edition. Sinauar Associates Inc Publishers.
Nakasone and Pauli. 1976. Tropical Fruit Growing John Wiley and Sons. London. 4 th Edition.

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PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL FRUIT PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Horticulture crops constitute a significant portion of total agricultural production in the
country.
The term HORTICULTURE is derived from two Latin words HORTUS meaning GARDEN and
CULTURA meaning CULTIVATION.
In ancient days the gardens had protected enclosures with high walls or similar structures
surrounding the houses.
The enclosed places were used to grow fruit, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants.
Therefore, in original sense “Horticulture refers to cultivation of garden plants within
protected enclosures”.
Definition: Horticulture is a science and technique of production, processing and
merchandizing of fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantations, medicinal and aromatic
plants.
POMOLOGY: Pomology is a branch of horticulture which deals with study of various aspects
of fruits loke, rising of saplings, growing them properly and providing various intercultural
operations.
The term pomology is a combination of two Latin words “Pome‟ means ‗Fruits‟ and ‗Logos‘
means ‗study‟.
“Poma” in Greek also meaning fruits later subsequently “Pome” in Latin word means fruits,
logos- study.
Basic Pomology: Study of basic aspects of fruit production like training, water management,
use of PGR‘s.
Commercial Pomology: It is concerned with commercial production of fruits.
Systematic Pomology: It may be concerned with classification and nomenclature like
kingdom, order, class, genus and species.
SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF FRUIT CROPS:
Fruit growing is one of the important and age old practices.
Cultivation of fruit crops plays an important role in overall status of the mankind and the
nation.
The standard of living of the people of a country is depending upon the production and per
capita consumption of fruits.
FRUIT GROWING HAVE MORE ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES.
1. Economic importance:
High productivity: high yield per unit area: From a unit area of land more yield is realized
from fruit crops than any of the agricultural crops. The average yields of Papaya, Banana
and Grapes are 10 to 15 times more than that of agricultural crops.
High net profit: Through, the initial cost of establishment of an orchard is high; it is
compensated by higher net profit due to higher productivity or high value of produce.

Eg. Wheat/ground nut: Yield :3.0 - 4.0 tonnes/ha; 25000-00 to 35,000-00

Grapes/Mango/Banana 20-40t/ha ;1.5-2.5 lakh/ha.
Source of raw material for agro based industries: Fruit farming provides raw materials for
various agro based industries- canning and preservation (fresh fruits), coir industries
(coconut husk), pharmaceutical industry (Aonla, Papaya, Jamun) Transporting and packaging
industries etc.
Efficient utilization of resources: Growing of fruits being perennial in nature, enables grower
to remain engaged throughout the year in farm operations and to utilize fully the resources
& assets like machinery, labour, land water for production purpose throughout the year
compared to agronomic crops.
 Utilization of waste and barren lands for production: Although, most of the fruits
crops require perennial irrigation and good soil for production, there are many fruit

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crops of hardy in nature, Mango, Ber, Cashew, Custard apple, Aonla, Phalsa, Jamun
etc. which are grown on poor shallow, undulated soils considered unsuitable for
growing grain/ agronomical crops.
 Foreign exchange: Many fresh fruits, processed products and spices are exported to
several countries earning good amount of foreign exchange.

2. Nutritional importance:
Importance of fruits in human diet is well recognized. Man cannot live on cereals alone.
Fruits and vegetables are essential for balanced diet and good health. Nutritionist advocates
60-85g of fruits and 360 gm. Vegetables per capita per day in addition to cereals, pulses,
egg etc. fruits and vegetables are good sources of vitamins and minerals without which
human body cannot maintain proper health and develop resistance to disease they also
contain pectin, cellulose, fats, proteins etc. Fruits- as sources of vitamins:
1. Vitamin-A- Mango, Papaya, Jack, Banana, Dates.
2. Vitamin-B- Cashew nut, Almond, Banana, Apple, Bale, Litchi, Papaya and Pomegranate.
3. Vitamin-C- Aonla, Citrus fruits, Pineapple, Ber, Guava, Strawberry, Tamarind etc.

Fruits as a source of minerals such as Ca, Fe, P- the fruits are- Almond, Cashew, Guava,
Jamun, Fig, Karonda, and Mango. Digestive enzymes- Papaya- papaine-9, proteolitic enzyme.
Fruits have medicinal value: The fruits like aonla pomegranate, Kokum, Jamun, Bael, Ber.
etc, have great medicinal value,
1. Papaya reduces night blindness,
2. Citrus juice reduces acute diarrhea.
3. Aonla triphala (chamanprash)- digestion.
4. Jack fruit (Jackoline) - prevents Aids.

Other importance: fruit growing in kitchen gardens helps to reduce family budget on
purchase of fruits.
 Planting of fruits trees, maintains ecological balance and to increase precipitation of
the locality.
 Fruit tree farming also reduces soil erosion, silting and air pollution.
 Generate employment being highly intensive & skillful enterprise generates employment
even for trained persons.
Fruits are also a good source of energy. Eg. Avocado, Olive etc.,
 Fruits are also a good source of enzymes which are helpful in metabolic activities leading
to proper digestion of food. Eg. Jamun and Papaya.
 All fruits have one or the other medicinal value.
 They should be eaten in adequate quantity.
 Regular consumption of fruits reduces obesity, maintain health and increase the longevity
of life.
 Fruits are attractive in appearance, delicious in taste and easily digestible. Therefore, they
are liked by young and old alike.

Some of the essential nutrients provided by different fruits are:

Vitamins/ Role in human body Source

Minerals
Vitamin-A 1. Essential for growth and reproduction. Mango, Papaya,
2. Helps in resistance to infections, increases Persimon, Dates, Jack
longevity and decreases senility. fruit, Walnut, Oranges,
3. Deficiency causes, night blindness, Passion fruit, Loquât etc.
xeropthalmia, retardation in growth, roughness Coriander leaves,
in skin, formation of stones in kidney. Drumstic leaves,
Fenugreek leaves etc.
Vitamin – B1 1. For maintaining good appetite and normal Walnut, Apricot, Apple,

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digestion. Banana, Grapefruit, Plum

2. Necessary for growth, fertility, lactation and and Almond Chillies,
for normal functioning of nervous system. Colocasia leaves, Tomato,
3. Deficiency causes beri-beri, paralysis, loss etc.
the sensitivity of skin, enlargement of heart,
loss of appetite and fall in body temperature.
Vitamin – C Barbados cherry, Aonla,
1. Deficiency causes scurvy, pain in joints, Guava, Lime, Lemon,
swelling of limbs, unhealthy gums, tooth decay, Sweet oranges, Ber,
delay in wound healing and rheumatism. Pineapple and Pear.
Chillies, Tomato,
Coriander leaves,
Drumstick leaves etc.
Fat Walnut, Almond, Avocado
Fibre Guava, Pomegranate, Aonla, Grape, Amaranth, Mustard, Beet
leaf, Spinach etc.
Minerals are essential for the growth and development for the human body:
Minerals Deficiency causes Sources
Causes Rickets, Sitaphal, Ramphal, Fig, Phalsa,
1. Calcium Osteomalacia. Citrus, Sapota, Grapes, West
Indian Cherry etc. Curry leaves,
Amarantus, Radish leaves,
Fenugreek leaves ete
Essential for cell Wood apple, Avocado, Dates,
2. Phosphorous multiplication of bones and Pomegranate and Grape
soft tissues. Helps in raisins.
liberation of energy on
oxidation of carbohydrates.
Important for body growth, West Indian cherry, Avocado,
3. Proteins formation and maintenance Custrad Apple, Banana, Apricot,
of body tissues Guava, Grapes etc., Peas,
cowpea, Bean etc..
Act as oxygen carrier in the Karonda, Date palm, Grape
4. Iron body. raisins, West Indian Cherry,
Guava, Sitaphal, Avocado,
Sapota, plum etc. Amarantus
tender, Coriander leaves etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS:
1. Based on nature of growth
2. Based on climatic requirement
3. Based on continuation of growth
4. Based on types of fruit
5. Based on parts used
6. Based on botanical relationship
7. Based on salinity tolerance
8. Based on ripening behaviour
9. Based on ethylene evolution
10. Based on bearing habits
11. Based on photoperiodic requirement

Classification is the system of grouping or placing of individuals according to nomenclature.

It is very useful to the pomologist. It helps to:
 To identify and naming the crop.

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 To study the close relationship.

 To know their hybrids and crossing behaviour.
 To know their compatibility & inter grafting ability.
 To know their adoptability to soil & climate.
Classification of fruits based on climate adaptability.
Climate is one of the important complex factors which influence the fruit production.
 Atmospheric conditions include rainfall, humidity, sunshine, wind and other
factors.
 The fruit growing zones are classified based on the climate factors.

In this classification, the fruits trees are categorized into three recognized groups.
i. Temperate fruits:
Temperate fruit plants are exacting in their climate requirement.
They are grown only in place where winter is distinctly cold, require as exposure of specific
chilling temperature for certain period without which they do not flower.
These fruit plants are generally deciduous and stand frost. Eg. Apple, almond, peach, pear,
plum, strawberry, apricot, persimmon, cherymoya, walnut, peanut, hassle nut, cherry,
pistachios and kiwifruits etc.

ii. Tropical fruits:

Tropical fruit plants are generally evergreen and are extremely sensitive to cold.
They do well under lesser fluctuations of diurnal temperature, light and dark periods they
require a moist warm climate but are capable of withstanding dry weather in some cases Eg;
mango, banana, papaya, sapota, etc.,

iii. Sub-tropical fruits:

The fruit crops grown under a climatic condition between temperate and the tropical are
known as subtropical fruit crops.
They may be either deciduous or evergreen and are usually able to withstand a low
temperature but not the frost.
They are also quite adoptive to fluctuations of light and dark period during day and night.
Some subtropical fruit plants require chilling for flower bud differentiation.
Example; grape, citrus, durian, jackfruit, etc.,

Tropical and sub tropical.

Citrus Subtropical but can be grown under temperate conditions.

Grapes Temperate but can be grown under subtropical and tropical
conditions.
Peaches Temperate but low chilling varieties can be grown under
subtropical conditions.
Sapota Tropical but can be grown under subtropical conditions
which are free from frost.
Papaya Tropical and mild subtropical climate.
Banana Tropical, can be grown under subtropical climate provided
it is free from hot winds and frost.
Almond Temperate but some low chilling varieties can be grown
under subtropical climate.
Apple Temperate but low chilling varieties can also be grown on
lower hills.

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Fruit morphology:
1) Simple fruit - Berry: Banana, Papaya, Grape, Sapota, and Avocado
2) Modified berry-
i. Balusta : Pomegranate
ii. Amphisarca : Woodapple, Bael
iii. Pepo : Water melon
iv. Pome : Apple, Pear, Laquat
v. Drupe (Stone) : Mango, Pear, Plum
vi. Hesperidium : Citrus
vii. Nut : Cashew, Litchi, Walnut, Rambutan
viii. Capsule : Anola, Carambola
A fruit is a mature ovary. Fruits have a variety of apparent differences that may be used in
classification.
Anatomicaly fruits are distinguished by arrangement of the carpels from which they develop.
A carpel is the pistil (stigma, style and ovary), the female reproductive structures. The ovary
may have one or more carpels.
Some fruits also include other parts of the flower and are called accessory fruits.
Combining carpel number, succulence characteristics and anatomical features, fruits can be
classified into three kinds:
 Simple
 Multiple and
 Aggregate
Simple fruits develop from a single carpel or sometimes from the fusing together of several
carpels. When mature and ripe the fruit might be soft and fleshy, dry, and woody or have a
papery structure.
1. Fleshy fruits:
According to fruit succulence and texture on maturity and ripening, there are fleshy and dry
fruits.
There are three types of fleshy fruits.
 Drupe: May comprise of one to several carpels.
Usually each carpel contains one seed.
Endocarp (inner layer) of fruit is hard and stony and is usually attached to the seed.
e.g. olive, coconut (Cocos nucifera), Peach (Prunus persica), cherry (Prunus spp) and plum
(Prunus domestica).
 Berry: Characterized by an inner pulp that contains a few to several seeds but not
pits. It is formed from one or several carpels.
Tomatoes, grape, pepper,
o If the exocarp is (skin) is leathery and contains oils, e.g in citrus fruits, (Citrus
sinensis), and grape fruit (Citrus paradisi), the berry is called hesperidium

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o Some berries have a thick rind as in watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris), cucumber

(Cucumis sativa) and pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo). This type of berry is called
pepo.
 Pome
Is a pitted fruit with a stony interior. The pit usually contains one chamber one seed.

This fruit develops from the ovarywith most of the fleshy part fromed from the
receptacle tissue (an enlarged base of the perianth)
Are found in the family Rosaceae (rose family).
E.g. Apple (Pyrus malus)
Pear (Pyrus communis)
2. Dry fruits
 Dehiscent Fruits
 Indehiscent Fruits
3. Aggregate fruits
Is derived from a single flower with several to many pistils. The individual pistils
develop into a cluster of tiny fruitlets or drupes instead of independent fruits but
remain a single receptacle.
Strawberry, raspberries, and blackberries.
In strawberry the true fruit is inedible and is called an achene. Numerous achenes
occur on the surface of the berry that concists of an enlarged and ripened receptacle.
4. Multiple fruits
Are derived from a cluster of several to many individual flowers in a single
inflorescence that stay together.
Each flower retains its own receptacle, but the fruits develop together into a single
larger fruit, as occurs in aggregate fruits.
Pineapple and figs.
3) Aggregate fruits : Etario of berries –Custard apple, Raspberry
4) Multiple fruit : Syconus- Fig : Sorosis- Jackfruit, Pineapple, Mulberry

Based on rate of respiration:

FRUIT RIPENING
Ripening is the process by which fruits attain their desirable flavour, quality, colour,
palatable nature and other textural properties. Ripening is associated with change in
composition i.e. conversion of starch to sugar. On the basis of ripening behavior, fruits are
classified as climacteric and non-climacteric fruits.
Climacteric: Climacteric fruits are defined as fruits that enter ‘climacteric phase’ after
harvest i.e. they continue to ripen. During the ripening process the fruits emit ethylene
along with increased rate of respiration. Ripe fruits are soft and delicate and generally
cannot withstand rigours of transport and repeated handling. These fruits are harvested
hard and green, but fully mature and are ripened near consumption areas. Small dose of
ethylene is used to induce ripening process under controlled conditions of temperature and
humidity.

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These fruit in fully ripe state are too delicate to withstand transportation over long distances
and should preferably be ripened near the consumption area.
Non-Climacteric: Non-climacteric fruits once harvested do not ripen further. Nonclimacteric
fruits produce very small amount of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene treatment.
There is no characteristic increased rate of respiration or production of carbon dioxide.
In order to improve external skin colour and market acceptance, citrus like
orange, lemon, mousambi and kinnow can be treated with ethylene, as a de-greening
agent. Ethylene treatment breaks down the green chlorophyll pigment in the exterior part
of the peel and allows the yellow or orange carotenoid pigments to be expressed.
(Climacteric fruits produce much larger amount of ethylene than non-climacteric fruits)

Climacteric Fruits Non-climacteric Fruits

Mango, Banana, Sapota, Guava, Papaya, Citrus, Grape, Pomegranate Pineapple
Apple, Fig, Peach, Pear, Plum, Annona, Litchi, Ber, Jamun, Cashew, Cucumber,
Tomato Kiwi Passion fruit, Apricot Cherry, Strawberry. Watermelom,
raspberry, blackberry,carambola, rambutan,
kinnow, mousambi

Ripening fruits with ethylene gas

In the post harvest physiology of most horticultural crops, ethylene plays an important role,
sometime beneficial (improving quality of the produce by faster and more uniform ripening
prior to retail distribution) and often deleterious (increasing the rate of senescence and
reducing shelf-life).
Systems for ethylene treatments. Handlers can equip existing rooms for use as ripening
chambers or they can install specially built ones. Both need automatic control of
temperature (for heating and cooling), humidity and ventilation. The room should be as tight
as possible, to prevent leakage of gas, but not essentially hermetically sealed.
Amount of gas needed. It is recommended100 ppm of gas. Higher concentration will not
speed up the ripening process. Too much gas may result an explosive air-gas mixture.
Safety precautions have to be followed.
Temperature and humidity. Optimum temperature varies from 18 to 25˚C. At lower
temperature ripening is slowed, from 25 to 30˚C ripening may be inhibited and decay
accelerated. Relative humidity should be as high as possible.
Other technologies for using ethylene. Fruits ripening could also be induced with the
following methods:

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• Explosion-proof ethylene mixed with an inert gas.

• Ethylene generators, widely used in developed countries;
• Ethephon;
• Calcium carbide which, in a furnace, releases acetylene (which has an ethylene like
response) when combined with water;
• Fruits already ripe (included in the high ethylene producing category) can be used in very
small commercial operations, or at home, to ripen other fruits.
Ethylene being a natural hormone does not pose any health hazard for consumers of
the fruits. It is a de-greening agent, which can turn the peel from green to perfect yellow (in
the case of bananas) and maintain the sweetness and aroma of the fruit, thus value addition
in the fruit is possible as it looks more appealing.
It has been known for a long time that treatment of unripe fruits with ethylene would merely
stimulate natural ripening until the fruit itself starts producing ethylene in large quantities.
Methods of applying ethrel
Method selected for applying ethylene depends on cost, convenience and safety factors. Use
of diluted ethylene gas mixtures is safer than using pure ethylene, which is explosive and
flammable at concentrations of 3% or higher. Fruit to be ripened ideally is placed in an
airtight ripening room maintained at a constant temperature (18-21 oC for most fruits, but
29-31oC in mango).

Controlled ripening

Maturity at harvest is the key factor for quality and postharvest life. When shipped to distant
markets, fruits need to be harvested slightly immature (particularly climacteric ones) to
reduce bruising and losses during transport. Prior to distribution and retail sales, however, it
is necessary to speed up and achieve uniform ripening. The main reason for this is so that
product reaches consumers at the right stage of maturity. As with degreening, ethylene is
used but at higher concentrations. Banana provides a typical example of this type of
operation. It can however, also be carried out on tomatoes, melons, avocados, mangoes and
other fruits.

Controlled ripening is performed in purpose built rooms where temperature and relative
humidity can be controlled and ethylene removed when the process has been completed.
The process involves initial heating to reach the desired pulp temperature. This is followed
by an injection of ethylene at the desired concentration. Under these conditions, the product
is maintained for a certain amount of time followed by ventilation in order to remove
accumulated gases. On completion of the treatment, the temperature is reduced to the
desired level for transportation and/or storage. Ethylene concentration and exposure time
are a function of temperature, which accelerates the process.

Deleterious effect of ethylene. The potent effect of ethylene on senescence of

perishables commodities can greatly reduce the shelf-life of product sensitive to it.
Techniques to remove it (such as the utilization of potassium permanganate, ozone,
hypobaric storage and oxidizers) or reduce its effect (such as loss of green color in certain
vegetables, accelerate ripening, sprouting and decreased shelf-life) are of considerable
importance. Storage of perishables sensitive to the gas should not be done in the same
room where products which have a high or very high production of ethylene are kept.

Classification based on bearing habit

On the basis of bearing habit, fruit trees are classified in to six categories to
facilitate cultural operation like pruning, skiffing, heading back etc.
1. Fruit buds bore terminally and giving rise to inflorescence without leaves e.g. Mango,
Cherry, etc.

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2. Fruit buds borne terminally and unfolding to produce leafy shoots which terminate in
flower clusters. e.g. Apple
3. Fruit buds borne terminally and unfolding to produce leafy shoots with flower or flower
clusters e.g Guava
4. Fruit bud borne laterally containing flower parts only and giving rise to inflorescence
without leaves or leaves present, they are reduced in size., e.g. Citrus
5. Fruit bud borne laterally and unfolding to produce leafy shoots terminally in flower
clusters this type of flowering is noticed in grapes and cashewnut.
6. Fruit buds borne laterally and unfolding to produce leafy shoots with flower clusters in
leafy axils. eg.Fig.

NURSERY
(Importance and Propagation Methods)
Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised,
propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting.
Importance of Nursery:
1. The young seedlings require special attention during the first few weeks after
germination. It is easier and economical to look after the young and tender seedlings
growing in nursery bed in a small area than in a large permanent site.
2. Majority of fruit crops are propagated by vegetative means. The propagules require
special skill and aftercare before transferring them in the main field. In a controlled condition
in nursery all these can be provided successfully by skilled labour.
3. Cuttings are best rooted and grafts are hardened in the mist house chamber which is an
integrated part of a nursery.
4. Direct sowing method is not so successful in several crops when compared with
transplanting of seedlings raised in nursery.
5. Plants hardened in the nursery are preferred for causality replacement in orchards.
6. Besides these, raising of seedlings or saplings in nursery provides more time for pre-
planting operations/preparations.
7. Seasoning/hardening of seedlings against natural odds is only possible in nursery.

Classification of nursery: Nursery can be broadly grouped into two on the basis of
its site:
1. Home nursery 2.Commercial nursery
1. Home nursery: is the area where planting materials specifically grown or raised only to
cater the needs of the growers garden.
2. Commercial nursery: Nurseries are larger in size and collection of plants. This is mainly
concerned with economic returns from the investments
Factors affecting the establishment of a nursery:
1. Location and site- Topography, climate , reputation of locality for business and transport
facility
3 Selection of soil
2. Water facility
3. Manures
4. Availability of labour

Components of nursery: A nursery should consist of the following components:

1. Building structures: This includes office, sale counter, packing shed, potting shed,
store, implement shed and residential quarter.

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2. Progeny tree block: The current choice of kind and variety of fruit crops and collection
of true to type mother plants have strong bearing on the success and goodwill of a nursery
industry.

3. Propagation structures: structures like green house, glass house, poly house, hot bed,
cold frames, lath house, shade house, mist house are used to create congenial condition for
the propagation of plants.
4. Nursery bed.

Methods of Propagation
1. Sexual Method of Propagation: In this method the plants are raised from seeds.

Advantages: For evolution of new varieties through breeding, the hybrids are raised from
seed.
1. In some fruit plants like papaya, this is the most popular method of propagation.
2. Seed propagated rootstocks are hardy and develop better root system.
3. Viruses don‘t transmit through seeds, thus mostly the seedlings are free from virus
diseases.
4. Occurrence of polyembryony (more than one embryo in seed) in citrus and mango leads
to the development of uniform seedlings as in asexual method.

Disadvantages
1. Seedlings have a long juvenile period and come into bearing later as compared to
asexually raised plants.
2. Due to segregation of characters, the progeny is not true-to-type.
3. It is not economical to handle larger trees, as less number of trees can be accommodated
per unit area and the cultural operations are difficult.

2. Asexual Method of Propagation: In this method of propagation the plants are obtained
from a vegetative portion of the mother plant instead of seeds.

Advantages
1. In some fruit plants like banana, which do not bear seeds, this is the only method of
propagation.
2. The plants are generally true-to-type, uniform in growth, yielding capacity and fruit
quality.
3. Have short juvenile phase, thus come into bearing earlier than seedling plants.
4. The advantages of rootstocks can be obtained by budding or grafting susceptible varieties
on resistant/ tolerant rootstocks.
5. Plants have restricted growth, thus cultural practices and harvesting are easy.

Disadvantages 1. New variety cannot be evolved by this method. 2. Plants are not so
vigorous and long-lived as the seedling trees. 3. Germplasm conservation requires lot of
space and is expensive as compared to storage of seeds.
i. Cutting:
Cutting is a method of asexual propagation in which plant part such as stem, root or leaf is
cut from the parent plant and placed under favourable condition to from roots and shoots
thus producing a new independent plant. Advantages
1. It is the cheapest method of asexual method of propagation
2. It is used for clonal multiplication of root stocks.
Types of cuttings ; Stem cutting ; Root cutting ;Leaf cutting

ii. Layering

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Layering is the development of roots on the stem while it is still attached to the parent plant.
The rooted stem is then reached to become a new plant growing on its own roots. Such
rooted stem is known as a layer. Stool layering is also used for clonal multiplication.
Types layering
Simple layering ;Compound layering; Mound layering ;Air layering
iii. Grafting
Grafting is the art of uniting or joining the parts of two independent plants in such a manner
that they unite together and develop into a single independent plant.
The part of graft which is to become the shoot system is termed as scion.
The part which is to become the root system is called as root stock.

Types of grafting
Approach grafting
Side grafting
Veneer grafting
Epicotyl grafting(Stone grafting )
Soft wood grafting
iv. Budding
Budding is also method of grafting wherein only one bud with a piece of bark, and with or
without wood, is used as scion material. It is also called as bud grafting. The plant successful
union of the stock and bud is also known as ‗buddling‟.
Methods of budding
T –Budding (Shield budding); Inverted T-Budding ;Patch Budding;Flute Budding ;Ring
Budding;
Chip Budding

vi. Runners: Runners are specialized arial stems (stolones) arising in the leaf axils of plant
having rosette crowns. New plants arise from nodes at interval along these runners. From
these runners more new runners may arise thus developing natural clonal multiplication
methods. The typical runner producing plant is straw berry which is photo sensitive with
regard to its runner production. Long days favour runner production where as short days
prevent runner formation.
Eg: Strawberry.
vii. Suckers: Adventitious shoot from the underground portion of the stem or from their
horizontal root systems are known as suckers and when these strike roots, they may be
utilized as propagation materials. Well developed suckers are dugout and separated from
the mother plant and planted in the nursery for further growth. Suckers are usually treated
like rooted layers.
Eg: Pineapple, Banana.
viii. Offsets/ offshoots: An offset is a shoot or thick stem of rosette like appearance arising
from the base of the main stem of certain plant such as date palm, pineapple etc.,
Date palm cultivars are propagated vegetative by separating away the offshoots and
replanting them.
However these are girdled and layered for about a year prior to separation, because
offshoots do not root easily when directly separated from the mother plant and planted in
the field.

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PRINCIPLES OF ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Influence of environmental factors on Fruit crop production
TEMPERATURE: It is an important determinant of plant growth. High as well as low
temperatures influence the growth of plants. Broad leaved, ever green plants are very much
susceptible to low temperature. Fall of temperature below 5 OC put a strain on the survival of
such plants. Deciduous plants by their adoptive mechanism to shed foliage are better able
to tolerate low temperature. Such plants pass their lives in dormant stage during winter.
Generally, a temperature range of 20 - 30OC is considered ideal for majority of
tropical and subtropical plants.
Temperate plants require chilling winter. In majority of temperate fruit plants, flowering
commences subject to fulfillment of chilling temperature ranging from 2 OC to 7OC.
High temperature above 40OC causes scorching in plants. The leaves show burning
symptoms along tip and margin.
Development of red colour in oranges is governed by low temperature. More severe winter
favours discontinued synthesis of chlorophyll and unmasking of carotenoids which imparts
red colour to oranges.
The optimum temperature for most of the plants varies in the range of 22 OC to 27OC. High
fluctuation in day and night temperature negatively influences the growth and production of
plants.

HEAT:
Heat is a non-mechanical energy transfer with reference to a temperature difference
between a system and its environmental surrounding.
It is measured as temperature by thermometers.
The growth of the plants depends primarily on temperature.
Availability of heat units decide the crop for a given place and the average temperature of a
place gives an idea about heat units available on the basis of which crop can be decided.
Temperate fruit crops like apple, pear, peach, plum and almond become dormant due to
short day conditions in the region and need chilling of various lengths to break dormancy.
Frost and chilling are harmful for tropical and subtropical plants.

On the other hand extremely high temperatures found in arid region cause wilting, sunscald,
necrotic spot and even death of plants.
Therefore, under such conditions appropriate choice of plants and provision of protection
become important.
Based on temperature variations on the surface of the earth we have the
following climates.
Tropical equable climate with no distinct winter.
Subtropical Climate with distinct winter and summer.
Temperate: Distinct winter, summer and autumn with temperature below freezing during
winter is common.
1. Tropical : Mango, Banana, Papaya, Sapota, Pineapple, Coconut, Cashew, Arecanut,
Breadfruit, Jackfruit and Avocado.
2. Subtropical: Guava, Grape, Citrus, Date palm, Phalsa, Pomegranate, Litchi and Loquat.
3. Temperate: Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Quince, Apricot, Walnut, Almond, Strawberry and
Cherry.

HUMIDITY: It is a crucial component of climate affecting growth and production of crop.

Humidity is essential for growth of the plants and qualitative development of the fruits.
The colour, TSS (total soluble solids), sugar and acid blend is better in dry atmosphere
having very little humidity. The oranges grown under high humidity have thin rind and more
juice. Low humidity favours better colour development in oranges.
High humidity favours resurgence of diseases and pets also. High humidity during causes
powdery mildew disease in mango. Fruit fly incidence is more in mango if there is high

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humidity in atmosphere at the time of fruit ripening. Fluctuation in atmosphere humidity is

the main attribute behind cracking of fruits. Under less humid conditions the fruit skin is
smooth, thin and shiny and it is important where the fruit skin is edible like Guava, apple
etc.
This atmospheric humidity also influences growth and development of plants.
Low humidity has drying effects and enhances water requirement.
Whereas high humidity favours fungal diseases. Plants liking for high humidity and low
humidity are there:
High humidity: Sapota, Banana, Mangosteen, Jackfruit and Breadfruit.
Low humidity (Dry): Ber, Grape, Date palm, Pomegranate, Citrus, Aonla and Guava.

Wind: High velocity and hot winds cause heavy damage to fruit trees. They cause breakage
of limbs of fruit trees. High velocity winds also cause shedding of flowers and dropping of
fruits. Dry winds bring scorching and tearing impact on the leaves of banana. High wind
velocity retards the activity of pollinators. Bee activity is maximum when wind is still, gets
little reduced when wind is 2-3 km per hour, gets greatly reduced when wind velocity is 25
km per hour and their activity is altogether ceased when the wind velocity is 40 km per
hour. In wind storm, spray of pesticide and other chemicals become difficult.
For successful cultivation of fruit crops, raising of dense windbreak rows around the orchard
is necessary. The trees like eucalyptus. shisham, casuarina, seedling mango, and jamun
may be used as wind breaks.
The ideal windbreak is composed of several rows of trees planted at spacing that will reduce
wind speed.
The more rows of trees, the more efficient the windbreaks, but where space is limited, plant
a single row using tree species that produce branches all the way down to ground level.
Distances between windbreak trees vary according to species used, but in multiple row
windbreaks will generally be within the following range:
• Tall windbreak trees: 5-8 metre spacing, 3-6m between rows
• Medium windbreak trees: 3-5m spacing, 3-5m between rows
• Windbreak shrubs: 2-4m spacing, 2-4m between rows

The area sheltered by a windbreak is relative to the mature height of the trees. A windbreak
will reduce wind speed by more than 70% and shelter an area roughly 20 times the mature
height of the trees planted. Unless the length of the windbreak is 15 to 20 times the height
of the trees, the wind will be deflected around the ends and lose effectiveness.
You can plant windbreaks which have multiple uses, such as rows of Casuarinas as nitrogen
fixers.

Rainfall : The amount and distribution of rainfall is important factors in growth and
development of crop. Rain at the time of flowering washes out pollen grains and greatly
reduces the fruit set. A year of normal rainfall creates conducive conditions and yields better
growth and harvest of plant. The fruits like guava, pomegranate, ber and sapota in which
flowering synchronizes to rainy season, normal rainfall brings bumper harvest. Water is
required at different stages of plant growth. Water shortage at the time of early growth, bud
differentiation, blossoming, and fruit set and development results in undesirable effect.
Rains before harvesting cause softening of fruits in banana and date palm and induce
infection of fruit fly in guava and peaches. It is generally observed that fruits are more juicy
where they mature during rainy season due to high atmospheric humidity. Fruits that
mature during rainy season contain less sugar and more acid than fruits maturing during dry
season. Keeping quality of fruits and vegetables developing under high atmospheric
conditions may not be good. Hailstorms: These causes great damage to the fruit crops.
Occurrence of hail at the time of flowering and fruit maturity is very disastrous because
flower and fruit drop is heavy and the growers get poor returns for their produce. For
successful cultivation of fruit crops, only those areas where hailstorms do not occur should
be selected.
Water requirement of plant is dependent on soil type and evapo-transpiration rate.

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Water is also present in the atmosphere as vapour and we call it as humidity.

Solar radiation: It is the primary source of energy to plants. For the transformation of light
energy to chemical energy leading the production of photosynthates, solar radiation is must.
Orchard, located on southern side of the slope receiving better amount of radiation, bears
better yield than other side. The periphery and top most portions of plants are more
productive due to better and direct absorption of solar radiation. Training and pruning of
plants are maneuvered in a way; so that the plant may be better able to absorb more solar
radiation required for good productivity.

LIGHT:
Electromagnetic radiation to which the organs of plant react ranging in wavelength from
4000 to 7700 angstrom units, and is propagated at a speed of about 540 kilometres per
second.
It is essential for the process of photosynthesis and therefore, for growth and development
of plants.
There are two aspects of light, its intensity and duration which are important for plant
development.
The light intensity can be estimated from the number of hours of bright sunlight or from the
cloudiness of sky.
The duration of light for the time elapsing between dawn and dusk referred as photoperiod
or day length. This exerts considerable influence on flowering.

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ESTABLISHMENT OF ORCHARD
Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves very careful planning.
The selection of proper location and site, planting system and planting distance, choosing
the varieties and the nursery plants have to be considered carefully to ensure maximum
production.
While planning and planting a new orchard, one should give utmost attention and care to
various aspects like:

 Selection of location and site,

 Nature of soil and subsoil,
 Planning of suitable kinds and varieties of fruits,
 Proper planting distance and
 Purchasing of plants from reliable nurseries.

Selection of site:
The following factors are to be considered before selecting a site for an orchard.
1. Climate: The climate of the locality should be suited to the fruits, or the fruit chosen
should be suited to the climate. Enquires should be made on the following points to assess
how climate affects the fruits intended to be grown.
1) Experience of the fruit growers and research stations in the locality regarding the
acclimatization of the fruits under consideration.
2) The seasons of heavy rainfall, hail storms and hot winds.
3) The seasons and intervals of cyclones, heat waves, gales and other catastrophic features

2. Soil: Few prospective sites should be examined for both physical and chemical
properties. For this purpose, profile pits of 2m depth should be dug in each representative
part of the site as suggested by external appearance, Samples should be collected and
analyzed for deciding the choice. Soil samples must be analyzed to know the suitability of
soil for growing fruit crops. Soil analysis gives information on the type of soil, its fertility; its
pH value etc. As far as possible flat land should be selected. There should be no hard pan up
to a depth of 2m.

3. Irrigation facilities: Most of the horticulture crops are raised under irrigation. So the
water facilities should also be taken in to consideration (quantity and quality).Water table
should be below 2 m depth.
4. Nearness to the market: Saves the over head charges in transport and gives close
touch with market tastes (in the case of market gardens).In most cases a large percentage
of the retail price of fruits is accounted for by transport charges.
5. Transport facilities: Fruits being perishable cannot be moved for long distances with
out quick and refrigerated transport. Bananas from the south are not reaching northern
market in our own country owing to the absence of refrigerated transport. But under
refrigerated conditions, they can be transported to longer distances. So; the orchards must
be located where there is quick transport, preferably a refrigerated transport system.
6. Power (electricity) supply: It would be a great advantage if electric power lines are
running in the proximity of the area as it can be tapped easily.
7. Proximity to established orchards: It is an added advantage if the site is in proximity
to the already established orchards because of compactness of areas of production
facilitates provision of transport and storage facilities. It also enables formation of
cooperative societies and other associations which can collectively own grading and
spraying machinery and other costly equipment including storage facilities. If there are
compact blocks of single crop say citrus, banana, mango etc. the spread of diseases and
pests are more. In selecting a site close to other orchards, one must make sure that they are
free from devastating pests and diseases like citrus scale, canker, panama disease of
banana, the tristeza disease of citrus.

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8. Availability of labour: Large orchards are started often in out of the way places and
forest areas away from populated centres. It would therefore be necessary to ensure that
adequate labour is available for orchard operations. This point is of important in plantation
crops particularly.
9. Social factors: These assume importance when large contingents of labour and
managerial staff are to be employed as plantations or large orchards. They should be
provided with medical and educational facilities, so that, they are content and stick on to the
jobs.
10. Presence of nurseries close by: It is an advantage if the nurseries are close by to the
selected site for selecting the plants for the orchard after studying the scion parents
personally. It will also help to get cheap and quick transport of plants which will ensure
better establishment.
11. Cost of the land: Cost of the land comes up for consideration when all the other
requirements listed above have been satisfied. It should never be the prime consideration in
the choice a little extra cost paid for the foregoing amenities is more than repaid in the long
run.

Orchard plan
It is of great advantage to prepare a plan of the orchard in advance, be it a home or market
garden or a commercial orchard.
A detailed survey of the site is carried out including the levels and a good map to scale is
drawn.
A full knowledge of the fruits to be grown and their cultivation is also prerequisite for
efficient planning.

The guiding principles in the preparation of plan are:

1) The orchard should be managed most profitably
2) It should present as attractive look as possible.

The following general principles may be borne in mind while drafting a plan and as many
of them as possible should be fulfilled. It should be recognized that not all of them can be
adopted in every case.
 If the entire area is not of the same type of soil, each fruit should be allocated to the
soil type it prefers.
 The irrigation sources should be marked and channels indicated along gradients with
a view to achieve most economical conduct of water. Irrigated fruits should be close
to the source of irrigation to avoid long irrigation channels and consequent loss of
water during conduct.
 Tall wind breaks should be planted especially on the sides from which high winds are
expected. There should be adequate clearance between the wind breaks and the
crop.
 Roads should be planned to occupy the minimum space consistent with economy of
transport of orchard requisites and produce. The space between the wind break and
the first row of fruit trees may often be utilized for roads and canals etc. with
advantages.
 Drains should follow the gradient of the land, should be as straight as possible and
concealed from the visitors, if possible.
 When varieties with pollen preferences are planted they should have the pollenizer in
an adjacent block or in alternate rows so as to ensure good crop set.
 Fruits which ripen at the same time should preferably be grouped together to
facilitate easy watching and harvesting.
 Assign rear areas for tall trees and the front for shorter ones will besides facilitating
watching, also improves the appearance of the orchard. The orchard should in
general present an aesthetic appearance so as to provide marked attraction.

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 The spacing adopted should be the optimum. The spacing allowed is usually such
that the fringes of the trees will just touch one another cutting out light but should
not interlock. Within reasonable limits, closer spacing gives more yields in the earlier
age. But in later life, the trees tend to grow taller than broad resulting in difficulty in
pruning, spraying and harvesting. They also suffer from root competition inadequate
nutrition, fewer fruits which tend to be smaller with comparatively poorer in colour
development. So, adoption of closer spacing to accommodate more plants per acre
proves to be a false economy in the long run.
The spacing given to fruit plants depends on the following factors.
a) The habit of growth of the plant: The spacing being equal to the spread of the plants.
b) Rainfall: In the case of rain fed crops closer spacing is given in lighter rainfall areas than
in heavy rainfall areas.
c) Nature of soil: Trees on stiffer soils may be given less spacing as both their top and root
spread are limited in such soils.
d) The root stock: Root stock influences the spread of the trees and to that extent
determines the spacing to be adopted.
e) Pruning and training
f) Irrigation system.
g) The method of layout should be fixed in advance so that the no. of plants required is
worked out and arranged for.

Steps in establishment of an orchard

After the selection of the site and drafting the plan, next comes the establishment of an
orchard with fruit plants.
The selected site should be thoroughly surveyed for its size, topography, flow of irrigation
water, drainage and fertility gradients. The positioning of main and subsidiary roads, wells,
wind breaks etc. Should be planned clearly.
Steps: 1. Clearing of the land: Preparation of the soil depends largely on its condition,
previous history and grower‘s plans. If the land has been under cultivation and has been well
maintained, nothing further may be required. On the other hand if the site is a new one and
was never under cultivation earlier, much has to be done well in advance for planting. If the
land is a virgin land i.e. it is not under cultivation previously, the existing vegetation is to be
cleared. Standing trees, shrubs, bushes etc. should be cut down and uprooted along with the
stumps and removed. No vegetation should be left on the site. Otherwise, they may shade
the young plants; compete for water, light and nutrients. Further, their removal at a later
date is expensive and risky. All the stumps and roots may be removed. Otherwise they may
harbour white ants, termite hills, diseases etc. and spread to the new plants. Along with
vegetation, stones, rocks and ant hills, termite hills etc. should be removed.

Preparation of land
The land should be cleaned properly for free movement of men and machinery.
All the trees, bushes and creepers should be removed.
The soil of the area designed for growing fruit plants needs thorough preparation.
A virgin land requires a deep ploughing and harrowing.
The land should be repeatedly ploughed and bring the soil to a fine tilth.

2. Leveling: Leveling is important for efficient irrigation, drainage to check soil erosion and
also for improving appearance. If the land is sloppy contouring (if the slope is 3 to 10%) or
terracing (if the slope is >10%) is to be done. During leveling sub soil should not be
exposed.

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3. Fencing: Fencing is necessary to protect trees from stray cattle, human trespassing and
also for attractiveness. The fence may be of stone, barbed wire or live fence. Growing of live
fence is an expensive one. At the initial stage it may be cheap but afterwards the
maintenance is costly. Live fence needs periodical punning or trimming to shape and also to
control their growth and encouraging more branching. This is one of the costly items of the
orchard cultivation.

Characteristics of a good fence plant:

Drought resistant
Easy to raise from seed
Quick growing
Should have dense foliage
Should stand severe pruning
Should not be hard to secature
Should be preferably thorny
Live fences are sown at the commencement of rainy season to minimize irrigation. They are
dibbled in 3 rows; 20-30 cm apart in a trench dug 60cm deep and manured soil. Examples of
non-thorny fence plants: Tamarind, Thevitia, Lawsonia, Casuarina, Gliricidia etc.
Examples of thorny fence plants: Agave, cactus, Prosophis, Commiphora barli, Inga dulcis
etc.

4. Wind break plants: The wind breaks are provided to resist the velocity of wind which
causes loss of bloom, wind erosion and evaporation of moisture and to keep the orchard
warm by checking frost and cold waves. The beneficial effect of wind break is felt up to a
distance equal to 3 times its height. The characteristics of a tree suitable as wind break are:

It should be fast growing

It should be easily establishable
It should be able to acclimatize to the environment
Should have dense canopy
It should not harbour pests and diseases
It should be frost resistant
It should be drought resistant
It can be propagated by various methods
Planting material should be easily available and cheap
It should have multipurpose uses like fuel wood, fodder etc.
It should with stand periodical pruning.
Some plants usually employed for growing as wind break plants are: Casuarina (Most
effective in open sandy soils), Pterocarpus santalimus (Redsanders), Erythrina indica
(Requires pruning to make tree top bushy),Cassia‘s and Polyalthia longifolia (Slow growing)
are some trees which can also be used. For mango orchards, seedling mangoes and
polyembryionic mangoes may be planted as wind breaks to provide chance seedlings and
root stocks.
There should a spacing of 12m between the row of wind break and the first orchard row.
This space may be occupied by roads and drains. The wind break trees should be planted
closer than their spread so as to form a thick screen. A spacing of 5m is maximum for most
plants.
5. Roads and drains: These are laid out according to the plan prepared in advance taking
the convenience and levels into consideration. Main irrigation channels also have to be
plotted. Open drains should be straight, running parallel to the gradient. Silt catching
devices should be employed in the drains. Covered drains should be filled with big stones at
the base and smaller ones over them and the top 12 inches should be covered with the
orchard soil so as not to impede ploughing and other operations.
6. Tillage: Tillage including sub soil should be done thoroughly at this stage, since it cannot
be done after planting without disturbing the roots of the trees.

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7. Sowing green manure crops: A green manure crop is sown thick and uniformly all over
the area to be planted. Apart from the manurial value the crop reveals by its growth,
infertile patches of the land, so that they can be examined and suitable steps are taken for
amending them.
8. Marking plant positions:
The system of layout should be decided first.
Then one of the fence lines or a road should be chosen as the base line. In deciding the base
line, due regard should be given to appearance of the rows from the road along which the
visitor or the manager is expected to walk.

Set a baseline
Set a right angle triangle on to opposite corners.
Drop the perpendicular lines from both sides of triangles
Mark the positions of fruits according to the distance

9. Digging and filling of pits:

Generally the pits are dug 2 to 3 months in advance of planting.
This allows the pits to weather.
While digging, the topsoil should be kept on one side and the bottom soil on another side
separately as the topsoil is somewhat fertile than the bottom soil.
NOTE:
The value of adequate land preparation will be realized immediately after
planting and for the life of your orchard.
The timing and sequence of steps are very important--performing the right step at the
wrong time can actually create rather than prevent problems.
The best time to start ground preparation is the middle of dry season: soil is dry
and fractures readily, warm and dry weather permits effective soil fumigation,
and sufficient time is left for any post-fumigation waiting period.
BREAK UP SOD
If the orchard site is covered with sod, allow it to dry thoroughly before discing. Undercutting
the sod with a blade cuts the sod from its roots and hastens drying. Disc and harrow with
equipment that is sufficiently heavy to completely break up the sod. Leveling without first
breaking up sod can bury large pieces of sod which are potentially harmful to young trees
due to the methane gas produced as the sod decomposes. Ripping the site after leveling will
not adequately break up sod.
APPLY SOIL AMENDMENTS
If gypsum, manures, phosphates or other soil amendments are recommended, they may be
applied prior to subsoiling.
SUBSOIL
Deep rip, backhoe, or slip plow to fracture subsoil and improve drainage. If you backhoe,
backfill each hole as it is dug, taking care to replace subsoil in the bottom of hole, topsoil on
top. Don't leave holes open any longer than is absolutely necessary. If a hole is allowed to
dry out, a crust usually forms along the sides of the hole which can become a barrier to
water and root movement. (This also applies to tree planting holes.)
IRRIGATE
To settle the planting site and provide adequate moisture for fumigation, irrigate with
sufficient water to completely settle the soil. A thorough irrigation after ripping or
backhoeing is good insurance against problems with settling after planting.
DISC AND HARROW
Work up soil to good seedbed condition.
FUMIGATE
Preplant fumigation is highly recommended for any orchard planting but is particularly
advantageous in replant situations. Note that some fumigants are persistent, especially in
heavier soils, and opening of the soil surface as well as a test for toxicity may be required
before planting.

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10. Filling of pits: Filling is done a fortnight or two after digging pits. The pits are filled
with a mixture of Top soil; FYM, leaf mould and bone meal. Pits are filled a few inches above
the ground level for shrinkage and settlement.
While filling the pits, the topsoil is mixed with farmyard manure or compost, leaf mould or
green leaf and a kilogram of super phosphate. Then the pits are filled with the bottom layer
of soil first and then with the topsoil mixed with the manures. The soil after filling should rise
about a foot over the orchard level so as to allow for shrinkage on setting.

11. Selection of plants from the nursery: Generally the plants are purchased from the
nursery well in advance. The grower should visit the nursery and select the plants.
Plants are selected on the basis of certain characters of the plants.
Branching: The main branches on the young plants become leaders on a grown up tree.
These branches arise on a plant at an angle (crotch).This crotch should neither wide nor
narrow but it should be medium i.e. 40-50 O. If the crotch is wider splitting or breaking of
limbs will occur because of heavy crop load. If it is narrow (<30 O) forms weak frame work. So
plants having medium crotches are best. The branches on the trunk should not be opposite
or in a whorl but alternate with at least 15cm spacing.
Growth of the plant: The plants should be uniform in growth and is determined by uniform
length of internodes. For immediate planting, plants in active growth should not be selected
because they may wilt during transit and die on planting. Deciduous fruit plants should be
planted when dormancy is about to terminate. They put up new growth quickly and establish
early.
Age of the plants: Growers generally prefer older plants believing that these plants come
to bearing early. For this there is no experimental evidence. Younger plants make up in a
few years and become equally vigorous and out grow older plants. So, no benefit of
selecting older plants. Choosing young plants have many advantages like cheaper in cost,
easier to transport and they withstand transplanting shock and easier to transplant.
Pests and diseases: Plants should be free from pests and diseases like scale insects,
mealy bugs, aphids, nematodes etc and diseases like canker, and viral diseases.

12. Lifting and packing: Before lifting of plants from the nursery the nursery is thoroughly
irrigated one day in advance for easy lifting of the plants without damage to the root
system. Then the plants are lifted carefully along with a ball of earth attached to the root
system. The roots are wrapped in straw or grass or covered with a gunny cloth and placed in
a basket or a wooden crate for packing. Depending on the size of the basket or crate 6-7
plants are kept for each basket.4-5 long bamboo splinter or wooden pegs are forked into the
sides of the basket and tied at the top. In between the plants and at the top of the basket
after filling, the plants recovered with straw so as to avoid falling during transit.
13. Season of planting: The distribution of rainfall in the tropics and subtropics and the
break of spring growth in temperate zone determine the season of planting. In tropical
climate, most trees are planted between July and December and few in January also. In
general planting is done during the monsoon in moderate rainfall areas and at the close of
the monsoon in heavy rainfall areas. Planting should be done on cloudy days and preferably
in the afternoons rather than in the morning.

14. Planting: The planting board should be used at the time of setting the plants, so that
they are in a perfect line. The plants should be set in the soil to the same level as it was in
the nursery. The bud / graft joint should not be covered with soil. Plants should be irrigated
once copiously to get the soil particles to closely adhere to the roots and also to drive away
the air around the roots completely. The plants should be staked with a straight bamboo
piece or other twig. Graft bandage should be removed if not already done. Any buds on the
rootstocks should be rubbed off.
15. Healing inn: If the plants after transport are not directly planted in the field, they may
be kept in shade in a slanting position along the side of a trench moistening the ball of earth
.They may be left in this position till active growth commences by which time they should be
planted in the field. This process is known as healing inn.

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PLANTING THE ORCHARD

Buy Healthy Trees
Choose trees which are not root-bound, and which have healthy-looking graft joins.
Dig the hole
Plant into your prepared ground (see above). With thin topsoil or in poorly drained, heavy
clay soil build up a mound or ‘berm’ to plant each tree on, to avoid water logging, which can
lead to crown rot. For the same reason, do not plant the tree in a ‘well’ so that water pools
around the stem. Measure the depth and width of the soil in your tree’s container. Dig a hole
to that depth and two to three times wider. Pile the excavated soil to the side to be used
later. Loosen the soil around the sides of the hole to help roots penetrate into the native soil.
Don’t loosen the soil at the bottom of the hole because the disturbed soil may settle and
leave the tree planted too deeply.
Plant the tree
Slip the tree out of its pot or remove any burlap, polybag and ties.
Prune off only those roots that tightly circle the trunk or are broken.
With your hand, loosen and gently spread roots that circle the root ball. Set your tree in the
hole, and lay a shovel handle across hole to check the planting depth. The top of the root
ball should just touch the shovel handle. Add or remove soil until the top of the root ball is at
the appropriate level.
If when you take the tree from its pot you find that the roots are knotted, untangle them and
spread them out or chop off the knotted lumps. Follow the 'pruning and planting'
instructions from your nursery. If you plant in hot weather, pour water into the hole before
planting. If planting a bare-root tree, shape a small mound of soil in the center of the
planting hole, and adjust the tree height until the base of the plant is at the correct level.
Spread the roots over the mound of soil without bending or breaking them.

Fill the hole and water the tree

If you’re planting in very poor soil, improve the dug-out soil with one third part compost
before backfilling. Fill the hole half full with the excavated soil. Water thoroughly and allow
to drain. Fill with the remaining soil and rake it gently into a low mound over the planting
hole. Pull the soil away from the trunk to form a doughnut-shaped ring around the outside of
the planting hole. Water again, gently. Make sure the tree's trunk meets the ground at
exactly the same level as before. Wet soil piled against a trunk can cause rot.

Staking
Where local winds are strong, stakes will help hold the tree until the roots have established.
If you stake the tree use at least two stakes (three is best) and tie it fairly loosely with a tie
that's soft and elastic, so the trees roots will grow strong not become dependent on the
supports.

Tree Maintenance
Regular deep watering is essential until the trees' root systems are established into the
surrounding soil.
Systems of orchard planting
The arrangement of plants in the orchard is known as lay-out. The following points need to
be considered before choosing a system of planting.
It should accommodate maximum number of plants per unit area.
It should allow sufficient space for the development of each tree.
It enables equal distribution of area under each tree.
The intercultural operations such as ploughing, spraying etc are easily carried out.
It makes supervision more easy and effective.

Laying out of orchards

Layout plan
The marking of position of the plant in the field is referred as layout.

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The layout plan of the orchard should be prepared carefully, preferably in consultation with
horticultural experts.
The orchard layout plan includes the system of planning provision for orchard paths, roads,
water channels and farm building.
A sketch of the proposed orchard should be prepared before the actual planting is taken up.
Method of layout

For laying out an orchard, according to square system, a base line is first established
and position of the trees is marked along this line by placing wooden stakes in the ground.
Another base line at right angle to the first base line, is then marked along with the other
edge of the field with the help of a carpenter square or a cross staff.
The right angle can also be drawn with the help of measuring tape.
One end of this tape is fixed at three metre distance from the corner along the first line
and the tape is then stretched along the second base line for a distance of four metre. The
diagonal distance between these two points should be five metre.
The wooden stakes are put in the ground at the desired distance along the second line.
All the four rows are thus established and staked. Three men, one putting the peg in the
field and others correcting alignment while moving along the base line, can easily stake the
whole field.
The marking of position of the plant in the field is called ―layout”.

Aims:
1) To provide adequate space to plants.
2) To accommodate more number of plants.
3) Easy intercultural operations.
4) System of planting
Any method of layout should aim at providing maximum number of trees per hectare,
adequate space for proper development of the trees and ensuring convenience in orchard
cultural practices.

The system of layout can be grouped under two broad categories;

(a) vertical row planting pattern and
(b) alternate row planting pattern.
In the former planting pattern (e.g. square system, rectangular system), the trees set in a
row is exactly perpendicular to those trees set in their adjacent rows. In the latter planting
pattern (i.e. Hexagonal, Quincunx and Triangular), the trees in the adjacent rows are not
exactly vertical instead the trees in the even rows are midway between those in the odd
rows.

The various layout systems used are the following:

a) Vertical row planting pattern
1. Square system:
In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square whatever may be the planting
distance. This is the most commonly followed system and is very easy to layout. The central
place between four trees may be advantageously used to raise short lived filler trees. This
system permits inter cropping and cultivation in two directions.

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It is the most commonly used method and easy to layout in the field. In this system, plant to
plant and row to row distance is the same. The plants are at the right angle to each other,
every unit of four plants forming a square. This system facilitates the interculture in two
directions after the orchard is planted.
Advantage:
1) Most easy and popular one.
2) In this row to row and plant to plant distance is kept similar.
3) Plants are exactly at right angle to each other.
4) Interculture operations can be done in both the directions.
5) Adequate space for inter-cultivation of remunerative crops like vegetables.
2. Rectangular system:
In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a rectangle. As the distance between any
two rows is more than the distance between any two trees in a row, there is no equal
distribution of space per tree. The wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit
easy intercultural operations and even the use of mechanical operations.

In this system, the plot is divided into rectangles instead of squares and trees are planted at
the four corners of the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles. Like square
system, this system also facilitates the interculture in two directions. The only difference is
that in this system more plants can be accommodated in the row keeping more space
between the rows.
Advantages:
1) Lay out in rectangular shape.
2) More space between row to row.
3) Inter-cultural operations can be done in both the ways.
4) Plants get proper space and sunlight.
b) Alternate row planting pattern
3. Hexagonal System: In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of an
equilateral triangle. This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in the centre.
Therefore this system is also called as 'septule' as a seventh tree is accommodated in the
centre of hexagon. This system provides equal spacing but it is difficult to layout. The
perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows is equal to the product of 0.866 x the
distance between any two trees. As the perpendicular distance between any two rows is less
than unity, this system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. The
limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily
done as in the square system.

In hexagonal system, the trees are planted in the corners of equilateral triangles. Six trees
thus form a hexagon with another tree at its centre. This system, though a little difficult for
execution but accommodates 15 percent more plants. Cultivation of land between the tree

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rows is possible in three directions with this system. This system is generally followed where
the land is costly and very fertile with ample provision of irrigation water.
Advantages:
1) Accommodates 15 % more plants than the square system.
2) Plants are planted at the corner of equilateral triangle.
3) Six trees are planted making a hexagon.
4) The seventh tree is planted in the centre and called septule.
5) This requires fertile land.
Disadvantage: Lay out is difficult and cumbersome.

4. Diagonal or quincunx system:

This is the square method but with one more plant in the centre of the square. This will
accommodate double the number of plants, but does not provide equal spacing. The central
(filler) tree chosen may be a short lived one. This system can be followed when the distance
between the permanent trees is more than 10m. As there will be competition between
permanent and filler trees, the filler trees should be removed after a few years when main
trees come to bearing.

This system is exactly like the square system but one additional tree is planted in the centre
of each square. The number of plants per acre by this system is almost doubled than the
square system. Fruit trees like papaya, kinnow, phalsa, guava, peach, plum etc. can be
planted as fillers in the permanent trees provides an additional income to the grower in the
early life of the orchard. The filler trees are uprooted when the main orchard trees start
commercial fruiting.
5. Contour System

This system is usually followed in the hilly areas with high slopes but it is very much similar
to the square/rectangular system. Under such circumstances, the trees may be well planted
in lines following the contour of the soil with only a slight slope. Irrigation and cultivation are
then practiced only across the slope of the land as this practice reduces the chances of soil
erosion. In this system layout is done as in square/rectangular system, first by establishing
the base line at the lowest level and then marking for the trees should be done from the
base to the top. Bench terraces are used where the slope is greater than 10 per cent.
6. Contour system:

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It is generally followed on the hills where the plants are planted along the contour across the
slope. It particularly suits to land with undulated topography, where there is greater danger
of erosion and irrigation of the orchard is difficult. The main purpose of this system is to
minimize land erosion and to conserve soil moisture so as to make the slope fit for growing
fruits and plantation crops. The contour line is so designed and graded in such a way that
the flow of water in the irrigation channel becomes slow and thus finds time to penetrate
into the, soil without causing erosion. Terrace system on the other hand refers to planting in
flat strip of land formed across a sloping side of a hill, lying level along the contours.
Terraced fields rise in steps one above the other and help to bring more area into productive
use and also to prevent soil erosion. The width of the contour terrace varies according to the
nature of the slope. If the slope becomes stiff, the width of terrace is narrower and vice-
versa. The planting distance under the contour system may not be uniform.
6. Triangular system:
The trees are planted as in square system but the difference being that those in the even
numbered rows are midway between those in the odd rows instead of opposite to them.
Triangular system is based on the principle of isolateral triangle. The distance between any
two adjacent trees in a row is equal to the perpendicular distance between any two adjacent
rows. However, the vertical distance, between immediate two trees in the adjacent rows, is
equal to the product of (1.118 x distance between two trees in a row). When compared to
square system, each tree occupies more area and hence it accommodates few trees per
hectare than the square system.
In this system, trees are planted as in the square system but the plants in the 2nd, 4th, 6th
and such other alternate rows are planted midway between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and such other
alternative rows. This system provides
Plants in alternate rows are off set half the space between plants in a row.
Result in 9 % fewer plants than square and rectangular system.
More open space for trees and for intercrop.

Planting distance
The minimum vertical distance between any two trees or plants is referred as the planting
distance and this varies depending upon many factors. The principles in deciding the
planting distances are the following.
1. Trees when fully grown, the fringes of trees should touch each other but the branches
should not interlock.
2. Trees root will spread over a much larger area than top and there should be proper room
for the roots to feed without competition.
Factors which decide the planting distance are the following.
1. Kind of fruit trees - mangoes are planted at a distance of 10m x 10m, guavas at a
distance of 5m x 5m while papayas are planted at a distance of 2m x 2m.
2. Rainfall - wider spacing should be given in low rainfall areas than the high rainfall
areas for a kind of tree.
3. Soil type and soil fertility - in heavy soils less spacing should be given because the
top and root growth are limited.
4. Rootstocks - trees of the same variety grafted on different root stocks will grow to
different sizes and as such require different planting distances. eg. Apple
5. Pruning and training - trees trained on head system requires closer spacing than the
other type of training system.
6. Irrigation system.
In general, if the spacing is too wide, it is obvious that the yield per unit area would
be greatly reduced. Only in very, exceptional cases would this be justifiable.
Ordinarily it is more profitable to plant the trees closer together and supply the
needed water and food materials. If the trees are too close together, the trees grow
tall rendering pruning, spraying and harvesting difficult.
There is root competition and inadequate nutrition and the trees as such give less
yield and produce smaller fruits of poor colour. Cultivation also becomes difficult in

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the closely planted orchards. Close planting results in a greater yield per unit area in
the early life of the tree but less in the more important later years. Close planting is
therefore a false economy.

ORCHARD MANAGEMENT

Review: After locating the positions of the orchard trees, it is important that the trees are
planted exactly where the stakes stood.
It can be easily done with the help of a planting board. The planting board is usually of 1.5m
long, 10 cm wide and 2.5cm thick with a central notch and one hole on either end, the
central notch and the two holes (one on either end) are in a straight line. The planting board
is placed in such a way that the stake (tree marker) fits into the central notch. Two small
stakes are inserted one in each end hole. The planting board along with the tree marker is
then lifted straight up without disturbing the end stakes. A pit of about 1m cube or of the
desired dimensions at the position of the tree marker is then dug.
The pits are allowed to weather for few weeks before planting in some cases. The pits are
then filled with top soil already mixed with red earth and well rotten farm yard manure.
Irrigation is then applied to enable the contents of the pits to sett1e down properly.
In the event of depressions taking place as a result of irrigation, more soil should be added
to the pits to fill them to the level of the land.
The pits are then ready for planting.

NB: One meter deep pits of one meter diameter should be dug.
Top 30 cm soil should be kept on one side, which is used for refilling the pits as it is fertile
soil.
Bottom 70 cm soil should be kept on other side, which is discarded.
The pits should be left exposed for a few days before actual planting.
These pits should be refilled with mixture of topsoil, 2-3 baskets of silt and 2-3 baskets of
well-decomposed farmyard manure.
The refilled pits should be watered a few days before planting the tree. To each pit add
carbofuron (25g) for control of white ants.

Transplanting
The trees should be planted approximately where the original pegs were placed. This is
achieved by replacing the planting board in position with the help of the guide pegs and the
stem of the trees is brought to the central notch with the help of a hand hoe.
One of the most common mistakes is that of planting the trees too deep.
The plants should be set in such a way that the bud union remains slightly above the ground
level. The trees in the field should be planted as deep as they stood in the nursery.
The trees are irrigated soon after planting. This consolidates the soil and helps the roots to
establish contact with it and to secure a supply of water quickly.
A small basin may be made around the tree for this purpose. If planting is done during the
rains, this basin should be demolished within a day or two so that water will not collect
around the tree. This is more dangerous on heavy than light soils.
Spring winds cause damage to the growing plants by giving a constant shaking. To prevent
this, plants should be staked when planted.
Some young plants are subject to considerable injury from sunburn particularly if they have
been trained to single stem with no branches for 45cm or more from the ground. Such trunk
can be protected by wrapping them with paper or other material or by painting them with
white wash. The latter is probably best, as most materials wrapped around the trunk would
be subject to termite attack.

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Orchard is an area, often enclosed, devoted to the cultivation of fruit trees and as a unit it
encompasses various resources like land, water, trees and external inputs.
All these resources have to be well utilized to the best advantage for higher production per
unit area on sustainable basis without adversely affecting the quality of environment.
We should also understand that a good manager is one who gets maximum out of various
inputs consistently without any loss of fertilizers and manure, plant, plant protection
chemicals, produce etc.
Therefore, one should understand the management of these qualities of both resource and
output. Various resources are soil and water.
Resources for better comprehension of orchard management are;
A. Soil management
B. Water management
C. Nutrition management
D. Pruning and training (plant management)
E. Weed management
F. Plant protection against insect pests and diseases.
G. Bearing, fruitfulness and causes of unfruitfulness.
H. Maturity and harvest.
I. Post harvest handling, utilization and marketing.

A. Soil management/Floor management:

Soil management aims at maintaining soil in good condition, or improving the condition if
necessary.
This includes protection from direct sunlight and from the impact of rainfall and wind
erosion.
In annual crops like vegetables and flowers which do not leave vacant space.
There is no such problem except that one has to replenish nutrients harvested by crops and
leached out but in tree crops, wherein, it is usually several years after planting before a tree
which form such an extensive canopy that it can provide adequate protection to the soil, the
vacant space needs to be productively utilized and protected through different management
practices like intercropping, cover cropping, cultivation, sod culture, mulching, rotation, high
density planting.
Objectives of soil management:
1) To create favourable conditions for moisture supply and proper drainage.
2) To maintain high fertility level and replenishment against losses.
3) To provide proper soil conditions for gaseous exchange and microbial activities through
addition of organic matter.
4) To check or reduce soil erosion.
5) To ensure supply of nutrients for growth and development of plants.
6) To utilize vacant land for additional income because such a loss is inconceivable for small
holders.
7) To reduce the cost of cultivation with high economic returns.
8) To suppress weed population.
Definitions of terms to be used in management of soil:
1) Intercrop: Any crop other than main crop grown between the rows of perennial tree
crops is known as intercrop and the cultivation there of is intercropping.
2) Green manure crop: The crop other than main crop grown for the purpose of enriching
the soil for organic matter is called green manure crop.
3) Cover crop: The crop grown to provide a cover to soil to protect it from erosion. It may
be green manure crop also.

Methods of Soil Management: Appropriate soil management method is important for the
control of weeds, incorporation of organic and inorganic fertilizers and to facilitate
absorption of water in soil.
The common soil management practices are,
a. Cultivation

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b. Sod Culture
c. Mulching and
d. Rotation
Choice of the system is determined by many factors as mentioned below:
(i) Type of crop
(ii) Rooting depth of the crop
(iii) Slope of the soil
(iv) Rainfall of the area
(v) Climatic condition of the place
(vi) Economic condition of the farmer
a. Cultivation:
Orchard cultivation
Orchard cultivation refers to the careful management of the orchard soil in such a way that
the soil is maintained in a good condition suitable to the needs of the tree with least
expenses. This involves maintenance of the physical condition of the soil, its moisture and
nutrient content. A good system of orchard cultivation should ensure:

l. Weed control and saving in moisture and nutrients

2. Very little disturbance to soil and preventing soil erosion and
3. Reduced cost of cultivation

Cultivation in context with soil management refers to working of the soil by ploughing,
harrowing, disking or hoeing.
It is essential for removal of weeds, incorporation of manures and fertilizers, green manuring
and to facilitate water and nutrient absorption through better aeration.
Depth of tillage and areas are determined by root depth and spread of the canopy of the
tree. In cultivation different modifications are made under specific conditions.

(i) Clean cultivation: In this method of soil management the space between plants is kept
clean by tillage and removal of weeds.

Advantages:
Removes competition of weeds for light, water and nutrients from crop and avoidance of
alternate host for pests and diseases.
Improves soil physical condition through better aeration by breaking clods.
Helps in breaking hard top and obstructions in the infiltration of water.
Improves soil biological activities through better aeration.
Disadvantages:
Loss of organic matter.
Loss of soil through erosion even on flat lands through water and wind.
Loss of nutrient through excessive leaching.
Injury to roots and creation of entry points for pathogens.

NOTE: Due to several such disadvantages, clean cultivation is not advisable in

fruit farming.

Methods of soil management practices

1. Clean culture
This involves regular ploughing and removal of weeds. The clean culture has many
disadvantages. They are:
i. Humus will be completely depleted rapidly due to frequent cultivation.
ii. Frequent cultivation causes injury to the feeding roots, the trees may be short
lived or stunted in growth.
iii. Clean cultivation aids in more aeration leading to the depletion of nitrogen.
iv. Hard pan is created in the soil.

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v. Frequent cultivation causes more soil erosion.

vi. The above mentioned defects in clean cultivation can be minimized by avoiding
deep and frequent cultivation and also cultivation when the soil is too wet.
2. Clean culture with cover crops
This type of soil management involves raising of a cover crop or green manure after
removing the weeds. If clean cultivation is attempted during the rains, considerable erosion
is almost sure to occur. It is probably best to plant a green manure crop between the trees
early in the rains and plough it into the soil towards the end of monsoon season.
Legume cover cropping in grape, mango, guava and other fruit crops is becoming a common
practice in the management of orchards. Cowpea and French beans grow well under guava
and sapota tree. In some places to prevent soil erosion, certain permanent cover crops like
Calapogonium muconoides, Centrosema pubescens and Peuraria phaseoloides are raised in
the alley spaces. They are leguminous crops, establish in a short period, dry up during
summer to conserve moisture. With summer showers they come up again because of their
profuse seeding habit and spread themselves as a vegetative mat by the time the heavy
monsoon starts pouring in.

Cultivation and cover crops:

In areas where soil is eroded during rains and drainage is poor, soil is cultivated and cover
crops are grown between the rows during rains.
The crop may and may not be turned into soil.
These crops not only increase water retaining capacity of soil and biological complex of the
soil but also add organic matter when ploughed in besides checking erosion.
As cover crops, legumes should be preferred because they add extra N in soil through
fixation of atmospheric-N in their nodules.
They also suppress weeds during rainy season.
Crops like greengram, blackgram, cowpea, cluster bean, and soybean should be preferred
during kharif season
While pea, fenugreek, broad bean and lentil can be preferred in winter season as cover
crops.

Advantages:
a. Adds organic matter in soil.
b. Improves soil condition.
c. Improves soil fertility.
d. Increases water retention capacity of soil.
e. Increases biological complexes of soil.
f. Checks soil erosion.
g. Checks nutrient losses through soil erosion.

3. Mulching
This is one of the important soil management practices adopted in certain countries. Crop
residues like straw, cotton stalks, leaves, saw dust, pine needles, coir dust arid other
materials like polythene films or certain special kinds of paper are spread in the tree basins
and in inter spaces between trees. Main objective of mulching is to conserve soil moisture
and to control the weed growth. The other advantages of mulching are:
1. Keeps soil cool in day; warm at night hours
2. Reduces surface run-off
3. Adds humus to the soil
4. Prevents soil erosion
5. Fruits are protected and kept clean since they fall on the mulches
6. It allows the absorption of more rain water and
7. It reduces irrigation frequency.

The following are some of the disadvantages:

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1. Dry materials used as mulches encourage the risk of fire and consequent damage to
trees.
2. Thick mulches may act as places for mice and rodents to live and multiply. They may
cause damage to tree trunks and roots by eating the bark and burrowing to the land.
The mulching materials should be placed too close to the tree trunk and it should be
spread in such a way that they give a good cover to the root system of the trees.

Mulching is the practice of covering the soil around the plants to make conditions more
favourable for growth and conserve the available soil moisture.
In this management system the open soil is put under loose cover of straw, hay, crop
residue, leaves, saw dust and plastic.
It is essentially a surface barrier against evaporation and checks weed growth reducing
competition for nutrients.
This is one of the important soil management practices adopted in certain countries in
orchards. It offers a number of advantages at the same time suffer from disadvantages too.

Advantages
1. Conserves moisture by suppressing weed growth, regulating soil temperature and
protection from sun and wind.
2. Improves soil structure.
3. Reduces soil temperature fluctuations.
4. Increases soil organic matter level.
5. Controls erosion.
6. Improves water infiltration rate.
7. Improves nutrient availability through better soil condition micro flora.
8. Avoids competition for nutrient and moisture with main crop.
9. Controls weed growth.
Disadvantages:
(i) High cost.
(ii) Transportation.
(iii) Disease and pest infestation through dead plant material.
(iv) Fire hazards.
(v) Roots grow shallow due to the effect through soil temperature and moisture.
Therefore, in first year mulching may not be advisable.
Among all the mulching materials, plastic mulches are becoming popular especially black
polythene mulch, where weed control is desired.
Mulching is common in tropics especially in crops like banana, citrus, pineapple.

Table: Recommended mulches for different fruit crops.

No. Crop Mulch material
1 Banana Polythene, Straw mulch, Banana trash and Sugarcane trash.
2 Mango Straw mulch especially effective against spongy tissue.
3 Pomegrana Sugarcane trash, Paddy husk and Groundnut husk.
te
4 Ber Sugarcane trash, Wheat straw, Black polythene, Trash of Sachrarum
munja and Local grasses.
5 Sapota 200 gauge black polythene.
6 Grape Black polythene.
7 Acid lime Dry leaf mulch.
8 Strawberry Black polythene, Cut grasses and Pine needles.
9 Guava Organic mulches.
10 Lemon Dry grasses and Black polythene.

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11 mandarin Dry leaf mulch and Weed scraping.

4. Sod
In this method, permanent cover of grass is raised in the orchard and no tillage is given. This
type of orchard cultivation is followed in USA and Europe. This may be useful in slopy lands
for preventing soil erosion. But they compete for soil moisture and available nitrogen. The
drawbacks of this system are the need for increased manuring and water application. They
are harmful to shallow rooted trees. Hence sod may be useful with deep rooted trees
because soil moisture will be very low on the top layers.

SOD CULTURE
In this system, in the space between trees, grasses are allowed to grow without tillage or
mulching. In this method, permanent cover of grass is raised in the orchard and no tillage is
given.
Sometimes cover is mixed with grasses to improve fertility such as grasses are simply
mowed and the surface is kept neat and tidy.
This system is commonly followed in temperate region of Europe and America for apple and
pear orchards and does not exist in tropical and subtropical regions due to scarcity of
available nutrients and soil moisture in most part of the year.
It is the best system for the control of soil erosion and maintenance of soil organic matter
and soil structure.
In this case manures and fertilizers are not applied individually to trees but provided with
sod allover the field and the system is satisfactory for deep rooted crops.

Modifications in Sod System

i. Grasses are allowed to grow without cutting is not desirable because organic matter is
lost.
ii. Grasses are grown cut as required and removed for making hay not desirable because
organic matter is lost here also.
iii. Grasses are grown cut and left behind to decompose.
iv. Grasses are grown and pastured i.e., animals are allowed to graze.
v. Temporary sod. Sod is allowed for two years or so, then soil is ploughed, cultivated and
sod is reseeded.
Lack of aeration, rat holes in sod prove harmful and trees die.
Nutrient deficiency is also common especially of potassium.

5. Sod mulch
This is similar to sod with the only difference is that the vegetation is cut frequently and the
cut material is allowed to remain on the ground. This is slightly better than the previous one,
as the moisture loss is not so great as in sod. In both sod and sod mulch, more nitrogen
should be applied to the fruit trees than usual application because the vegetation utilises
more soil nitrogen.

6. Intercropping

Cultivation and intercropping.

In this case of orchard soil management, cultivation is done for the purpose of raising
intercrops.
Intercropping is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field so that crop
intensification occurs in both time and space dimensions and there is intercrop competition
during all or part of crop growth. This can be mixed strip or relay cropping.
In context of an orchard or a plantation of perennial fruit trees, however, the practices of
growing annuals or relatively short duration crop in the interspace during their formative

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years is referred to as intercropping and the growing of perennial in the interspacing of

perennials is called mixed cropping.
The term multi-storey cropping refers to a multispecies crop combination involving both
annuals and perennials with an existing stand of perennials.
Purpose of intercropping:
Intercropping is intended to maximize land and space use efficiency to generate supplement
income, particularly during the initial unproductive phase of the orchard.
To protect the inter space from losses through weeds, erosion, impact of radiation,
temperature, wind and water, and enriching it by nitrogen fixing leguminous crops.

Disadvantage:
If the main plantation is not given proper care, serious losses may occur as a result of root
restriction, damage and infection, undue exhaustion of the soil, perpetuation of viral, fungal
and nematode infection.
Intercrops should therefore, receive secondary importance and fulfill the following criteria.
Should not be tall growing and spreading type.
They should not be exhaustive.
Should not function as alternate host for common pests and diseases.
The water requirement schedule should match or phenology of crop should match so that
operation could be synchronized.
Should be compatible with main crop.
Besides, it is necessary that separate provision for nutrients should be made for intercrop to
avoid competition.
Normally if one selects intercrop on the basis of agro-climate, resource, market and
compatibility of crop with perennial plantation it should be a successful choice.
Annual crops particularly legumes and shallow rooted vegetable crops like tomato, onion,
beans, radish, spinach, etc. are preferred.
Some perennials like pineapple, phalsa, banana, papaya are also taken as intercrops and
popularly referred as filler crops.

Intercrops in different orchard crops.

Sl. Crop Duration Recommended Intercrops
No. for
intercrop
1 Apple 4 years Tomato, Cabbage, Beans, Strawberry, Early potato,
Peach and Valeriana wallihi
2 Banan 5 months Green gram, Cowpea, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Yam,
a Elephant foot, Onion, Black gram, Turmeric, Brinjal,
Colocasia, Dioscoria, Chillies and Okra
3 Ber 2 years Green gram, Moth, Cluster bean, Cowpea, Cumin and
Chillies
4 Citrus 4 years Beans, Carrots, Tomatoes, Berseem, Senji, Onion,
Potato, Chillies, Pulses, Cucurbits, Okra, Gram, Peas,
Potato and Cabbage
5 Date 5 years Citrus medic , Guava and Sapota
palm
6 Grape 1 year Vegetables relevant to area.
7 Guava 3 years Cauliflower, Peas, French bean, Cowpea, Cluster bean,
Black gram, Green gram, Okra, Onion, Turmeric, Garlic,
Cabbage, Chillies and Papaya
8 Litchi 7 years Turmeric, Ginger, Pointed gourd, Sweet potato, Tomato,
Radish, Cabbage, Turnip, Brinjal, Cucurbits, Green
gram, Black gram and Cowpea.
9 Mango 5 years Phalsa, Papaya, Guava, Banana, Peach, Strawberry,
Pineapple, Cowpea, Cucurbits, Okra, Cabbage, Knolkhol,

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Beet, Onion, Carrot, Cauliflower, Tomato and Cluster

bean.
10 Papay 6-9 Cabbage, Cauliflower, Chillies, Radish and Tomato.
a months
11 Peach 3-4 years Soyabean, Pineapple, Cowpea and Turmeric.
12 Pomeg 4 years Berseem, Luceme, Cowpea, Green gram, Cucurbits,
ranate Cabbage, Cauliflower, Bean, Peas, Tomato, Carrot,
Onion, Potato and Brinjal.
13 Sapot 7 years Banana, Papaya, Pineapple, Broad bean, Tomato,
a Brinjal, Cabbage and Cauliflower

In young orchards, the question of how best one can use the soil between the trees arises. If
the trees are properly spaced there is considerable land which will not be used by the
permanent trees for several years. Similarly in the case of other long duration horticultural
crops like tapioca, turmeric, ginger and banana some area between adjacent plants will be
remaining unoccupied by the main crop for few months. It naturally appeals to the grower to
get some return from this vacant land especially when he is getting no return in the early
periods. The practice of growing any economic crop in alley spaces of the fruit trees in the
first few years or in the' unoccupied spaces of the long duration crop in the early periods is
referred as intercropping. They also act as a covercrop and the land benefits by the
cultivation, irrigation, manuring given to the intercrops.

The following important principles should be observed while growing intercrops.

1. lntercrops should not occupy the area where the roots of the fruit trees are concentrated.
2. Soil fertility should be maintained or improved when intercrops are grown.
3. Water requirements of the intercrops should not clash with those of the main fruit trees.
The intercrop may require irrigation at a time when it would be detrimental to the trees.
4. Intercrops should be selected with reference to their effect on soil moisture. Grain crops
remove excessive moisture to the detriment of fruit trees. The intercrops selected should
not exhaust the soil water and nutrients and should not demand more water than is allowed
for fruit trees.
Vegetables are the best inter crops when compared to millets. But whatever may be the
intercrop grown, it should be kept well away from the main fruit trees and irrigated
independently. The intercropping should be stopped when trees occupy the entire orchard
space. Thereafter, green manuring or cover cropping should be only practiced.
Many growers prefer some quick growing fruit trees to grow as intercrops. A satisfactory
fruits are available for this purpose. In temperate regions peaches are often grown between
apple trees. Similarly, in properly spaced mango orchard, guava trees can be planted to
bear in two or three years and will produce a number of crops before it is necessary to
remove them. Such short-lived trees are known as 'fillers'. Papayas, bananas or phalsa may
be well grown as fillers in orchards. The danger in using fillers is when they are allowed to
remain in the orchard for too long periods. As normally root system makes a faster growth
than the branches, the roots of the permanent trees come in contact with the roots of the
fillers before there is any crowding above ground. Therefore, the fillers should be removed
after a few years usually immediately after the main fruit trees have commenced bearing.

The recommended intercrops for some important horticultural crops are given.

Crop Age Intercrop

Mango Upto 7 years Leguminous vegetables, Papaya
(filler)
Grapes Upto 8 months Snake gourd or bitter gourd in
pandal
Apple, pears Upto 5 years Potato, Cabbage

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Banana Upto 4 months Sunhemp, onion

Tapioca Upto 3 months Onion, beans, lab-lab, black gram

Turmeric Upto 3 months Small onion, coriander
Arecanut Upto 10 years Pineapple
Coconut Upto 3 years Banana, tapioca, vegetables

7. Mixed cropping
It refers to the practice of growing certain perennial crops in the alley spaces of the main
perennial crops. The main advantage is the effective utilization of available area and
increase in the net income of the farm per unit area.

8. Multitier system of cropping

Adequate alley spaces (nearly 75%) is usually available in between and these vacant spaces
can be profitably used for raising other crops, thereby increasing the employment
opportunities and profit. This is the chief objective of the multitier system of cropping.
Intercropping and mixed cropping involve jointly multitier system of cropping and is defined
as a compatible companion of crops having varying morphological frames and rooting
habits, grown together in such a manner that their canopies intetercept solar energy at
varying heights and their roots forage the soil at different zones. The main principle here is
that the land, water and sunlight should be effectively used.

9. MINIMUM TILLAGE
In this method inter space is maintained without any traditional soil tillage like ploughing,
disking, harrowing, etc.
This is receiving widespread adaptation in uneven topography.
Here sod, weeds, cover crops and other vegetation are killed by herbicides which forms a
layer of dead plant material on soil surface.
This controls erosion, conserve moisture and release nutrients.

10. Organic farming

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides as a mean of intensive cultivation to
boost up our food production have caused considerable damages to our soil health and the
environment. This has been criticized recently by many environmentalists. This has focused
the attention of several experts in ecologically sound viable and sustainable farming
systems, known as organic farming.
It is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically
compounded inorganic chemicals. This system entirely relies on crop rotation, crop residues,
animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, biofertilizers,
mechanical cultivation etc. and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil
productivity and tilth to supply nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests.
This system is often, referred as 'biological farming' 'regenerative farming' and 'sustainable
farming' 'eco-friendly farming' etc.
Organic farming is essential because
1. Chemical fertilizers may have an adverse effect on soil life-they do not supply humus,
have an adverse effect on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil
2. Chemical fertilizers are costly.
3. Indiscriminate application of pesticides could lead to residues in horticultural crops
which are consumed mostly in raw state by us.
4. The continuous use of pesticides is ecologically unsutainable as pests acquire
resistance.
5. There is a premium for the horticultural produces which are raised under organic
fanning.

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UNFRUITFULNESS IN FRUIT TREES – CAUSES AND REMEDIES

Unfruitfulness is a major problem in many fruit crops and their varieties result in huge loss to
growers and make fruit cultivation less profitable. Unfruitfulness in fruit crops refers to the
state where the plants not capable of flowering and bearing fruit.
1. Environmental causes:
1) Some varieties of a fruit crop don‘t flower in a locality owing to undetermined
environmental factors.
2) Unfavourable temperature may cause failure of any flowering as in the case of apples in
conoor due to lack of sufficient winter chilling. It has been remedied to certain extent by oil
emulsion sprays and DNOC (Di-nitro-ortho cresol).
3) In tropics, plants flowering in summer may experience retarded pollen germination due to
high temperatures and low humidity. The provision of wind breaks, close planting and cover
cropping help in improving the situation.
4) Reduced illumination due to close planting, over-crowding of branches or shade will often
reduced flowering Thinning out some trees to increase spacing, pruning trees to reduce
over-crowding and removal of shade can meet the situation.
5) When long day plants of northern latitudes don‘t flower owing to the absence of the
critical length of day, they can be made to flower by providing artificial light. On an orchard
scale such treatments are not practicable.
6) Late rains may prolong the vegetative growth and delay or reduce flowering in mango. It
can be remedied by drying out the soil by deep ploughing and probably by artificial
inhibition of growth by growth regulators.
7) Heavy rains may restrict pollinator activity, wash away pollen and prevent pollen
germination. Choice of varieties which don‘t flower at such periods of the year is the best
way out. In crops like grapes, the pruning time may be altered to avoid the onset of
flowering during the period of the rainy season crop may altogether be avoided by hard
pruning.

2. Nutritional Causes:
1) Heavy nitrogenous manuring at the time of flower bud initiation often reduces flowering
by promoting vegetative differentiation. The practice should be given up. Root pruning and
restricted irrigation may be helpful in reducing vegetative vigour and inducing formation of
male flowers.
2) Over bearing in the previous season exhausts the tree and reduces subsequent flowering
as in mango and most biennial bearing trees. A complete manure mixture applied at the
growth flush following the harvest will be helpful (June manuring in mango).
3) Lack of nutrition as in weak shoots causes fall of flowers before and after fruit set. A spray
of urea after fruit set will help the development of fruits.
4) Lack of sufficient reserves of carbohydrates in shoots may cause sparse flowering and
poor set (shoot bunches of grapes).Ringing and girdling may help. But it should not be
continued as a regular orchard practice.
5) Adverse growth features like water suckers will result in a drain on the tree and reduce
flowering not only on themselves but also on other branches of the tree. Such shoots arise
when big branches are pruned. Then it is necessary to cut big limbs, they should always be
set to a strong lateral but not stimulate a dormant bud. Late irrigation following a long
drought may cause the production of water shoots .The first irrigation after a drought should
always be sparing later ones being more liberal .When water suckers are formed due
whatever reason, they should be promptly removed.
6) Deficiencies of elements are sure cause of reduced flowering as well as set. A composite
mineral spray at flush time will usually be very helpful. If deficiency is due to alkalinity of the
soil, suitable reclamation measures should be adopted.
7) Heavy manuring and severe pruning during the pre-bearing period will prolong it. Pruning
should be done while branches are young, preferably by rubbing of axillary buds themselves
by frequent observation of the plants.

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Seedlings and some species of plants have a long prebearing period during which no undue
anxiety should be felt for hastening flowering.
Old trees suffer from inadequate nutrition especially when they are neglected. The short
extension of shoots, small leaves showing various deficiencies, scanty leaves and die back of
shoots indicate approaching death.
Such trees may be given one chance to bear by:
(1) manuring them heavily with a complete mixture of nutrients
(2) pruning hard up to 3-4 year old wood and
(3) spraying a composite mineral mixture on young flush. Irrigate frequently and protect
them from pests and diseases. This may rejuvenate the tree for a few years.

3. Inherent Causes:
1) Low proportion of female or perfect flowers as in some varieties of mango is the cause for
a poor crop. There appears to be no remedy for this defect.
2) Structural features like heterostyly and habits like dicho-gamy some times restrict the
availability of pollen and pollination. The presence of sufficient population of the tress and
pollinators ordinarily ensures good pollination and set.
3) Inadequate quantities of pollen appear to reduce fruit set in some varieties of strawberry
and some varieties of grape. Use of suitable growth regulators to get fruit setting will
circumvent the difficulty.
4) Many varieties of Japanese plums and apples are self sterile. Many other fruits also
partially self sterile .So planting varieties which make them fertile with their pollen will solve
the problem.
5) When intersterility is the cause for low fruit set compatible pollenizers have to be
provided. Mixed pollen sprays and use of synthetic growth regulators may also be helpful.
6) Triploidy and distant cross are often reasons for low fruit set. Chemical aids can get over
the problem.
7) Defects of ovule development, embryo abortion etc.are observed in dropped flowers.
These largely seem to be varietal characteristics and cannot largely be altered.

4. Bio-logical causes:
1) Absence of pollinating agents can be a reason for low fruit set in several fruits. Rearing
bee colonies in orchards, besides being a subsidiary source of income greatly helps fruit set.
2) When specific insects‘ symbiotic adaptations (like the blastophaga for fig) concerned with
the pollination, they must be reared (by growing Capri fig trees in this case). A wooden
needle seems to perform the duties of the blastophaga quite as efficiently in promoting set
of fig fruit.
3) Pests like the mango hopper which directly attacks the flowers obviously reduce the fruit
set. Others which feed on leaves reduce the photosynthetic surface impair production of
carbohydrates and thus reduce flowering. Several fungal diseases do the same thing;
Suitable remedial measures should be taken to protect the tress.
5. Cultural causes:
1) The commonest cause of poor flowering in house gardens is excessive irrigation which
restricts aeration of roots and causes sickly symptoms. Increase of intervals of irrigation and
provision of drainage are the remedies.
2) Weeds and intercrops may compete with the main crop for nutrition and water in low
rainfall areas. Removal of weeds and adequate manuring to meet the demands of both the
fruit crop as well as the intercrops are helpful. Intercrops which clash with the irrigational
and manurial requirements of fruit crops both in respect of quality and time of application
should be avoided.
3) Ploughing or deep cultivation at flowering time will result in drop of flowers and should be
avoided.
4) Severe pruning of large limbs which encourages production of water shoots should be
avoided. If it is absolutely essential, the branches may be cut to a strong lateral.

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Wrong pruning techniques may also cause reduction of flowering.

The following points should be borne in mind:
(1) the pruning should be with regard to bearing habit of the fruit tree,
(2) the pruning should be up to some fruitful buds (in grapes).Harder or light pruning will
reduce fruiting,
(3) a balance of vegetative and fruiting wood should be maintained in plants bearing on past
seasons wood, (4) pruning should not be delayed till the new growth is resumed.
In practice good drainage, timely irrigation, manuring and culture and selection of suitable
varieties will ensure good set of crops.

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ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe orchard establishment under the following topics:

i) Planting Distance
ii) Fencing
iii) Roads and Drainages
2. Discuss the importance of classification of fruits according to their rates of
respiration.
3. Make a discussion write up on any two appropriate soil management Methods
of Orchard Soil Management:
4. Describe orchard layout in a in a square system.
5. Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves very careful
planning. Discuss any five factors considered in selection of orchard site.
(10
marks)

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