Programme Name: BA Programme (Psychology-Philosophy)

Semester: VI

Paper name: Industrial/Organizational Psychology

College Roll Number: 200758

Enrolment Number: 20032501287

 INDEX

Title of Report Signature and Remarks

S. no.

Comparing Work Attitudes Between

1.
Corporate and Healthcare Employees: A
Quantitative Study

Intergenerational Differences in Work

2.
Motivation : A Qualitative Study
Comparinge Work Attitudes Between Corporate and Healthcare Employees: A
Quantitative Study

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

BA Programme (Psychology-Philosophy), SEM 6

20032501291

Comparinge Work Attitudes Between Corporate and Healthcare Employees: A

Quantitative Study
 Introduction

Work Attitudes

Attitude is a set of consistent beliefs and feelings that influence our perception of
situations. Positive attitudes of employees in the workplace lead to increased dedication to
quality work, self-driven career development, and inspiration for others to follow. In addition, a
supportive and optimistic work environment is essential for retaining top talent. Employees who
feel valued and happy in their jobs are more likely to stay with a company, reducing absenteeism
and turnover rates. When employees have positive attitudes, businesses benefit from improved
safety, customer service, and overall performance. Researchers in organizational behavior focus
on three work-related attitudes: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). Job satisfaction reflects an individual's positive or negative
perception of their job, while organizational commitment describes an individual's identification
with their organization's goals and their desire to remain a part of it. OCB refers to employees
who go beyond their job requirements to support their employer, which can improve
productivity, performance, and morale among employees. OCB is advantageous for both
businesses and employees. Overall, attitudes significantly affect employee behavior in the
workplace, and a positive work environment is crucial for employee satisfaction and business
success.

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction has been defined differently by various scholars over the years. It refers
to the level of enjoyment employees have in their job, including their relationships with
colleagues and managers, their perception of organizational policies, and how their work affects
their personal life. It is subjective and challenging to measure, but job satisfaction surveys are
becoming more popular. Since each individual experiences job satisfaction differently, a
multifaceted approach is necessary to maximize employee satisfaction. Factors that contribute to
job satisfaction include job demands, convenience, recognition, competitive pay, and
opportunities for career advancement. It is a crucial factor in work motivation and has been
linked to psychosocial problems and organizational aspects.
 Various different theories have been used over the years to measure job satisfaction in
employees. A few of them are as follows:

Herzberg's Two-factor Model (1959)

Herzberg's two-factor model proposes that basic needs like safety and pay need to be met
to prevent job discontent, but higher-order motivating needs like autonomy and recognition are
necessary for producing happiness at work. Herzberg calls these motivating factors, and they
have the capacity to make people content or happy at work. On the other hand, hygiene aspects
are elements that, when lacking, may lead to job dissatisfaction or unhappiness.

Lawler - Porter Discrepancy Theory (1968)

According to this theory, satisfaction is determined by the difference between the exact
amount a person receives and what they expect. Therefore, dissatisfaction occurs when a person
receives less or more than what was expected. A person’s job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
comes from what they feel is important, valuable, or worthwhile rather than the fulfillment or
un-fulfillment of their needs.

Locke and Latham Goal Setting Theory (1968)

According to this theory, employees are motivated by clear goals and helpful feedback.
According to Locke and Latham's research, people prefer to work more to obtain goals that are
more challenging and specialized. They contend that the five goal-setting principles of Clarity,
Challenge, Commitment, Feedback, and Task Complexity can increase our chances of success.

Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model (1974)

According to the job characteristics model, job satisfaction is one of several personal and
professional outcomes that are influenced by five fundamental job aspects. Autonomy, feedback,
skill variety, task identity, and task significance have been recognised as the five main
employment dimensions.

Determinants of Job Satisfaction

 Job satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted construct that can be influenced by various
factors. Some of the most commonly recognized determinants of job satisfaction include

Work Environment. The physical and social environment in which individual works can
significantly impact job satisfaction. Factors such as the quality of relationships with colleagues
and supervisors, the level of autonomy in decision-making, and the availability of re sources and
support can all influence job satisfaction.

Compensation and Benefits.Fair and competitive pay, along with other benefits such as
healthcare, retirement plans, and vacation time, can significantly impact job satisfaction.

Opportunities for Growth and Development. Employees who are given opportunities
for learning and development, advancement, and career growth are likely to be more satisfied
with their jobs.

Work-Life Balance. Maintaining a healthy balance between work and personal life is
critical for overall job satisfaction.

Organizational Culture. The values, beliefs, and practices of an organization can also
impact job satisfaction. Factors such as clear communication, fair treatment, and a sense of
purpose and meaning in one's work can all contribute to a positive organizational culture.

Recognition and Appreciation. Feeling valued and recognized for one's contributions
can be a significant determinant of job satisfaction.

Job Security. Employees who feel secure in their jobs and have confidence in their
employer's stability are likely to be more satisfied with their work. It's essential to note that job
satisfaction is a highly individualized construct, and the determinants of job satisfaction can vary
from person to person.

Current Trends in Job Satisfaction Research

In recent years, several trends have emerged in the field of job satisfaction that can
significantly impact employee engagement and motivation (Saks, 2020). One trend is the
increasing importance of work-life balance. With the rise of remote work and the blurring of
boundaries between work and personal life, employees are seeking jobs that offer flexibility in
terms of work hours and location. Organizations that provide employees with the autonomy to
balance work and personal life are more likely to have satisfied and motivated employees (Allen
& Shockley, 2020). Another trend is the increasing importance of meaningful work. Today's
employees want to work for an organization whose mission aligns with their values and provides
them with a sense of purpose. Organizations that offer employees opportunities for professional
growth, skill development, and recognition are more likely to attract and retain top talent (Rosso,
Dekas, & Wrześniewski, 2010).

Finally, employees today place a high value on the work environment and company
culture. Employees want to work for an organization that fosters a positive and inclusive work
environment, where they feel respected and valued. Organizations that prioritize diversity, equity,
and inclusion, and provide opportunities for employee involvement in decision-making
processes, are more likely to have satisfied and engaged employees (Eisenbeiss, Knippenberg,
Boerner, & Schuh, 2008).

Organization Commitment

Organizational commitment is an employee's psychological state regarding their

relationship with the company they work for. It affects their decision to stay or leave the
organization. Identifying organizational commitment helps predict employee satisfaction,
engagement, leadership distribution, job performance, and job insecurity. High productivity,
reduced absenteeism, teamwork, and collaboration are benefits of a motivated and dedicated
workforce.

There are three categories of organizational commitment: affective commitment

(emotional investment in the company), continuance commitment (need to continue working due
to compensation or lack of other employment options), and normative commitment (belief that
they should remain with the company). Understanding an employee's level of commitment is
critical for gauging their commitment to their work. Employers should encourage affective
commitment as it leads to brand ambassadors and excellent assets for businesses.

Determinants of Organizational Commitment

 Organizational commitment is crucial for employee engagement and retention, and
several factors influence it. Job satisfaction, leadership style, compensation management,
organizational culture, and climate are some key factors. Improving working conditions,
providing incentives, and supporting work-life balance can contribute to job satisfaction and
foster organizational commitment. Transformational leadership style inspires and motivates
followers, while laissez-faire leadership style leads to less accountability and control. A positive
organizational climate and culture can lead to higher levels of employee satisfaction,
engagement, productivity, performance, innovation, creativity, and financial performance.
Top-level executives and managers are responsible for maintaining and monitoring the
organizational culture and fostering a positive organizational climate. By prioritizing employee
satisfaction and cultivating a positive organizational culture and climate, organizations can
increase their employees' commitment and loyalty, leading to higher productivity and
profitability.

Current Trends

Organizational commitment has been a prominent topic of research in organizational

psychology since the late 1970s when the concept was first introduced. Researchers have since
identified various antecedents, outcomes, and components of organizational commitment. One of
the earliest studies on organizational commitment was conducted by Porter and Lawler (1968),
who proposed a model of work motivation that included organizational commitment as a key
component. However, it was not until the late 1970s that researchers began to systematically
study the construct of organizational commitment. In 1978, Mowday, Steers, and Porter
published a seminal article on organizational commitment, which introduced the concept as "a
psychological state that binds an individual to the organization." In the 1980s and 1990s,
researchers continued to develop and refine different models and frameworks of organizational
commitment. For example, Meyer and Allen (1991) proposed a three-component model of
organizational commitment that included affective, normative, and continuance commitment.
This model has been widely cited and used in subsequent research.

In the 2000s, there was a shift towards understanding the outcomes of organizational
commitment. Scholars focused on examining the impact of organizational commitment on
employee behavior and performance, as well as its effect on organizational outcomes such as job
satisfaction, turnover, and absenteeism. For example, Lee and Allen (2002) found that
organizational commitment was positively related to job satisfaction and negatively related to
turnover intentions. More recently, researchers have been studying the role of leadership in
fostering organizational commitment. Studies have shown that transformational leadership,
ethical leadership, and servant leadership are positively related to organizational commitment
(Kim & Lee, 2021). Moreover, leaders who provide support and opportunities for employee
development tend to have more committed employees.

Another current trend in organizational commitment research is the examination of the

impact of work-life balance on employee commitment. Work-life balance has become
increasingly important in modern organizations, and research has shown that employees who
perceive their organization as being supportive of their work and personal life tend to be more
committed to the organization (Allen, 2019). The trends in organizational commitment research
have evolved from identifying the components of the construct to understanding the outcomes
and the role of leadership and work-life balance in fostering commitment. By understanding
these trends, organizations can create a more engaged and committed workforce.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) refers to the voluntary actions performed by

employees that go beyond their formal job requirements and are not explicitly rewarded. OCB
can enhance employee morale, performance, and productivity. It has been defined in various
ways, but its essence, antecedents, and dimensions have remained consistent. OCB implies that
an employee's behavior is compatible with the organization's goals and policies. It includes
volunteering for additional work, helping coworkers and customers, and proposing solutions to
organizational issues. OCB is also known as "The Good Soldier Syndrome" and is behavior that
is discretionary and not compulsorily required by workers. The most basic OCB structure
consists of two dimensions: discretionary help and support for individuals and discretionary
levels of conformity to organizational rules.

Dimensions of OCB

According to Smith, Organ, and Near (1983), altruism and generalized compliance are
two main dimensions of OCB, while Organ (1988) identified five dimensions of OCB—altruism,
conscientiousness, civic virtue, courtesy, and sportsmanship that later (Organ, 1990) expanded
with peacekeeping and cheerleading. However, although studies have identified different
dimensions of OCB, the most relevant dimensions of OCB are still those originally suggested by
Organ-altruism, civic virtue, conscientiousness, courtesy, and sportsmanship.

Altruism.Refers to voluntary workers’ actions that help others to resolve work-related

problems and increase their performance, thus showing selfless concern for the well-being of
other workers (Organ, 1988).

Civic Virtue. Is related to employee interest and its voluntary participation in

organizational social and political activities, such as attendance at meetings, staying abreast of
organizational developments, and being good corporate citizens (Deluga, 1998; Organ, 1988).

Conscientiousness. Suggests a reasonable level of self-control and discipline, which

extends beyond the minimum requirements expected in that situation. It is observed when an
employee not only meets their employer’s requirements but exceeds them.

Courtesy. Involves the discretionary enactment of thoughtful and considerate behaviors

that prevent work-related problems for others. It means that employees have respect for their
co-workers and engage in behavior meant to reduce interpersonal conflict (Organ, 1990).

Sportsmanship. Is an employee’s willingness to tolerate expected inconvenience and get

work done without complaining (Organ, 1988). It leads to organizational improvement and
maintaining a positive attitude in the face of problems.

Determinants of OCB

Organizational citizenship behavior is advantageous to organizations, it is critical to

investigate the causes and antecedents of OCB. There are various organizational citizenship
behavior determinants:

Individual Dispositions and Motives. Individual dispositions like affectivity,

conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion related to OCB. Locus of control affects OCB
levels, with internal control having a stronger impact. Intrinsic motives benefit coworkers, while
extrinsic motives cultivate a positive image.
 Group Cohesiveness. Workgroups have a strong impact on attitudes and behavior.
Cohesive groups with strong relationships and mutual commitment can lead to extra-role
behavior, altruism, and citizenship behavior aimed at helping each other rather than just
organizational effectiveness.

Employee attitudes. Employee attitudes like job satisfaction and organizational

commitment are associated with OCB. Job satisfaction and OCB are positively correlated,
especially when team engagement is high. Positive attitudes towards work and organization are
essential for OCB, and employees' identification with their job leads to personal investment and
positive moods, resulting in OCB.

Leader-Member Exchange and Supervisory Behaviour. The quality of relationships

between leaders/managers and their subordinates is called Leader-Member Exchange (LMX).
Employees are more likely to engage in Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB) when
managers exhibit transformative leadership behaviors such as vision, role models, intellectual
empowerment of subordinates, and communication of higher performance expectations.

Organizational Justice. Organizational justice refers to employees' perceptions of being

treated fairly in organizations, and its impact on organizational outcomes like engagement and
satisfaction. Hoy & Tarter (2004) presented a set of principles that guide organizational justice,
including equality, perception, consistency, interpersonal justice, and others.

Current Trends

According to current OCB trends, OCB does predict various organizational effectiveness
criteria. Cross-cultural research in OCB has begun and is progressing rapidly, with evidence that
the structure of what is perceived as OCB varies from culture to culture. Furthermore, some
forms or levels of intended OCB may be dysfunctional for the organization, the individual, or
both. For decades, it was widely assumed in organizational psychology that job satisfaction and
job performance had no relationship. However, recent research has found that, while satisfaction
is not strongly related to individual task productivity, it is more closely related to a different type
of contribution known as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Research in the past two
decades has enriched the theoretical and empirical knowledge base of OCB, examining its
relationship to culture, attitudes, personality, mood state, stress, and organizational performance.
In the public sector, parallel developments have occurred. OCB has thus been studied in relation
to common public sector concepts such as public service motivation (PSM) (Mostafa,
Gould-Williams, and Bottomley 2015) and general citizenship behavior. OCB has also been
studied in relation to more widely used management concepts such as job satisfaction using cases
of management in public organizations (Van Scotter 2000) and leadership behaviors (Ritz et al.
2014). Through these studies, public administration scholars have begun to underscore the
importance of OCB in public organizations.

Organ introduced the concept of organizational citizenship behavior 30 years ago (OCB).
Since then, the study of OCB has evolved, and new taxonomies of OCB have emerged. The
findings on OCB have prompted public organizations to use citizenship behavior to improve
organizational performance. Today, public organizations face increased scrutiny and performance
expectations from citizens, while also struggling to maintain service levels in the face of
declining budgets (Hassan 2015). As a result, because OCB encourages employees to go above
and beyond formally established role requirements, it may be a necessary component of
organizational responses to such challenges. Other researchers, on the other hand, have
discovered evidence of negative effects of OCB, such as job stress and role creep (Scott 2016).

Reviews of Literature

Work Attitudes in the Corporate Sector

Corporate sector is part of the economy that is concerned with the transactions of
businesses. Businesses receive income from supplying goods and services which influence the
workings of the economy. Corporate jobs are positions within a corporate organization that are
often set up in a hierarchy or defined structure. The corporate hierarchy includes different
seniority levels of employees, each working together to achieve the company's business goals.

Many studies have been conducted among corporate workers to understand how they
actually feel and perceive their jobs. One such study conducted by Inayat and Jahanzeb Khan
(2021) found that the type of occupation is significantly correlated to job satisfaction. It also
observed a positive correlation between job satisfaction and with the performance of employees
in private sector organizations in Peshawar, Pakistan. Hyde et al (2010) also conducted a study
on Chinese employees’ work values and turnover intentions in multinational companies and
found that pay satisfaction led to greater organizational commitment and lower turnover
intention. Moreover, participants also indicated that their work values significantly affect
normative commitment and turnover intention through pay satisfaction. On similar grounds, the
work attitudes of corporate workers have also been studied by Shingzi et al. (2010) who
conducted a study on 290 participants of China's Post-80-year-old employees from 19
knowledge‐intensive companies to understand employees’ work attitudes. They observed that
perceptions of the participants were negatively related to turnover intention while job satisfaction
was positively related to four types of work commitment, affective commitment, normative
commitment, career commitment and job involvement. Out of various studies conducted in
North American countries Clive Fletcher and Richard Williams (1996) observed staff in nine
organizations in North America to understand the main elements of the performance
management system and found that most elements of performance management did contribute
to positive employee attitudes, and also accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance in
measures of organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

Furthermore, perceptions of the workers about their jobs or their work environments have
also been studied by Wilson M.G. et al. (2009) who assessed the effects on individuals with high
involvement in work processes and found that perceived organizational support among
individuals increases job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance among
individuals in an organization. Studies have also been done to explore the impact of the
perception of corporate social responsibility (CSR) of the company amongst its employees,
wherein, Kunda, Ataman, and Behram (2019) examined how incumbent employees' perceptions
of their companies' CSR towards stakeholders affected their organizational citizenship behavior
(OCB) negatively, in Turkey's tourist and hospitality business. The study revealed how workers
worry about their organizational, legal, social, and environmental actions, which resulted in them
engaging in extra-role behaviors.

Studies have also been conducted on the influence of organizational commitment among
corporate workers. Prasetio et al. (2017) observed the mediating role of organizational
commitment in the relationship between job satisfaction in state-owned banks in Bandung,
Indonesia and observed a direct and indirect effect in the relation between job satisfaction and
OCB. In a similar study, conducted by Ahmad, M.R. & Raja, R.(2021)in the banking sector. It
was found that all facets of job satisfaction affect the satisfaction of employees significantly and,
thus, influence the employee’s organizational commitment and business performance,
respectively.

The work culture or the practices in an organization and its effect on the corporate
workers has also been studied by Nmai and Delle (2014) whose study of the Ghanaian
Telecommunications Sector demonstrated that the three facets of corporate governance, namely,
internal control, corporate structure and code of governance, significantly and favorably
influenced employee job satisfaction with corporate structure explaining more variation in job
satisfaction than the other two facets. Kundu and Gahlawat (2016), assessed the effects of
socially responsible HR practices on employees' work-related attitudes and found that legal
compliance, employee-oriented HRM, general facilitation HRM, and general CSR conduct have
effects on trust, motivation, and affective commitment.

In conclusion, numerous studies have shown the importance of having a positive work
attitude in the corporate sector. According to a study by the Society for Human Resource
Management, employees with positive attitudes are more likely to exhibit better job
performance, lower absenteeism rates, and greater job satisfaction (SHRM, 2018). Another study
by Gallup found that companies with engaged employees had 21% higher productivity compared
to those with disengaged employees (Gallup, 2017). Additionally, a study published in the
Journal of Organizational Behavior found that employees who exhibited positive work attitudes
were more likely to be cooperative and supportive of their colleagues, contributing to a more
positive work environment (Parker et al., 2017). Therefore, it is crucial for individuals in the
corporate sector to cultivate and maintain a positive work attitude, as it can lead to numerous
benefits for both the individual and the organization.

Work Attitudes in the Healthcare Sector

The healthcare sector encompasses a broad range of services and organizations that are
involved in the delivery of medical care and treatment to individuals and communities. It
includes hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, home health agencies, hospice care providers,
diagnostic laboratories, pharmaceutical companies, medical device manufacturers, health
insurers, and other healthcare-related businesses. The primary goal of the healthcare sector is to
promote the health and well-being of individuals and communities by providing access to
high-quality medical care and treatment. This includes preventive care, diagnostic services,
medical treatment, and rehabilitation services, as well as public health programs and services.

In the healthcare sector, work attitudes play a critical role in determining the quality of
care provided to patients. Positive work attitudes are essential for creating a supportive and
effective work environment. Here are some of the most important work attitudes in the
healthcare sector: Compassion, Professionalism, Teamwork, Adaptability, positive attitude,
attention to detail and ethics.

Overall, work attitudes in the healthcare sector play a significant role in the delivery of
quality patient care and organizational performance. It is essential for healthcare professionals to
cultivate positive attitudes to improve patient outcomes and job satisfaction.

Both personal and professional factors affect job satisfaction, organizational commitment
and Organizational behavior in a workplace. On similar phenomena, various studies have been
conducted. Gedif, G et al. (2018) revealed that employees displayed only 54% overall job
satisfaction among healthcare professionals at the University of Gondar, which corresponded to
low job satisfaction. Therefore, they proposed that health service managers should focus on
leadership style and provide supportive supervision to improve job satisfaction. Similarly,
Kasimoglu, M. (2021) investigated the organizational commitment of 397 employees in the
Turkish health sector and they found that organizational commitment varied in terms of gender,
age, professional seniority, position, and length of employment, participants' perceptions. In
another study, Tekingunduz, S. (2017) examined the variables of organizational trust, job
satisfaction, and a number of personal factors affecting organizational commitment. He found
that affective commitment was significantly predicted by cognitive trust, management,
communication, and the organizational structure of the workplace.

Furthermore, Fatemeh Rostami et.al (2021) investigates the role of job control in relation
to the mental workload and job satisfaction of healthcare workers. They found that compared
with administrative workers, the mental workload of nurses and midwives was significantly
higher and different. Rostami concluded that the mental workload is inversely related to job
satisfaction and job control. Similarly, in one such study, Osei, H. et al (2017) examined 201
nurses to study organizational competence. Results showed that trust, fairness, and ethics have a
significant and favorable impact on nurses' sense of self-efficacy. It was also discovered that the
relationship between nurses' individual strategies and their degree of job self-efficacy was
mediated by their dedication. Mafini, C., & Dlodlo, N. (2014) examined the relationship between
three work-related factors, person-environment fit, work-family balance, perceived job security,
and organizational commitment among health professionals in public health institutions. Results
showed that person-environment fit and perceived job security were both statistically significant
in predicting employee satisfaction.

In another study, Kavanaugh Joe, Duffy A, a, Lilly J (2006) examined the association
between job satisfaction and demographic variables, such as years in the profession, of
healthcare professionals in an in‐patient rehabilitation hospital setting. A total of 128 employees
were surveyed using a 47‐item opinion survey to assess demographic variables and overall job
satisfaction, as well as nine facets of job satisfaction. The findings indicate that years in the
profession (professional experience) is associated with job satisfaction in a defined pattern. Lee
H (2008) examined the determinants of front-line nurse managers’ job satisfaction. Evidence of
significant positive relationships was found between the span of control, organizational support,
empowerment and the job satisfaction of front-line nurse managers. The research suggests that
the job satisfaction of front-line managers may be improved by addressing the span of control
and workload, increasing organizational support from supervisors and empowering managers to
participate in decision-making. Similarly, Kaur et al.(2009) found that workers in healthcare
settings with long working hours were dissatisfied with their work. They also revealed that 88%
liked their environment, 66% had good relations with workers and 45.6% were satisfied with
their salary. Singh,T et al. (2019) found out that three-fourths of the respondents (75.3%) were
dissatisfied with their working conditions, followed by fringe benefits facet (34%), promotion
facet (25.4%), and contingent rewards facet (23.7%).They also revealed that satisfaction was
found in relations with their coworkers (97%), nature of their work (93.3%), supervision (91.2%)
and communication facet (80.6).

How the Work Attitudes Differ Between Corporate Sector and Healthcare

Unlike other industries like retail, finance, telecom etc. healthcare is quite complex. Each
service that has been created under the healthcare facility is unique in nature & needs to be
calculated independently as a profit or cost center. Hence it’s not important to calculate the
number of services that we have to add to our wings but it’s essential to know how we are
delivering those services. Are we able to obtain the maximum satisfaction for our patients, staff
etc? People of various skills work under one roof on the hospital premises. There is huge
variability in terms of qualification, socioeconomic strata, experience & nature of the job. It
includes individuals from class 1 (Consultants/ Higher management) to class IV (Housekeeping,
Office boys) are available. The nature of the work is quite diverse in healthcare. If a procedure is
more complex & requires more time, then it commands larger attention & vice versa. On the
contrary, jobs which are repetitive in nature could be supervised well by managerial intervention.
In case of a complex process, we need to identify & track the process so that we can find the
redundancy. Hence, we can improve efficiency. As most of the time situations demand work of
varied nature, it’s very difficult to standardize the entire process. However, the extent of
variability is very less in other industries. As the services of healthcare could not follow a strict
thumb rule, there could not be standardization that could be developed. Each patient is unique &
dealing with each patient requires a unique approach. For the same signs & symptoms, two
different people having two different socioeconomic backgrounds might ask for different ways of
treatment. Hence it’s very difficult to define the services rendered by an individual. However,
there are certain services which don’t require patient intervention & need to be done following
certain procedures.

Work attitudes might be quite different in corporate and healthcare as one might see in
their daily lives. Several studies have been conducted that subjected themselves to studying the
difference in work attitudes between the corporate and healthcare sector. One such study was
conducted by Bennington (2010), who studied a sample size of 446 employees about the
governance and effectiveness of the healthcare sector, data were drawn from both corporate and
healthcare sectors. Post conducting the research Bennington acknowledged the need for more
data and more broad focus on both sectors for them to run lucratively. Furthermore, researchers
have conducted studies in this area but still as suggested by Bennington further research needs to
be conducted to study the two sectors.
Rationale

The aim of the study was to compare work attitudes amongst individuals working in the field of
healthcare and the corporate sector, and to understand how the different work attitudes correlate
with each other. For this purpose, a questionnaire including all three aspects of work attitudes ie.,
job satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior, was created.
This study is useful for students as well as individuals answering the questionnaire, since it will
help them gain a better perspective towards their job and be more conscious of their actions. It
will benefit the students in gaining a deeper and practical knowledge about organizational
behavior of different people, ranging from different backgrounds. As organizational psychology
students, it helps us explore deeper into the concepts, making use of different tests used and
providing a deeper understanding about it relating to the organizations.
 Method

Aim

To study the differences between work attitudes of employees working in the corporate
and healthcare sector.

Objectives

1a) To study the differences between Job Satisfaction of employees working in the
corporate and healthcare sector.

1b )To study the differences between Organizational Commitment of employees working

in the corporate and healthcare sector.

1c) To study the differences between Organizational Citizenship Behavior of employees

working in the corporate and healthcare sector.

Hypotheses

Null Hypothesis

Ho: There will be no significant difference between work attitudes (job satisfaction,
organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior) among employees of the
corporate and healthcare sector.

Alternative Hypotheses

Hla: There will be a significant difference between Job satisfaction among employees of
the corporate and healthcare sector.

Hlb: There will be a significant difference between organizational commitment among

employees of the corporate and healthcare sector.

Hlc: There will be a significant difference between organizational citizenship behavior

among employees of the corporate and healthcare sector.
Participant

For this research participants from the corporate and healthcare sector were included
who have work experience of a minimum of one year and a maximum of five years in both of the
sectors. The inclusion criteria included employees working as the primary workers in both the
corporate and healthcare sectors. The participants had to be affiliated with one organization for
(1-5 years) with reference to which they were filling out the questionnaire. The exclusion
criteria included employees like the receptionist. In the healthcare sector specifically, chemists
were not included in the study.

Sampling Procedure

The sample was obtained using non-probability sampling methods like snowball
sampling and purposive sampling.

Sample

25 employees participated in the study of which, 16 were from corporate and 9 were from
healthcare. In terms of the gender composition, 13 of the participating individuals were females,
while 12 were males. The mean age of the participants was 26.6 years.

Design

In this study a quantitative research design was utilized to investigate their research
question.This design is characterized by the collection of numerical data that can be analyzed
using statistical methods. Additionally, an independent sample non parametic analysis of Mann
Whitney U Test was employed to study the differences on work attitude between the two groups.

This quantitative study follows an independent sample design, wherein, the participants
were taken independently from healthcare and startup sector without any repetitions. In this
study we have adapted to comparative analysis, where we attempt to determine the extent of a
relationship between two or more variables using statistical data.

Tools

Job Satisfaction Scale

 The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) was given by Paul E. Spector in 1985. It is a 36-item,
nine-facet scale, and is used to evaluate employee attitudes towards their jobs and various
job-related topics. Each facet is evaluated using four items, and the sum of all the scores is
computed. Six options, ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," are provided for
each item on a summated rating scale. When items are written both ways, roughly half must be
scored backwards. The nine elements include pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits,
contingent rewards (depending on performance), operating procedures (needed rules and
procedures), coworkers, the nature of the task, and communication. Any organization can use the
JSS, despite the fact that it was initially designed for use in human service organizations.

The Job Satisfaction Survey 2 (JSS-2) is a commercial update to the well-known JSS that
enhances the initial scale. The JSS-2 can only be used after paying a licensing fee, unlike the
JSS, which can be used without charge for nonprofit uses. The first JSS was created in order to
be used in human and social services. The JSS-2 has higher psychometric features, including
improved internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha), and clearer component structure,
and was created for a larger working population. Norms have been created more methodically
using samples that cover a wide range of professions.

Organizational Commitment Scale

Nowadays, the most accepted tool to measure OC is that of Alan and Meyer (1990), and
the same has been used within our study as well.

The 24-item Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ, Meyer & Allen 1997)

was used to measure respondents' level of organizational commitment. The OCQ is a

multi-dimensional measure, which measures three components of organisational commitment:
affective commitment (“I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own”),
continuance commitment (“It wouldn’t be too costly for me to leave my organization now”) and
normative commitment (“I think that people these days move from company to company too
often”), on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1(“Strongly agree”) to 7 (“Strongly
disagree”). In South African studies the OCQ produced acceptable levels of internal consistency
ranging from 0.79 to 0.89 (Dwyer 2001; Field & Buitendach 2011; Kwela 2001; Van Dyk &
Coetzee 2012).
 Since the intensive preoccupation with the methodology of OC research in the nineties,
the three-dimensional questionnaire of Allen and Meyer has become canonical. Today, validation
of this questionnaire is not frequent and is performed mainly to check for cultural biases. Such is
the study of Abdullah (2011) in the Pakistani context (found reliable), or of Karim and Noor
(2006) in the Malaysian context (found reliable, but only ACS and CCS were examined and
among Malaysian academic librarians).

Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale

A voluntary actions and behaviors of employees that are not formally required by their job
descriptions, but contribute to the overall functioning and effectiveness of the organization are
termed as Organizational Citizenship Behaviour.

To identify this we used a scale Organizational Citizenship Behavior Checklist (OCB-C)

designed by Paul E. Spector, a professor of industrial and organizational psychology at the
University of South Florida. The original Organizational Citizenship Behavior Checklist
(OCB-C) was a 42-item instrument designed to assess the frequency of organizational citizenship
behaviors performed by employees. It has since been refined and shortened first to 36 items and
finally to the 20-item scale that we recommend (Fox, Spector, Goh, Bruursema, & Kessler,
2012). The OCB-C was specifically designed to minimize overlap with the scale of
counterproductive work behavior, a limitation noted in prior scales (Dalal, 2005; Spector, Bauer,
& Fox, 2010). Included were items that reflected acts directed toward the organization as well as
people in the organization, such as coworkers. Some items asked about altruistic acts that helped
co-workers with personal as opposed to workplace issues. Separate subscale scores can be
computed that reflect acts directed toward the organization that benefit the organization (OCBO)
and acts directed toward coworkers that help with work-related issues (OCBP). The items were
based on 214 critical incidents generated by 38 subject matter experts (SMEs), who were
graduate students and alumni of Masters of Science in Human Resources (MSHR), and MBA
programs who had employment experience. The SMEs were given the instruction and were
asked to generate as many incidents as they could recall, from the particular Incidents. The
incidents were reviewed to eliminate redundancy and ideas that could not be used (e.g., “helped
save a coworker from eternal damnation”), resulting in 42 items. None of the items reflected
items that overlapped with CWB. Next, the items were classified into OCBO or OCBP
categories by a new group of 22 SMEs (students from MSHR, MBA, and
industrial/organizational doctoral programs). Items were retained for each subscale if 70% of
SMEs agreed with their placement. Not all items could be classified into O or P, and are not
included in the subscales. The final OCBO scale had 15 items, and the final OCBP scale had 14
items. Six items from the 42-item version were eliminated during additional scale refinement that
produced the 36-item version. The content of the OCBO subscale remained the same, but the
OCBP subscale has 8 items. We then refined the scale further to the 20-item version that was
recommended for general use.

The OCB-C uses a 5-point frequency scale ranging from 1 = Never to 5 = Every day.
Scores are computed by summing responses across items. A total score is the sum of responses
to all items. Subscale scores are the sum of items within each subscale. Tables 1 and 2 show
items belonging to the OCBO and OCBP subscales for the 42-item and 36-item versions,
respectively.

Procedure

The research topic of healthcare vs corporate was chosen in a class discussion after
considering their diverse nature, yet shared work attitudes such as job satisfaction, organizational
citizenship, and commitment. A consent form was attached explaining the purpose of the study
and the potential risks/benefits, and outlining the roles, rights, and responsibilities of the various
stakeholders. An online questionnaire (Google form) was then created and refined with input
from the class, and a message was composed to circulate it. The finalised Google Form was
launched for surveys to be conducted. The survey included three subscales, and a WhatsApp
message was devised to include the link to the survey. It was then circulated on various virtual
platforms. The respondents answered the questions on their devices and the final responses were
gathered and analyzed for results. The conclusion of the study will provide a clear response. The
scales were brainstormed and finalized in the class, and then used in practice. Overall, the
experiment followed a systematic and ethical approach to data collection and analysis.
 Data Analysis and Results

Table 1

Table indicating results of Mann Whitney U test for scores of Job Satisfaction from Corporate
and Healthcare Sector for the aspect of Job Satisfaction.

Organizational n Median ​U Significance

Type

Pay Healthcare 10 13 81.5

0.32
Corporate 10 14

Promotion Healthcare 10 17 47.5

0.5976
Corporate 10 16

Supervision Healthcare 10 18 82

0.1687
Corporate 10 19

Fringe Benefits Healthcare 10 14 69

0.5976
Corporate 10 14

Contingent Healthcare 10 15.5 82.50

Reward
0.8897
Corporate 10 13

Operating Healthcare 10 14.5 67.5

Conditions
0.5594
Corporate 10 14
 Organizational n Median ​U Significance
Type

Co- workers Healthcare 10 18 105

0.8028
Corporate 10 17

Nature of Work Healthcare 10 19.5 120.50

0.0650*
Corporate 10 15

Communication Healthcare 10 18 97.5

0.0043
Corporate 10 17

Job Satisfaction Healthcare 10 137 90 0.1515

Total
Corporate 10 124

* means value less than 0.05

Upon obtaining the results, it was discovered that the median job satisfaction score for
the corporate sector was 124, while it was 137 for healthcare. A Mann-Whitney U test was
conducted, and it was observed that the null hypothesis was rejected because the significance
value was higher than 0.05. Therefore, it can be inferred that there is no significant variation
between the corporate and healthcare sectors concerning payment, promotion, supervision, fringe
benefits, continuing rewards, working conditions, colleagues, and communication. Nonetheless,
there were significant distinctions between the two sectors concerning the nature of work, which
was distinct between them. A similar study by Kotera et al. (2022) found comparable results
based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among healthcare and corporate students.

Table 2
Table indicating results of Mann Whitney U test for scores of Organizational Commitment from
the Corporate and Healthcare Sector.

Organizationa n Median U Significance

l Type

Affective Healthcare 10 27 91 0.3014

Commitment
Corporate 10 20

Continuance Healthcare 10 24 72 1
Commitment
Corporate 10 31

Normative Healthcare 10 25 82.50 0.4523

Commitment
Corporate 10 16

Organizational Healthcare 10 78.5 82.5 0.5594

Commitment
Total Corporate 10 67

The study provided showed no significant differences in work attitudes between the
corporate and healthcare sectors, although other studies have reported contradictory results. For
example, Ford and Jackson (1998) conducted a study comparing work attitudes, such as job
satisfaction and organizational commitment, among employees in corporate and healthcare
organizations. The results showed that healthcare employees were more committed to their
organizations and had higher levels of job satisfaction. However, in the present study, there were
no noticeable differences between the two sectors due to structural similarities, such as
hierarchical organizational structures, clear lines of authority, and the need for strong leadership.
Both industries require employees to work together collaboratively and communicate effectively
to achieve common goals. Moreover, workers in both industries may face high levels of stress
and pressure to perform, leading to similar work attitudes focused on productivity and
accomplishment.

Table 3

Table indicating results of Mann Whitney U test for scores of Organizational Citizenship
Behaviour from the Corporate and Healthcare Sector

Organisational n Median U Significance

Type

OCB Personal Healthcare 10 17 91.5 0.2756

Corporate 10 16

OCB Healthcare 10 15 68.5 0.8460

Organizational
Corporate 10 16.5

Organizational Healthcare 10 47 88.5 0.3574

Citizenship
Behaviour Total Corporate 10 46

The differences in organizational structures between the healthcare and corporate sectors
may be responsible for the discrepancies in employee work attitudes between the two industries.
The healthcare sector is heavily regulated and requires specialized knowledge, which can result
in a greater sense of professional identity and job satisfaction among healthcare workers.
Conversely, the corporate sector provides more opportunities for professional growth and higher
salaries, promoting a competitive work environment and a focus on individual performance.
Additionally, the type of work in each sector can also impact employee attitudes. Corporate
employees may prioritize financial incentives and career advancement, while healthcare workers
may find motivation in a sense of purpose and the desire to help others, leading to higher job
satisfaction. Understanding these factors can aid management strategies and promote safe and
inclusive work environments for employees in both sectors.

Discussion

The purpose of this study is to compare the work attitudes of people working in the health
care and business sectors and to understand how different work attitudes correlate with each
other. Healthcare and the business sector are two separate sectors with different organizational
structures, cultures and work environments. However, the purpose of this study was to find out
and understand the different attitudes to work in different industries.

It was hypothesised that there is a significant difference between the work attitudes
(satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior) of companies
and health workers, as found in previous studies (eg Ferlie et al, 2008). In the corporate sector
(e.g. Lowery, 2002) and healthcare (e.g. Lin and Chang, 2015), there is a significant relationship
between employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship
behavior.Several studies have been done to support this.

The study by Rahiman and Kodikal (2017) empirically investigated the factors affecting
job attitudes and the study was conducted in the health sector. Statistically, the data has been
tested and confirmed. P-test, F-test, correlation and regression showed a significant relationship
between employee attitudes and performance.This study added to the existing literature and
suggested some human resource development activities to improve more positive attitudes in the
healthcare industry. In addition, Massoudi et al (2020) conducted a suitable study commitment to
the organization and job satisfaction as an indicator that stimulates organizational citizenship
behavior. Survey collected data analyzed using AMOS software after ensuring validity,
reliability and model fit. The results revealed that organizational commitment and job
satisfaction play a positive and influential role in changing the organizational citizenship
behavior of hotel employees. Organizational commitment also has a greater impact on improving
employee behavior than job satisfaction.

To evaluate the desired aspect, the study utilized various tools including the job satisfaction
survey developed by Paul E. Spector in 1985, the organization commitment scale created by
Allen and Meyer in 1997, and the Organizational Citizenship Behavior Checklist (OCB-C)
designed by Paul E. Spector. These work attitude scales were incorporated into a Google form,
which was then circulated among employees in both the corporate and healthcare sectors. The
responses were collected, tabulated, and analyzed using non-parametric techniques because the
number of subjects required for a parametric analysis was not met. SPSS software was used to
perform the non-parametric analysis.

Initially, the study measured job satisfaction as the first variable. The median score for
employees in the corporate sector was 124, while the median score for healthcare workers was
137. To compare these medians, researchers used the Mann Whitney U test, which produced a U
value of 90 and a p-value of 0.32. Since the significance level was greater than 0.05, the null
hypothesis was retained, indicating that there were no significant differences in job satisfaction
between employees in healthcare and the corporate sector. The study evaluated job satisfaction
using nine different subscales, which included pay, promotion, supervision, benefits, contingent
rewards, operating conditions, co-workers, nature of work, and communication. The job
satisfaction scale used in the study had 9 subscales that measured various aspects such as pay,
promotion, supervision, benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, co-workers, nature of
work, and communication. The results of the study showed no significant differences between
the healthcare and corporate sectors in most of these subscales, except for the nature of work.
The U value for this subscale was 120.50, and the significance level was 0.0043, which was less
than the pre-determined significance level of 0.05. As a result, the null hypothesis was rejected,
indicating that there was significant difference in job satisfaction between the two sectors. This
lack of differences may be explained by the fact that there are few structural differences between
the corporate and healthcare sectors, and their functionalities are more or less similar today.
Employees from both sectors consider the same factors, such as pay, promotion opportunities,
operating conditions, and contingent rewards, among others, when assessing their job satisfaction
(e.g. Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M.1988). The social exchange theory suggests that employees
tend to feel satisfied with their work and are more likely to display positive attitudes and
behaviors when they perceive that their organization is providing them with financial and
material rewards or benefits based on their job performance, such as pay, job security, fair
treatment, promotions, and more. In return, they reciprocate by exhibiting positive behavior.

While there are significant differences in the nature of work between healthcare
employees and corporate employees, the former tend to prioritize patient care in environments
that are strictly regulated and time-sensitive. Meanwhile, the latter often enjoy greater flexibility
and independence in their work ( e.g. Ongori, H., & Agolla, J. E. 2008).

The work environment is a possible contributing factor, as healthcare workers usually operate in
a demanding setting with extended shifts, rotating schedules, and strenuous duties. In
comparison, white-collar employees typically work in an office environment with fixed working
hours and less physically challenging responsibilities (such as Akgunduz, Y., & Acur, N. 2012 ).
Additionally, in terms of education and training, healthcare workers often need specific and
extensive education and training that may take longer than the training required for corporate
jobs (e.g. Shantz, Alfes, Truss, and Soane, 2013). Another distinguishing aspect is teamwork
since healthcare establishments usually involve a great deal of teamwork and cooperation among
healthcare professionals, whereas corporate jobs may be more independent (as in Meyer, Allen,
and Smith 1993).Another point of contrast is the regulatory obligations that apply to both sectors.
Healthcare establishments must comply with rigorous regulations and standards, which may
necessitate more documentation and stricter adherence to procedures compared to corporate
organizations.

The second dimension under investigation was Organizational Commitment, with a

median of 78.5 for the healthcare sector and 67 for the corporate sector. The U value was 82.5,
and the significance value was 0.5594. As the significance value is greater than 0.05, the null
hypothesis was retained. This outcome could be because both healthcare and corporate
organizations commonly have a strong sense of mission and purpose, which entails shared values
and a shared commitment to serving clients or patients. This shared sense of purpose may lead to
similar levels of organizational commitment. Additionally, individuals may perceive that both
sectors provide opportunities for career growth and advancement, which may contribute to
employees feeling invested in their organization and committed to its success. Both sectors may
prioritize creating supportive work environments that foster employee engagement and
well-being. This, in turn, can contribute to employees feeling committed to their organization,
and both healthcare and corporate workers may perceive their jobs as relatively stable and
secure, which can foster feelings of organizational commitment.

In their study conducted in 2017, Sanjay Bahl and Sujata Bandyopadhyay intended to
assess the level of organizational commitment among healthcare employees in comparison to
those in other industries. Their findings revealed that healthcare workers exhibited a similar
degree of organizational commitment to their counterparts in different sectors. This result can be
attributed to the fact that both healthcare and other industries share common values like service,
integrity, and professionalism..

In regards to the third dimension, which was organizational citizenship behavior, as

previously mentioned, the null hypothesis was also retained. The median for the healthcare
sector was 47, and for the corporate sector, it was 46. The U value for OCB was 88.5, and the
significance value was 0.3574, which is greater than 0.05, indicating that the null hypothesis was
retained .Currently, both healthcare and corporate organizations share a culture that emphasizes
the significance of OCB, including characteristics such as helping others, taking initiative, and
being a cooperative team member. This culture may lead to comparable levels of OCB among
employees in both sectors. Workers in both fields might be encouraged to engage in OCB due to
their desire to aid their organization's success, assist others, or maintain positive relationships
with their colleagues. Additionally, characteristics such as autonomy, task variety, and job
control can be comparable in both sectors, contributing to similar levels of OCB. Effective
leadership can be a critical factor in promoting OCB among employees, regardless of the sector.
Leaders in both corporate and healthcare organizations can promote OCB by modeling desired
behaviors, communicating effectively, and setting clear expectations for employees (e.g., So,
Law and Chan, 2019).

According to the current study, the work attitudes of employees in the healthcare and
corporate sectors are quite similar. This similarity may be attributed to common values,
opportunities for growth, supportive working conditions, and a feeling of job security. However,
there are significant differences between these two sectors in terms of the nature of work, such as
the type of service provided, work environment, regulatory requirements, training, and
teamwork. As a result, the study's small sample size, lengthy Google form survey, and
uncontrollable external factors suggest that more research is required to investigate these factors
and their effect on work attitudes in both sectors. It is crucial for organizations in both sectors to
recognize, examine, and understand work attitudes and their differences in order to effectively
engage and retain their employees.

Limitation

The research process encountered several obstacles. The small sample size was a
significant concern, as it could reduce the generalizability of the findings. Moreover, the
recruitment of participants was challenging, which may have contributed to the small sample
size. The length of the questionnaire was also viewed as a hindrance, as some participants may
have been disinclined to complete it. Time constraints were another issue, as they may have
limited the amount of data that could be collected. Finally, some participants may have been
reluctant to complete the questionnaire, resulting in a further reduction in the sample size.
Despite these challenges, every effort was made to overcome them and gather as much data as
possible to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the outcomes.

Conclusion

To conclude, the data collection process involved the preparation and circulation of a
final survey containing three subscales on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
organizational citizenship behavior. The respondents answered the questions on their devices,
and the final responses were analyzed for the results. The study found that there were no
significant variations between the corporate and healthcare sectors concerning payment,
promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, continuing rewards, working conditions, colleagues, and
communication. However, there were significant distinctions between the two sectors concerning
the nature of work, which was distinct between them. There were also no noticeable differences
between the two sectors concerning work attitudes like job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior, although previous studies have reported
contradictory results. It is crucial to understand the factors that influence work attitudes in
different industries to promote safe and inclusive work environments for employees.
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 Appendix

Link to the google form containing the questionnaire:

https://forms.gle/WzdmwigAizfhySR49
Organizational Commitment Scale [Revised Version (Meyer‚ Allen‚ & Smith‚ 1993)]

Affective Commitment Scale Items

1) I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization.

2) I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own.

3) I do not feel a strong sense of “belonging” to my organization. (R)

4) I do not feel “emotionally attached” to this organization. (R)

5) I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organization. (R)

6) This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me.

Continuance Commitment Scale Items

1) Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire.

 2) It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now‚ even if I wanted to.

3) Too much of my life would be disrupted if I decided I wanted to leave my organization

now.

4) I feel that I have too few options to consider leaving this organization.

5) If I had not already put so much of myself into this organization‚ I might consider
working elsewhere.

6) One of the few negative consequences of leaving this organization would be the scarcity
of available alternatives

Normative Commitment Scale Items

1) I do not feel any obligation to remain with my current employer. (R)

2) Even if it were to my advantage‚ I do not feel it would be right to leave my organization

now.

3) I would feel guilty if I left my organization now.

4) This organization deserves my loyalty.

5) I would not leave my organization right now because I have a sense of obligation to the
people in it.

6) I owe a great deal to my organization.