UNIT 1 Reading Skills

Reading to find information –

What happens when you read a book, a newspaper or magazine for
information on a topic that interests you, or when you are reading as
part of a course of study? If you are a good reader you almost
certainly don't read every word carefully. You read with a purpose,
and as your eye skims over the page you take from it whatever you
need.
Reading is a skill that almost everyone in the world has. This is why
almost no one stops to think about how to read better and how to read
books more effectively.
READING STRATEGIES
We do not read information-based texts in the same way that we read
fiction. In order for students to be successful they need to know
effective strategies for dealing with a wide range of information-based
text. When talking about the structures and features of information-
based texts it is important to always connect them to their purpose.
When reading information-based texts , students to think about the
following points.
 Consider why the text was written and what it is trying to do,
e.g. inform, persuade, argue, or advise.
 Decide on your purpose for reading the text. This will help you
decide how you will read and remember what you have read.
 Think about what you already know about the topic.
 Preview the text. Look at the features, e.g. bold print, headings,
captions, photos, etc. Ask yourself why they are there and how
they can help you.
 If your are reading a nonfiction book, skim the table of contents
or index to help you understand how the book is organized.
 Break the text into chunks.
  Reread as often as necessary.
 Slow down.
 Information-based texts do not have to be read cover-to-cover
and the table of contents or index can be used to help you find
specific information.
 Take note of the details. Details are very important when reading
nonfiction.
 Be a critical reader. Ask questions about the text. For example:
What techniques did the author use to influence my thinking? Is
the point of view presented in the text balanced? Are there other
points of view? Is this information accurate? How can I find
out?
Here are some of the most common types of reading:
1. Extensive reading:
Extensive reading is one of the methods of reading that people use for
relaxation and pleasure. Adopt this method when the purpose is to
enjoy the reading experience. It places no burden upon the reader and
due to its indulgent nature, it is seldom used if the text isn’t enjoyable.
This is one of the methods of reading that occurs naturally. It’s how
you’ve read as a child and while growing up.
This method of reading helps you understand words in context and
enriches your vocabulary.
2. Intensive reading:
Among the different types of reading skills, intensive reading is used
when you want to read carefully by paying complete attention to
understand every word of the text. It is where you would examine and
decipher each unfamiliar word or expression.
As the term states, intensive means in-depth. This reading method is
especially used when reading academic texts, where the goal is to
prepare for an exam or to publish a report. This method helps retain
information for much longer periods.
3. Scanning:
Imagine if you went to the Louvre museum only to see the Mona
Lisa. You’d quickly walk through all the corridors and rooms merely
glancing at the walls until you found it. Scanning is quite similar to
that.
It is one of those kinds of reading where you read to search for a
particular piece of information. Your eyes quickly skim over the
sentences until you find it.
You can use this method when you don’t need to go deep into the text
and read every word carefully. Scanning involves rapid reading and is
often used by researchers and for writing reviews.
4. Skimming:
Through this method, you try to understand the text in short. Though
one saves a lot of time through this method, one will gain only a
shallow understanding of the text.
Skimming is a great way to get a broad idea of the topic being
discussed. This method is generally used to judge whether the
information is useful or not.
A good example of this is picking up a magazine and flipping through
the pages. You take in only the headings or the pictures to get a broad
idea of what the magazine covers.
5. Speed Reading is a technique that teaches people to read faster and
comprehend a lot more written information in a shorter time. The
technique focuses on not only increasing the number of words read
per minute but also maintaining a certain comprehension level to
absorb information faster.
Making inferences and guessing the meaning –
Making inferences is a comprehension strategy used by proficient
readers to “read between the lines,” make connections, and draw
conclusions about the text’s meaning and purpose.
You already make inferences all of the time. For example, imagine
you go over to a friend’s house and they point at the sofa and say,
“Don’t sit there, Cindy came over with her baby again.” What could
you logically conclude?
First, you know there must be a reason not to sit where your friend is
pointing. Next, the reason not to sit there is related to the fact that
Cindy just visited with her baby. You don’t know what exactly
happened, but you can make an inference and don’t need to ask any
more questions to know that you do not want to sit there.

Techniques of correct understanding of a text-

Reading and understanding a piece of text means applying
competency in the five components within a four-step process of
varying complexity:
 Decode the words
 Keep the information in working memory long enough for it to
be processed
 Use vocabulary and grammar knowledge to organise and
interpret the text
 Access higher-order thinking to process what’s been read, infer
meaning and construct a mental model.
Vocabulary in context –
An important strategy to help students build their vocabulary is use of
context – i.e., using the clues or hints provided in the text that
surround an unfamiliar word to help guess the meaning without
depending on a dictionary. This can include words, phrases, or
sentences that appear before, after, or close to the word.

Noun and pronoun usage –

Nouns and pronouns are two essential components of the English
language that are used to identify people, places, things, and ideas.
These words serve as the building blocks of sentences, allowing us to
communicate and express our thoughts effectively.

What is the Difference Between a Noun and a Pronoun?

1. Definition: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing,
or idea. It can be a single word or a group of words acting as a
single unit. On the other hand, a pronoun is a word that replaces
a noun or noun phrase in a sentence.
2. Function: Nouns and pronouns both serve as the subject or
object of a sentence. However, nouns refer to specific people,
places, or things, while pronouns refer to these entities in a more
general sense.
3. Examples: Some common nouns include dog, city,
book, and love. These are specific words that refer to a particular
thing. On the other hand, pronouns such as he, she,
it, and they replace these nouns in a sentence. For example,
instead of saying "The dog is barking," we can say "It is
barking."
 4. Types: Nouns can be categorized into proper nouns, common
nouns, and abstract nouns. Proper nouns refer to specific people,
places, or things and are always capitalized. Common nouns
refer to general things and are not capitalized unless they are at
the beginning of a sentence. Abstract nouns refer to ideas or
concepts. Pronouns, on the other hand, can be categorized into
personal, possessive, reflexive, and demonstrative pronouns.
5. Importance: Nouns and pronouns are crucial in constructing
sentences and conveying meaning. Without them, sentences
would be incomplete and confusing. They help us identify and
refer to people, places, and things without repeating the same
words over and over again.
In conclusion, the main difference between a noun and a pronoun is
that nouns are specific words that name people, places, things, or
ideas, while pronouns replace these nouns in a sentence.
Reading to learn –
Sure you can read. After all, that’s what you are doing now, at this
moment. But reading to learn is active reading, a process that involves
much more than the mechanics of converting a set of letters into
meaningful words. It is a process that you will use for gathering much
of the new information you get in school—and in life.
Active reading is a planned, deliberate set of strategies to engage
with text-based materials with the purpose of increasing your
understanding. This is a key skill you need to master for college.
Along with listening, it is the primary method for absorbing new ideas
and information in college. But active reading also applies to and
facilitates the other steps of the learning cycle; it is critical for
preparing, capturing, and reviewing, too.
Deep comprehension – Getting Started
steps : Choosing a text- Peer learning and student
facilitators- Understanding the Gist – Annotating -
Identifying Key Details - Analyzing the Author’s Craft -
Summarizing and Drawing Conclusions

Summarizing –
Summarizing information effectively is a useful skill that can help in
many areas of life. Here are some tips to keep in mind when
summarizing:
1. Focus on the main ideas
Read through the entire piece you want to summarize and identify the
most important concepts and themes. Ignore minor details and
examples. Focus on capturing the essence of the key ideas.
If it's an article or book, read introductions, headings, and conclusions
to get a sense of the central themes. As you read, ask yourself "What
is the author trying to convey here?" to determine what's most
significant.
2. Keep it short
A summary should be considerably shorter than the original work.
Aim for about 1/3 of the length or less. Be concise by eliminating
unnecessary words and rephrasing ideas efficiently. Use sentence
fragments and bulleted lists when possible.
3. Maintain objectivity
Summarize the work factually without putting your own personal spin
or opinions on the information. Report the key ideas in an impartial,
balanced manner. Do not make judgments about the quality or
accuracy of the content.
4. Check your work
Review and edit your summary to ensure it's clear, coherent, and
captures the essence of the most significant themes and concepts in
the source material—all in your own words. Get feedback from others
if possible. Revise as needed to improve the summary.
Summarizing Examples
Here are some summarizing examples:
Summary Example #1
Original
Regular exercise has been shown to have numerous positive effects on
mental health. It can reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression,
improve mood, boost self-esteem, and enhance cognitive function.
Exercise also promotes better sleep and stress management,
contributing to overall well-being.
Summary
Regular exercise has many mental health benefits. It reduces anxiety
and depression, improves mood, boosts self-esteem, and enhances
cognitive function. Exercise also helps with sleep and stress
management, promoting overall well-being.
Summary Example #2
Original
Effective communication is essential in the workplace. It builds strong
relationships among team members, enhances productivity, and
promotes a positive work environment. Good communication
involves active listening, clear and concise expression of ideas, and
providing constructive feedback. It also involves understanding non-
verbal cues and adapting communication styles to different
individuals and situations. By fostering effective communication,
organizations can minimize misunderstandings, resolve conflicts, and
achieve their goals efficiently.
Summary
Effective workplace communication is vital. It builds relationships,
increases productivity, and fosters a positive environment. It involves
active listening, clear expression of ideas, and constructive feedback.
Understanding non-verbal cues and adapting to others is important. It
minimizes misunderstandings, resolves conflicts, and helps achieve
goals efficiently.

PARAPHRASING
Paraphrasing involves restating something in your own words while
keeping the original meaning intact. When you paraphrase, you
rephrase the way ideas or information are expressed, using synonyms
and rearranging the structure of sentences and paragraphs. The key is
to not copy word-for-word.
Some tips for effective paraphrasing:
 Read the original text multiple times to fully understand the
meaning
 Identify the main ideas and arguments
 Restate those ideas and arguments in your own words using
synonyms and restructuring sentences
 Double check that the paraphrased version accurately captures
the meaning of the original
 Cite or reference the original source to avoid plagiarism
Paraphrasing allows you to explain concepts and share information in
a personalized, easy to understand way. It demonstrates your
understanding and ability to communicate ideas.
How To Paraphrase?
When paraphrasing, you convey the same ideas as the original text
but in your own words and sentence structure. Here are some helpful
tips to successfully paraphrase:
1. Read the original text thoroughly
Make sure you understand the full meaning and context of the original
text. Read it more than once if needed. Look up any unfamiliar words
or terms so you have a solid grasp of the ideas and details.
2. Identify the key ideas
Determine the central theme or message, as well as any important
supporting ideas. These are what you will restate in your own words.
Leave out insignificant details and examples.
3. Put the text aside and write in your own words
Do not look at the original text while you are writing your paraphrase.
This will allow you to articulate the ideas in the way that feels most
natural to you. Refer to your notes about the key ideas to make sure
your restatement is accurate.
4. Use synonyms and reorganize
Replace words and phrases from the original text with synonyms and
synonymous expressions. Also, reorganize or restructure sentences
and paragraphs. For example, you can combine some sentences or
split long sentences into shorter ones. Change the order of ideas or
examples.
5. Vary your sentence structure
Avoid simply rearranging the words in the original sentences. Instead,
create entirely new sentences in your own unique style. To maintain a
smooth flow, use a mixture of simple and complex sentence
structures. Remember to keep your language concise, but don't make
it sound choppy.
6. Compare with the original
Once you have completed your paraphrase, review the original text
again. Make sure that your version conveys all of the same key ideas,
examples, and details. Look for any passages that seem too similar to
the original—if there are any sentences or phrases that are verbatim or
nearly verbatim, rephrase them in your own words.
Paraphrasing Examples
Here's an example of paraphrasing using AI:
Paraphrasing Example #1
Original:
The increased use of technology in the classroom continues to be a
controversial issue in education. While some studies have found that
technology can be distracting and negatively impact learning, other
research has found that technology, when used appropriately, can
enhance learning and engage students.
Paraphrase:
The use of technology in classrooms is a topic that sparks debate in
education. Some studies suggest that technology can be a distraction
and hinder learning, while others argue that when used properly, it can
actually improve learning and capture students' attention.
Paraphrasing Example #2
Original:
The ability to paraphrase demonstrates several higher-order thinking
skills including comprehension, abstraction, and reorganization of
ideas. Paraphrasing requires understanding the essence and meaning
behind a message, relating new ideas to familiar ones, and
reconstructing the message in a new yet faithful way.
Paraphrase:
Paraphrasing is a skill that shows advanced thinking abilities like
understanding, abstract thinking, and rearranging ideas. When you
paraphrase, you need to grasp the main point and significance of a
message, connect new ideas to ones you already know, and
reconstruct the message in a fresh but accurate way.
other hand, aims to condense the main ideas and key points of the text
into a shorter version.
Paraphrase:
In academic writing, it's important to grasp the distinction between
paraphrasing and summarizing. Although both involve rephrasing
information using your own words, they serve different purposes.
Paraphrasing is all about expressing the original text in a fresh manner
while keeping the same level of detail and length. On the other hand,
summarizing aims to condense the primary ideas and key points of the
text into a shorter version.
Prefixes-
Prefixes are letters which we add to the beginning of a word to make
a new word with a different meaning. Prefixes can, for example,
create a new word opposite in meaning to the word the prefix is
attached to. They can also make a word negative or express relations
of time, place or manner. Here are some examples:

base word prefixed word type of meaning

possible impossible opposite

Able unable opposite/negation

payment non-payment negation

War pre-war time (before)

terrestria extraterrestria
place (outside of/beyond)
l l

Cook overcook manner (too much)

I’m sorry I was unable to attend the meeting.

Non-payment of fees could result in a student being asked to leave
the course.
Has anyone ever really met an extraterrestrial being? (meaning a
being from another planet)
The meat was overcooked and quite tasteless.
The most common prefixes
Prefix meaning examples

anti- against/opposed to anti-government, anti-racist, anti-war

auto- self autobiography, automobile

de-classify, decontaminate,
de- reverse or change
demotivate

dis- reverse or remove disagree, displeasure, disqualify

down
reduce or lower downgrade, downhearted
-

Suffixes - Suffixes are letters added to the end of a base word to

change its conjugation, word type, or other grammar properties like
plurality.

Adjective Suffixes
 ful (grateful, beautiful, bountiful)
 less (hopeless, baseless, reckless)
 able (capable, creatable, craftable)
 ous or ious (delicious, humourous, gracious)
 ic (stoic, heroic, iconic)
 ‘ive (pensive, expensive, authoritative)
 ant (poignant, extravagant, brilliant)
Adverb Suffixes
 ly (bravely, stately, sparingly)
  ward (backward, forward, wayward)
 wise (pennywise, likewise, otherwise)
The adverb suffix -ly refers to how something is being done. You use
the ending -ward to suggest a certain direction. Lastly, -wise
references a relation to something.
Noun Suffixes
 ion (fusion, revision, opinion)
 ness (roughness, darkness, awareness)
 ment (treatment, abandonment, movement)
 ity (rarity, scarcity, equality)
 er (writer, helper, driver)
 eer (engineer, volunteer, profiteer)

Common roots of words –

What are Root Words?
Root words are the fundamental building blocks of many
English words. They carry the core meaning, and prefixes and
suffixes (affixes) are often attached to them to create new words.
Imagine them as the foundation upon which a whole family of words
is built.
Few Examples :
aqua (water) – aquarium, aquatic, aquifer
astro (star) – astronaut, astronomy, astrophysics
bio (life) – biology, biography, biosphere
chron (time) – chronological, chronicle, synchronize
cred (believe) – incredible, credible, credit
dict (say) – dictionary, predict, contradict
duc/duct (lead) – conduct, induce, ductile
fer (carry) – transfer, ferry, refer
form (shape) – transform, reform, uniform
geo (earth) – geography, geology, geocentric
graph (write) – graphic, autograph, biography
hydr (water) – hydrate, hydraulic, dehydrate
ject (throw) – eject, inject, projection
log/logue (word) – dialogue, monologue, logic
manu (hand) – manual, manuscript, manufacture

Same words used as noun and verb -

The English language is full of interesting quirks, and one of them is
the phenomenon of words that are both nouns and verbs. These
words can be confusing for non-native speakers, but they can also
add depth and complexity to the language.
Examples :
Act
as a verb: to behave.
Simon, don’t be foolish! You’re acting like a child,
as a noun: something you do.
Giving money to charity is an act of kindness.
Address
as a verb: to speak to somebody.
You should address him as Mr Smith or sir.
as a noun: the name and the number of the place where something is
located.
Write in your address on the gap, please.
Arrest
as a verb: when the police take someone to the police station.
Michael was arrested last night for drinking and driving.
as a noun: an act of taking somebody to the police station.
Several arrests were made connected with the murder.
Words that are Both Verbs and Nouns
Call
as a verb: to telephone someone.
You can call me on my landline after 6.
as a noun: an act of calling someone on the phone
I need to make a phone call.
Dance
as a verb: to move your body to music.
We were dancing in the club all night.
as a noun: an act of dancing.
I’m learning some Latin American dances such as salsa and flamenco.
Drink
as a verb: to pour something liquid into your mouth and swallow.
What would you like to drink?
as a noun: a liquid that you drink.
I’d like a drink first and then we can talk.
Words that are Both Verbs and Nouns
Drive
as a verb: to move a vehicle such as a car.
My dad is teaching me to drive.
as a noun: a journey by car.
Let’s go for a drive after lunch.
Experience

as a verb: something that happens to you.

We experienced turbulence during the flight.
as a noun: your knowledge and skills.
Sandra has experience in working with disabled people.
Face
as a verb: to have your face opposite of someone or something.
When she woke up, she faced her dog’s head.
as a noun: the front part of the head.
Her face went red when she saw him.
Words that are Both Verbs and Nouns
Fear
as a verb: to feel scared.
There is nothing to fear from.
as a noun: the feeling you have when you are in a dangerous situation.
The cat hissed with fear when it saw the dog.
Hope
as a verb: to wish something to happen.
I hope it’s not going to rain in the afternoon.
as a noun: a wish for a certain good thing to happen in the future.
They had a lot of hope for the future.
Increase
as a verb: to become larger or greater in amount.
After the Coronavirus pandemic, all the prices increased.
as a noun: a rise in size, amount, etc.
We are expecting an increase in salary in the next month.
Words that are Both Verbs and Nouns
Run
as a verb: to walk faster.
They saw the bus leaving so they began to run.
as a noun: the act of running.
Charlie usually goes for a run before work.
Search
as a verb: to try to find something by watching carefully.
The police officer searched through the files.
as a noun: the act of searching.
They conducted a thorough search for the missing man.

UNIT 2 - Technical Writing Skills

Writing brief paragraphs -

Writing a brief paragraph involves a few key steps to ensure clarity
and coherence. Here are few tips :
1. Start with a Topic Sentence: Begin with a clear topic sentence
that states the main idea of your paragraph. This sets the stage
for what the paragraph will discuss.
 2. Add Supporting Sentences: Include a few sentences that
provide details, examples, or explanations to support the main
idea. These sentences should be directly related to the topic
sentence.
3. Use Transition Words: To ensure your paragraph flows
smoothly, use transition words like "firstly," "in addition," or
"finally." This helps connect your ideas logically.
4. Conclude with a Closing Sentence: End with a sentence that
summarizes the main idea or provides a concluding thought.
This helps to wrap up the paragraph neatly.
5. Revise and Edit: Finally, review your paragraph for any
grammatical errors or unclear sentences. Make sure each
sentence contributes to the main idea and that the paragraph is
concise

Example :
My Hobby
Gardening is my favourite hobby. I own a small plot of land next
to our house. I cultivate gardening there. Every day, I spend half
an hour gardening. After returning from my morning walk, I go
to my garden with a spade and a bucket of water. I prepare the
soil, prune the plants, and water them. I also use insecticides and
fertilisers. My heart leaps with joy when I see the plants swaying
in the wind. I feel heavenly pleasure as I watch them grow day by
day.
STRUCTURE BREAKDOWN :
Topic Sentence: Introduce the main idea.
Gardening is my favorite hobby. This sentence sets the stage for
the entire paragraph by clearly stating the main topic.
Supporting Sentences: Provide details and examples to support
the main idea.
Every morning, I spend an hour in my garden, tending to my
plants. This sentence gives a specific example of how the hobby is
practiced regularly.
I find it relaxing and rewarding to see my flowers bloom and my
vegetables grow. Here, the sentence elaborates on the emotional
and practical benefits of the hobby, adding depth to the main
idea.
Concluding Sentence: Summarize the main idea or provide a
closing thought.
Gardening not only provides me with fresh produce but also gives
me a sense of accomplishment and peace. This sentence wraps up
the paragraph by summarizing the benefits and reinforcing the
positive impact of the hobby.

Note making –
Note-making is an essential skill for organizing and retaining
information effectively. Here are some key points and tips for
note-making:
Format of Note-Making
1. Heading and Sub-headings:
o Heading: Reflects the main theme.
o Sub-headings: Show how the main theme is developed.
2. Abbreviations and Symbols:
o Use standard abbreviations (e.g., “Govt” for
Government).
o Create your own abbreviations for frequently used
terms.
3. Note-form:
o Use bullet points or numbered lists.
 o Avoid writing complete sentences; use phrases instead.
4. Numbering and Indentation:
o Use consistent numbering and indentation to organize
points and subpoints.
Steps for Making Notes
1. Read the Passage Carefully:
o Understand the main idea and key points.
2. Identify the Main Idea:
o Frame a heading based on the main idea.
3. Organize Information:
o Use sub-headings for associated ideas.
o Note down points under each sub-heading.
4. Use Abbreviations:
o Abbreviate long words and use symbols to save time.
5. Review and Revise:
o Ensure your notes are clear and logical.
Example
Heading: Benefits of Note-Making
1. Memory Aid:
o Helps recall information.
o Useful for exam preparation.
2. Organizes Thoughts:
o Systematic arrangement of ideas.
o Aids in understanding and retention.
3. Efficient Revision:
 o Quick reference during exams.
o Saves time.

Writing for an academic discussion -

Here are the steps you need to take :
Step 1: – Read the prompt carefully and identify the main topic.
Step 2: – Read what other two opinions discuss and identify their
main points. Make sure to agree or disagree with the ideas.
Step 3: – Decide about your own position and/or opinion.
Step 4: – Make an outline of your position and decide how to support
your opinion. Make sure to mention other ideas and contribute to the
discussion.
Step 5: – Decide what words/structures you would want to use to give
your response linguistic variety.
Step 6: – Write your response.
Step 7: – Check your response for spelling and punctuation errors.
Make sure you have used clear transitions and connectors to show the
relationship between your ideas. check that you have used appropriate
vocabulary and grammar to convey your meaning accurately and
clearly.
SPELLING :

why spelling is so important:

1 – Communication: Spelling is a vital element of communication.
2 – Literacy: Reading and spelling are very closely linked and help to
develop and improve general literacy.
3 – Employment: Employment opportunities can be directly
impacted by spelling ability and quality.

Punctuation -
Punctuation marks are a set of signs and different symbols used in
written language to clarify what, when, and how things are being
said.
subject-verb agreement-
What is subject-verb agreement?
Subject-verb agreement, also called “subject-verb concord,” refers to
matching the subject and verb of a sentence in tense, aspect, and
mood (abbreviated as TAM), which translates to number, person, and
gender.
Advanced subject-verb agreement rules:
When using the negative form in the present tense, only the
verb do needs to match the subject.
She does not like reading before bed.
She likes reading before bed.
2 Likewise, in questions that involve the word do, only do needs to
match the subject.
Do you know where the train station is?
Does anyone know where the train station is?
3 If the subject consists of multiple nouns joined by the
conjunction and, treat the subject as plural and use the plural
form of the verb.
Lucas and Maxine are in love!
Only Lucas is in love.
However, some common phrases that form a single unit can act as
singular.
This bed and breakfast is delightful!
4 If the subject consists of multiple singular nouns joined by or,
treat the subject as singular.
Penne or rigatoni works fine for the recipe.
However, if the subject consists of multiple plural nouns joined
by or, treat the subject as plural.
Cats or dogs make good friends.
If there’s a combination of singular and plural nouns joined by or,
the verb follows the number of the final one listed.
The teacher or the students have to inform the principal.
The students or the teacher has to inform the principal.
5 If there is more than one active verb, as with
compound predicates, all the verbs must agree with the subject.
After work, I go shopping, pick up the kids, cook dinner, and
then relax for the night.
6 Mass nouns, otherwise known as “uncountable nouns” or
“noncount nouns,” act as singular subjects.
Love makes the world go around.
7 Collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on
whether they act together or separately.
[Together, singular] The team goes to practice at 4:00.
[Separately, plural] The team go to their own homes after
practice.
8 Verbs used in alternative forms, such as gerunds, infinitives,
or participles, do not need to follow subject-verb agreement.
However, the main verbs of the sentence still do.
The coach makes running mandatory.
The coaches make running mandatory.
9 Unless you’re using an appositive or other descriptive phrase,
do not put a comma between subjects and verbs.
The holiday is becoming a total disaster.
The holiday, which I was looking forward to, is becoming a total
disaster.
10 The words each and every count as singular when they’re used
as the subject, even if they’re followed by multiple nouns.
Each window and door needs to be sealed.
Every doctor, nurse, and technician gets free training here.
These words always act as singular subjects, even when they
describe more than one thing:
 anybody
 anyone
 either
 everybody
 everyone
 neither
 no one
 nobody
 somebody
 someone
Everybody loves using correct grammar!
Either blue or green works for the wallpaper color.
Synonym
A synonym is a word that means exactly the same as, or very nearly
the same as, another word in the same language. For example,
"close" is a synonym of "shut".
Antonyms –
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. For
example "bad" is an antonym of "good".

Interpretations - Interpretation is the act of explaining, reframing, or

otherwise showing your own understanding of something. A person
who translates one language into another is called an interpreter
because they are explaining what a person is saying to someone who
doesn't understand. Interpretation requires you to first understand the
piece of music, text, language, or idea, and then give your explanation
of it. A computer may produce masses of data, but it will require your
interpretation of the data for people to understand it.

Transcoding - Transcoding is converting a video or audio file from

one format to another. File formats may not be compatible with all
devices, so this process can help people using different machines view
the same media content. Similar to encoding, which is the
compression of video or audio files for compatibility with one device,
transcoding decompresses and alters compressed or encoded content
for compression into a new format.
Pie Chart - A pie chart is a circular statistical graphic divided into
slices to illustrate numerical proportions. Each slice represents a
category’s contribution to the whole, with the size of each slice
proportional to its percentage of the total1.
For example, if you surveyed a class about their favorite sports
and found that 25% liked football, 25% liked basketball, and
12.5% liked cricket,12.5%liked hockey and 25% badminton a
pie chart would visually show these preferences as slices of a
circle, making it easy to compare the proportions at a glance.

Bar Diagram- Bar graphs are the pictorial representation of data

(generally grouped), in the form of vertical or horizontal rectangular
bars, where the length of bars are proportional to the measure of data.
They are also known as bar charts. Bar graphs are one of the means
of data handling in statistics.
What Constitutes a Bar Graph?
Following are the many parts of a bar graph:
 Vertical axis
 Horizontal axis
 The bar graph’s title informs the reader of its purpose.
 The title of the horizontal axis indicates the information that is
shown there.
 The title of the vertical axis indicates the data it is used to
display.
 The categories on the particular axis indicate what each bar
represents.
 The bar graph’s scale demonstrates how numbers are used in the
data. It is a system of markings spaced at specific intervals that
aid in object measurement. For instance, the scale of a graph
may be stated as 1 unit = 10 fruits
Flow chart - A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a
workflow or process. A flowchart can also be defined as a
diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step
approach to solving a task.

Tables –
Tables are used for displaying tabular data with rows and columns.
The decision to use a <table> should be based on the content you are
presenting and your users' needs in relation to that content. If data is
being presented, compared, sorted, calculated, or cross-referenced,
then <table> is probably the right choice.

Précis Writing - Precis Writing is a summary. It is an exercise of

compression. A precis writing is a gist of any passage in as few words
as possible. A precis should mention all important details of the
original paragraph so that anyone who is reading it can understand the
idea of the original passage.

Here are some Do’s listed below which one can follow in Precis
Writing:
✔️Read all the text carefully and identify the main points.
✔️Focus on the main points of the given text and it is best to avoid
adding any irrelevant information.
✔️Write a concise summary of the text which reflects all the main
points of it.
Don’ts to be followed in Precis Writing
❌ Avoid including your personal opinion
❌ Re-write or summarize the entire text
❌ Avoid adding any superfluous details

What are the parameters to judge precis writing? The following are
some attributes that describe a good precis.
🎯 Accurate and Precise
🎯 Clear and coherent
🎯 Well connected
🎯 Original
🎯 A suitable title

EXAMPLE:
“The internet has revolutionized the way we communicate and access
information. With the click of a button, we can connect with people
around the world, share ideas, and stay informed about current events.
This instant access to vast amounts of information has both positive
and negative implications. On the positive side, it allows for
unprecedented global connectivity and the democratization of
knowledge. However, it also raises concerns about privacy,
misinformation, and the potential for online abuse. As we navigate
this digital age, it is essential to strike a balance between the benefits
and challenges posed by the internet.”
Precis
“The internet’s transformative impact on communication and
information retrieval is evident. Instant global connectivity and
knowledge democratization are positive outcomes, yet concerns arise
regarding privacy, misinformation, and online abuse. Striking a
balance between the benefits and challenges of the digital age
becomes crucial.”

Creative Writing - Creative writing is any writing that goes beyond

normal professional, journalistic, academic, or technical forms of
literature. It emphasizes narrative craft, character development, and
the use of literary tropes. In simpler terms, creative writing is classic
storytelling that speaks to our shared human experience 2. It can take
the form of personal essays, short stories, or poems, and serves as an
outlet for emotions and experiences3. It involves original composition
and expressiveness.

Expository essay - An expository essay is a structured essay that informs the reader about
something, explains something, or describes something—and it does so with perfect clarity and
precision. The main goals of expository writing are to inform the reader, explain a subject, or
describe a topic in a way that is accessible and comprehensible. You’re not trying to confuse or
overwhelm a reader with all of your vast knowledge. You’re trying to illuminate and help the reader.
The structure for an expository essay should be similar to other
academic essays, with an introduction, body paragraphs, and
conclusion.
Outline Template:
I. Introduction: Opening statement, main points, thesis.
II. Body Paragraph 1: Topic Sentence, Evidence, Analysis
III. Body Paragraph 2: Topic Sentence, Evidence, Analysis
IV. Body Paragraph 3: Topic Sentence, Evidence, Analysis
V. Conclusion: Summarize main points.

EXAMPLE :

Introduction
Opening statement: Diverse workplaces are 35% more likely to
outperform their more homogenous counterparts.
Main points:
1. Workforces are more diversified than ever before due to
globalization, but also due to changing social norms.
2. A diverse workforce also has the potential to offer creative and
innovative solutions that can help companies gain competitive
advantage.
3. Diversification is part of corporate social responsibility, which
improves the company’s reputation and brand identity.
Thesis: Companies with strong diversity management policies will be
equipped to meet the challenges of a globalized workforce.
First Body Paragraph
Topic Sentence: Workforces are more diversified than ever before
due to globalization, but also due to changing social norms.
Evidence: Globalization has encouraged companies to establish a
presence in multiple countries, creating an international workforce.
Even domestic companies are diversifying due to changing
demographics in the labor force.
Analysis: Companies are recognizing that a diverse workforce
reflects the values and norms of the current generation.
Second Body Paragraph
Topic Sentence: A diverse workforce also has the potential to offer
creative and innovative solutions that can help companies gain
competitive advantage.
Evidence: When a company expands into a new market, it needs to
understand the new target market’s values, norms, and beliefs.
Likewise, a company entering a new market needs strategic methods
of communicating products and services.
Analysis: Companies with diverse workforces will have a competitive
advantage over companies that do not. A diverse team will be capable
of coming up with more novel ideas than a homogenous team because
each member will think differently about each issue or challenge.
Third Body Paragraph
Topic Sentence: Diversification is part of corporate social
responsibility, which improves the company’s reputation and brand
identity.
Evidence: Corporate social responsibility is a top-down process
whereby senior management commits to an ethical approach to
human resources practices.
Analysis: Corporate social responsibility boosts a company’s image
among consumers and can be incorporated into public relations and
media relations strategies.
Conclusion
Summation: To sum up, a diverse workforce presents a strategic
advantage for companies, allowing for more innovative marketing and
improved public relations. Diversity is part of corporate social
responsibility, which is becoming increasingly important for
remaining competitive. Diverse teams bring more to the table,
enabling the most creative solutions. Overall, diverse workforces
facilitate breaking into new markets.

Story through images -

Writing a story through images can be a powerful and creative way to
convey narratives. Here are some steps and tips to help you get
started:
1. Choose Your Images
Select images that evoke strong emotions or tell a part of the story.
These can be photos you've taken, found online, or even illustrations.
2. Analyze the Images
Spend time looking at each image. Ask yourself questions like:
 What is happening in this picture?
 Who are the people or characters?
  What emotions are being conveyed?
 Where and when is this taking place?
 What might happen next?
3. Create a Narrative Arc
Think about how the images can be sequenced to form a coherent
story. Consider the beginning, middle, and end:
 Beginning: Introduce the setting and characters.
 Middle: Develop the plot and build tension.
 End: Resolve the story and provide closure.
4. Write Descriptions and Dialogue
For each image, write a description that adds context and depth.
Include dialogue if characters are involved. This helps to flesh out the
story and make it more engaging.
5. Use Visual Prompts
If you're stuck, use visual prompts to spark ideas. Websites like
Pinterest or photo prompt generators can be helpful12.
6. Edit and Refine
Review your story and images. Make sure the narrative flows
smoothly and that the images complement the text.
Example Process
1. Image Selection: Choose a series of images that depict a
journey.
2. Analysis: Identify key elements in each image (e.g., a character
looking at a map, a character walking through a forest).
3. Narrative Arc: Create a storyline where the character is on a
quest to find a hidden treasure.
 4. Descriptions: Write detailed descriptions and dialogue for each
image.
5. Refinement: Edit the text and sequence of images to ensure a
cohesive story.

Autobiography of concrete objects –

Getting to Know the Object :

1
Think about how the object exists. Ponder on how the object came
into existence, and how it existed all these days. Here, the example of
a pencil is used.
 Consider if you want to tell the reader about how the
pencil was born. Sentences like 'I call the tree in Jacob's
garden my mother, because Jacob made me from its
branch' go well if you choose to describe how it was born.
 If you do not want to do it, you can just let the pencil tell
about its experiences without bothering about birth.

2
Recollect your past experiences with it. Perhaps you poked your
friend with the pencil, or wrote an amazing story with it.
 In the autobiography, the pencil will be writing about its
experiences with you.
 If no memory comes to your mind, try 'inventing' a
memory. For example, you might just invent something
like 'I always sat in a neat pencil case because my owner
 Agatha is a neat freak', even though your pencil case was
smelly and dirty! It is fiction, after all.

3
Stop thinking of it as an 'inanimate' object. Try to put yourself in
its shoes, and think about how you would've felt if you had been the
pencil.
 Give it a name. You can invent a fancy name and surname,
or give it a normal name.
 Give preference to a made-up name, as it intensifies your
object's personality,

4
Brainstorm by talking out loud "with" the object. The
conversation would be rather one-sided, but you might find
interesting answers to the questions you asked it, even if you answer
them yourself.
Writing

1
Write in first person, past tense.
 Your pencil is old, as it is writing an autobiography, so the
entries have to be in past tense.
 Make sure that you do not use third person to write, as
then it will be a biography.
2.
Give yourself a fictional name, or be yourself in the
autobiography.
 Entries like 'Mary looked after me well, but she always
pressed me onto the page as she wrote, thus breaking my
lead often' show the name of the pencil's owner.
 Exaggerate your experiences. Instead of writing 'John put
me in a smelly box', write 'John shoved me into a box with
the most disgusting smell imaginable!'. This will give the
writing a sort of life.

3
Write about the experiences it had with its own life. Let it grumble
about how clueless its owner had been, or how a young eraser once
cheeked it.
 You can also write about the bad times it faced, the
mistakes it made, and how it learned from it. This depends
on whether you plan to keep the autobiography light and
merry, or deep and philosophical.

4
Make sure the writing includes dialogue. The autobiography should
look 'real' and convincing, not like you sat down and forced it out.
 The pencil can talk to anyone, like it can discuss things
with the eraser, or fight with the ruler. Let your
imagination go wild!
5
Give it some personality. You might want to add some wisdom here
and there. Your pencil may be old, after all, and is wise! Or you can
also show how young and immature an old pencil behaves by writing
about unreasonable grumbles, and how it heard a pen saying to a
sharpener how bad it is to be living with the pencil.
 See if you want to put the pencil as the good character, or
as a bad character, or as a normal one.
 Include some funny moments, even if you want the
autobiography to be rather serious.

writing slogans -
Brands and organizations need potential consumers to remember
them. From their name to their logo to a never-ending series of ad
campaigns, these groups use marketing elements to stand out from the
competition.
Slogans are a vital piece of that strategy. Using wordplay, purpose-
driven language and more, these short phrases are a chance to share
your mission in a way that’s memorable.

A good slogan is:

o Short, generally less than a sentence
o Catchy, sometimes using wordplay or linguistic devices
o Memorable, perhaps even more so than your name or logo
Examples:
1. Nike – “Just Do It.”
2. Apple – “Think Different.”
3. McDonald’s – “I’m Lovin’ It”
 4. KFC – “It’s Finger Lickin’ Good”
5. Burger King – “Have It Your Way”
6. Subway – “Eat Fresh”

Types of phrases- What is a phrase?

In grammar, a phrase is a group of words that act together as a single
unit but don’t contain the things needed to form a sentence:
a subject and a predicate. Phrases may contain nouns and verbs, but
they cannot function by themselves as complete sentences. If used
alone, a phrase would be a sentence fragment and not a sentence. For
example, the phrase shiny gold watches is clearly not a complete
sentence as it doesn’t have a predicate.
There are several kinds of phrases in English that each serve different
grammatical functions. Some examples of different kinds of phrases
include:
 Noun phrase: A noun and the words that modify the noun, such
as an article and adjectives. Example: the smelly socks
 Gerund phrase: A gerund, its object(s), and any modifiers.
Example: hitting nails with a hammer
 Verb phrase: A main verb and other words that act with it to
form a predicate, such as helping verbs or adverbs.
Example: has been peacefully sleeping
 Prepositional phrase: A preposition, its object(s), and
additional modifiers. Example: of my favorite movies
 Adjective phrase: An adjective and its modifiers, usually
adverbs. Example: really small
Examples of phrases in a sentence
Different kinds of phrases are often used to make more complex
sentences.
  Running laps around the jogging track is really good exercise.
 The tired, old cat can’t catch mice anymore.
 Thinking quickly, we put out the fire with a hose.
 His last Christmas gift to her was a partridge in a pear tree.
 She quizzically rubbed her chin, thinking about how best to
answer the question.
What is a clause?
Unlike a phrase, a clause does have both a subject and a predicate,
and a clause may be able to stand alone as a complete sentence. For
example, the clause Mice eat cheese has both a subject (mice) and a
predicate (eat) and would be grammatically correct as a standalone
sentence.
There are two major types of clauses: independent clauses and
dependent clauses. An independent clause can stand by itself as a
complete sentence while a dependent clause cannot. Typically, a
dependent clause begins with a connecting word, such as
a conjunction or a pronoun, that connects it to the rest of the sentence.
For example:
 Independent Clause: I am allergic to peanuts
 Dependent Clause: since I am allergic to peanuts
We often use both independent and dependent clauses to form
complex sentences. For example:
 Two independent clauses: I like Megan, and she likes me.
 Independent and dependent clause: We had to read the book
twice because it was so confusing.
Examples of clauses in a sentence
Like phrases, we often use clauses to form longer, complex sentences.
 I don’t like December because it is always too cold.
  John wanted to eat Cincinnati chili, so he did.
 She didn’t break the record even though she could have.
 I like ketchup on my hamburger, but my sister prefers mustard.
 Ham and eggs is a fine choice for breakfast, but you should also
try to eat some fruits because they are good for your health.
clause vs. phrase
How do you tell the difference between a clause and a phrase? It is
actually pretty simple. A clause includes both a subject and a
predicate. A phrase is missing a subject and a predicate. So, if you
can’t find a subject or a predicate in a group of words, you are dealing
with a phrase and not a clause. For example, ten sleepy sheep is a
group of words but does not include a verb, which means it doesn’t
have a predicate. Without a predicate, this group of words must be a
phrase.
Let’s look at some more examples that show this big difference in
clauses and phrases:
the children laughed
 Clause or phrase? Clause. This group of words has both a
subject (children) and predicate (laughed). It is an independent
clause and could stand alone as a complete sentence.
by talking about their favorite recipes
 Clause or phrase? Phrase. There’s no subject or predicate in this
group of words, and it doesn’t make sense when used by itself.
as we ate lunch
 Clause or phrase? Clause. This group of words contains both a
subject (we) and a predicate (ate). This is a dependent clause
that begins with the conjunction as. It needs to be used with an
independent clause in order to form a sentence.
Sentence patterns -
Sentence pattern refers to how sentences are constructed:
The parts of speech you use in a sentence and the order in which
you put them. When constructing a sentence, it's important to
put your words in the right order since different parts of speech
can take on different functions, so the word order will determine
what role they play in the sentence.
Basic Sentence Pattern
The most simple sentence is made up of a subject and a verb, so
that's your sentence pattern for a basic sentence:
[Subject] + [Verb]
Let's take a look at a few examples of what that might look like:
I am running.
The cat sleeps.

More Complex Patterns

Direct Objects
The next level up from a very basic sentence like the ones
shown above is to add a direct object.
You then get the following structure:
[Subject] + [Verb] + [Direct Object]
Direct objects only work with transitive verbs, which perform an
action on or to something.
The cat eats kibble.
I took the train.
Adjectives
 Adjectives don't complicate sentence patterns much because
they can just be slotted in next to the noun they modify without
affecting the rest of the sentence.
As a reminder, adjectives are modifiers that provide additional
information about nouns and pronouns.
The sentence pattern would then look like this in its most basic
form:
[Adjective] + [Subject] + [Verb]
This is an example of what that would look like in a
sentence:
The brown cat eats kibble.
Adverbs
If you really want to step things up a notch, you can throw in
some adverbs to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
[Subject] + [Verb] + [Adverb]
We waved joyfully.
[Subject] + [Verb] + [Direct Object] + [Adverb]
She ate her dinner quickly.

Connectives –

Connectives are words or phrases that link sentences (or clauses)

together. Connectives can be conjunctions, prepositions or adverbs.
Connectives include transitional words or phrases like therefore,
however, in addition, on the other hand, for example.
Examples of Connective Devices
Connective devices can serve various purposes, including:
 first, next, then, finally
Sequencing
Help organise ideas in a specific order.

and, also, furthermore

Addition
Indicate that more information is being added.

similarly, likewise, in the same way

Comparison
Show similarities between ideas.

but, however, on the other hand

Contrast
Highlight differences or contrasts between ideas.

because, therefore, so
Cause and Effect
Indicate reasons and consequences.

in conclusion, to sum up, overall

Conclusion
Signal the end of a discussion or a summary.

especially, above all, notably

Emphasis
Emphasise particular points.

for example, in particular, such as

Illustration
Provide specific examples.

in order to, so that, to

Purpose
Show the intention behind an action.

Time meanwhile, subsequently, before

Help indicate when events occurred.