MY

AQA
REVISION
AQA A-level
NOTES A-level
PE
Ensure you are on track to achieve the best grade possible with My Revision
Notes. Our clear and concise approach to revision will help you learn, practise
PE
and apply your skills and understanding. Coverage of key content is combined
with practical study tips and effective revision strategies to create a guide that
SECOND EDITION
can be relied on to build both knowledge and confidence.
My Revision Notes: AQA A-level PE will help you: ✚ Plan and organise your revision
Plan and manage your revision Develop your subject knowledge ✚ Reinforce skills and understanding
with our topic-by-topic planner by making links between topics
Practise and and exam breakdown introduction for more in-depth exam answers ✚ Practise exam-style questions
apply your skills ✚ Highly motivated/self-motivated with the desire to achieve/clearly set
goals to achieve.

and knowledge

AQA A-level PE
✚ Willing to self-sacrifice in order to succeed.
✚ High pain tolerance/resilience/perseverance/patience.
activity and sport

✚ High levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy.

with Exam-style ✚ Highly skilled physically and/or naturally talented.

For example, your tennis coach constantly praises your teammate for showing
✚ High level of physical fitness (e.g. sport endurance for distance runners).
determination and controlled emotions during matches. You decide to copy
✚ Good communicators.
Now test yourself

questions and their behaviour to gain the same reinforcement.

The
Nowopposing views of trait and social learning approaches give rise to the
test yourself
3 What is the equation used to describe the interactionist approach?
4 What are the three parts of Hollander’s model?
psychology

6.1 Psychological factors that can influence an individual in physical activities

frequent Now
nature vs nurture debate – i.e. are we born with our personality traits (nature) Answers on p. 268
or1doIdentify
we in the
factpsychological
learn them qualities
as we goyou feel are
(social necessary for an individual to
learning/nurture)?
develop as an elite performer.
in physical

test yourself
Answer
Now test on p. 271
yourself Making links
1 What are the differences between the trait and social learning approaches?
6 Sport

Trait, social learning and interactionist perspectives are also relevant to theories of

questions, and Consolidate

2 According to the social learning perspective, when is personality more likely to be leadership (p. 187) and aggression (p. 168).
Social and cultural factors
copied?
7 Sport and society and the role of technology

A wide range of social and cultural factors can influence the progression of
a Answers on p. individual
268

answer guidance your

young talented through to elite performance level, including the
following:
Using the interactionist perspective to improve
✚ The support of friends and family when starting out in sport and trying to performance
Interactionist perspective
online understanding
progress. Having friends and family present in the crowd at sports events ✚ If a coach understands their players’ innate personalities and how they
to support and encourage is viewed as very important, both socially and would ‘normally’ respond in specific situations, they can use this to their
The interactionist perspective states that personality is made of traits
✚ emotionally. advantage – for example, understanding that a centre forward with an
Socioeconomic status

of each topic
plus financial
✚ The the influence of what
resources of ayou havecan
family learned from your
be important inenvironmental
an individual’s aggressive personality is likely to retaliate when fouled.
An individual’s position in
experiences.
development because money is required to pay for specialist equipment, ✚ The coach might therefore substitute them if they observe that their level
the social structure, which
Trait and social
✚ travelling learning
expenses, approaches
specialist are and
coaching bothmedical
deemedsupport.
relevant(This
and are
is of aggression is increasing due to the centre back continually sliding in

with revision
depends on their job, level
therefore combined.
sometimes referred to as the ‘bank of Mum and Dad’.) An important social late. The coach can try to adapt the responses of this player by offering
of income and area they
We can
✚ and predict
cultural personality
influence and behaviour
on performer in a specific
progression situation.
is therefore an cognitive and somatic strategies (p. 170) to reduce their stress and
live in.
A performersocioeconomic
✚ individual’s will adapt to the situation they find themselves in, even
status. therefore levels of aggression.
behaving differently from how they normally would.
The social and cultural factors necessary to develop as an elite performer can
Lewin
be suggestedas
summarised that an individual’s personality is produced when both their
follows:
Exam tip
✚ This might form part of training sessions in which demanding situations
are created to generate a negative response from the player, who is then Revision activity activities
natural
✚ Highlypredispositions and the experiences
supportive family/high theystatus.
socioeconomic have combine in a specific given the opportunity to use the strategies. In future, when they are In pairs, have the nature
For AO1 make sure that you
situation.
✚ EvidenceHisofequation to describe this
equal opportunities andis B = f(P × E), meaning
anti-discrimination behaviour
practices is a a
within fouled, they will respond differently from their instinctive response. The versus nurture debate. Take
can identify the personal
function
sport, of
andansetting
individual’s personality
of equity targets. traits and the environment. factors that individuals player has learned to act in a more controlled way. an approach each – either
✚ If the player has a role of responsibility in the team, they will recognise trait or social learning.
ForHigh-quality,
✚ supportive
example, a generally educational
introverted provision/clear
rhythmic gymnast links to clubs.reserved,
is ordinarily require to develop as elite
performers, as well as the that they are a role model and therefore cannot react angrily.
butStructured
✚ has learnedlevels of competition
to adapt to progress
when performing, and through.
displays more assertive,
High levels of media coverage different support systems
✚
extroverted characteristics duringand role modelsto
a competition toappeal
aspire to
to.the judges.
and structures needed Exam tip
Hollander
Now test suggested
yourself that there are three aspects to an individual’s personality
(Figure 6.1).
2 Identify the sociocultural factors that encourage the development of elite
to support progression
through to excellence level.
Ensure that you use the correct terminology. Your example should relate specifically
to personality – trait, social learning and interactionist perspectives are also seen in
Avoid common
mistakes and
leadership and aggression, and therefore your example must be clear.
performers and improve the chance of UK athletes winning medals at the
Olympics. If the question asks for a practical example, you must give one.
1 = The core, you
Answer on pp. 271–272
enhance your
2 = Typical responses
3 = Role-related behaviour
1
Exam practice
2
Organisations providing support and
exam answers
Change
3 1 With reference to the interactionist approach, explain why a rugby player might
react differently when being high-tackled in two separate games.
progression
Environment

with exam tips

Answer online
Figure 6.1 The Hollander model
The specification focuses on three organisations as being particularly
Hollander believed
important that personality
when considering could be represented
talent identification and eliteby three concentric
performer Talent identification The
rings, with the innermost ring being the most difficult to penetrate.
progression: multidisciplinary screening Knowledge and skills summary
1 The
✚ core is the real you and what your true beliefs and values are. It does
UK Sport of athletes to identify those
with the potential for world- This topic involves the following knowledge (AO1): example. This can relate to a specific skill, performer or
✚ not
the change
English –Institute
it is the of
stable aspects
Sport of your personality.
(as an example Often
of a national this is
institute ofkept
sport)
class success. ✚ Explanations of the trait, social learning and situation.
✚ hidden.
the national governing bodies (NGBs) of sport
interactionist perspectives of personality.
2 Typical responses describe how individuals usually respond. AO3 marks are for analysis or evaluation. In this topic
202 3 Role-related behaviour is how an individual responds in a specific AO2 marks will require application of this knowledge – for an AO3 response might involve analysing the strengths/
environment. This might be uncharacteristic behaviour. It is the most example, applying the theoretical concept to a sporting weaknesses of trait or social learning perspectives, i.e. the
unstable aspect of your personality. It does not necessarily reflect the nature versus nurture debate.
Check your understanding and progress at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes
psychological core.

9781398360594.indb 202
158 11/08/22 3:32 PM
159

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with user-friendly definitions and a glossary summaries at the end of each chapter
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 Get the most from this book

Get the most from this book

Everyone has to decide their own revision strategy, My revision planner 6 Sport psychology
157 6.1 Psychological factors that can influence an individual

but it is essential to review your work, learn it and

in physical activities

My revision planner

My revision planner
157 6.1.1 Aspects of personality
Introduction 160 6.1.2 Attitudes
07 Assessing A-level PE 162 6.1.3 Arousal

test your understanding. These Revision Notes will

166 6.1.4 Anxiety
1 Applied anatomy and physiology 168 6.1.5 Aggression
09 1.1 Cardiorespiratory system 171 6.1.6 Motivation
09 1.2 Cardiovascular system 172 6.1.7 Achievement motivation theory

help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic.

19 1.3 Respiratory system 174 6.1.8 Social facilitation
25 1.4 Neuromuscular system 177 6.1.9 Group dynamics
30 1.5 Musculoskeletal system and analysis of movement 181 6.1.10 Importance of goal setting
35 1.6 Energy systems 182 6.1.11 Attribution theory

Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision 2 Skill acquisition

47 2.1 Skill, skill continuums and transfer of skills
185 6.1.12 Self-efficacy and confidence
187 6.1.13 Leadership
190 6.1.14 Stress management
51 2.2 Impact of classification on practice

and don’t hesitate to write in it — personalise your 56 2.3 Principles and theories of learning and performance
7 Sport and society and the role of technology in
60 2.4 Use of guidance and feedback physical activity and sport
63 2.5 Memory models 193 7.1 Concepts of physical activity and sport

notes and check your progress by ticking off each

63 2.5.1 Information-processing models 201 7.2 Development of elite performers in sport
64 2.5.2 Efficiency of information processing 210 7.3 Ethics in sport
215 7.4 Violence in sport
3 Sport and society 220 7.5 Drugs in sport

section as you revise.

73 3.1 Emergence of globalisation of sport in the twenty-first century 225 7.6 Sport and the law
73 3.1.1 Pre-industrial Britain: popular recreation (pre-1780) 231 7.7 Impact of commercialisation
75 3.1.2 Industrial and post-industrial development of sport 237 7.8 Role of technology
88 3.1.3 Post-Second World War (1950 to present) Glossary 250
98 3.2 The impact of sport on society and of society on sport
98 3.2.1 Sociological theory applied to equal opportunities
Answers and quick quizzes online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads
4 Exercise physiology

Tick to track your progress

116 4.1 Diet and nutrition and their effects
122 4.2 Preparation and training methods
129 4.3 Injury prevention and rehabilitation

5 Biomechanical movement
134 5.1 Biomechanical principles

Use the revision planner on pages 4 and 5 to plan 137 5.2 Levers
140 5.3 Linear motion
147 5.4 Angular motion
150 5.5 Projectile motion

your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when you 4

153 5.6 Fluid mechanics

have: Check your understanding and progress at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes My Revision Notes: AQA A-level PE

✚ revised and understood a topic

✚ tested yourself Now test yourself Now test yourself Exam tip
Questions on the change in
14 What is the difference between systolic and diastolic? 15 What is meant by the term ‘arteriovenous difference’, and what happens to this

✚ practised the exam questions and gone online during exercise? A-VO2 diff during exercise
Answer on p. 260

1 Applied anatomy and physiology

1.3 Respiratory system

could use data from a table.
Answer on p. 260 Make sure you refer to the
When systolic blood pressure increases there is also an increase in venous data in your answer.
return because the pressure in the blood vessels is higher, so the blood travels
Exam practice

to check your answers and complete the quick

more quickly. When systolic blood pressure decreases there is a decrease in
venous return because the pressure in the various blood vessels has dropped, 1 Heart rate can be controlled by the heart itself. Explain how this occurs. [3]
so blood flow slows down. 2 What are the effects of cardiac hypertrophy and bradycardia on the heart
during exercise? [3]
Starling’s law of the heart

quizzes
3 Where is myoglobin found in the body and what is its role during exercise? [2]

Starling’s law explains how stroke volume increases during exercise: 4 How would performing a cool-down help venous return? [2]
✚ During exercise there is an increase in venous return. 5 Which receptor is responsible for detecting a change in blood pressure? [1]
✚ This results in a greater diastolic filling of the heart. Ejection fraction The
6 Why does A-VO2 diff increase during exercise. [2]
percentage of blood
✚ Therefore the cardiac muscle stretches, resulting in a more forceful 7 State two positive effects that high-density lipoproteins have on the body. [2]
pumped out by the left
contraction.
ventricle per beat. Answers online
✚ This results in an increased ejection fraction.

You can also keep track of your revision by ticking Exam tip
There is often a definition question in the exam – make sure you learn the definitions
of Starling’s law, cardiovascular drift and A-VO2 diff. A question only asking for a
Knowledge and skills summary
This topic involves the following knowledge (AO1):
✚ The impact of physical activity on the health of an
✚ The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve and the Bohr
shift.

off each topic heading in the book. You may find it

definition involves only AO1 knowledge recall. individual with reference to heart disease, high blood ✚ The venous return mechanisms and their relationship
pressure, cholesterol levels and strokes. with blood pressure (systolic and diastolic).
✚ The impact of physical activity on the fitness of an ✚ Starling’s law of the heart and cardiovascular drift.
Cardiovascular drift individual in terms of stroke volume, heart rate and ✚ Arteriovenous oxygen difference (A-VO2 diff), how
the cardiac output of trained/untrained individuals and it varies during exercise and between trained and
✚ Cardiovascular drift (Figure 1.6) is characterised by a progressive decrease

helpful to add your own notes as you work through

Exam tip during maximal/submaximal exercise. untrained individuals, and how adaptations to body
in stroke volume and arterial blood pressure, together with a progressive ✚ Hormonal regulation of responses during physical systems impact A-VO2 diff.
rise in heart rate. It is important for cardiac activity and sport, with reference to anticipatory rise.
✚ It occurs during prolonged exercise in a warm environment, despite the AO2 marks will require application of this knowledge – for
output to increase during ✚ Neural regulation of responses in the sympathetic and
example, how exercise affects heart rate or blood flow, or
intensity of the exercise remaining the same. exercise to cool the parasympathetic systems, and the chemical regulation
application to aerobic events such as the triathlon.
✚ A reduction in plasma volume occurs from the increased sweating body down and deliver of responses with reference to carbon dioxide during

each topic.
response of the body and this reduces venous return and stroke volume. oxygenated blood to the physical activity and sport. AO3 marks are for analysis or evaluation. In this topic an
✚ Heart rate then increases to compensate and maintain cardiac output. muscles so they can respire ✚ The roles of chemoreceptors, baroreceptors and AO3 response might involve an analysis of reasons why
aerobically and produce proprioceptors in neural and chemical regulation of the venous return changes during exercise, and the effects
Pulse rate (per min)
energy. heart during physical activity. these changes have on performance.
Arbitrary units

✚ How hormonal, neural and chemical regulatory

Sometimes you might be required to apply (AO2) your
responses affect the cardiac conduction system and
knowledge of the cardiovascular system to another topic
the redistribution of blood (vascular shunting) during
Stroke volume (cm3) on the specification – for example, to explain how blood
exercise through vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
is redistributed in a cryotherapy chamber (see 4.3 Injury
✚ The transportation of oxygen and the roles of
prevention and rehabilitation).
haemoglobin and myoglobin.
Cardiac output (dm3 −1
/min )

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (minutes)
1.3 Respiratory system
Figure 1.6 Graph to show cardiovascular drift
The body needs a continuous supply of oxygen to produce energy. When we
Exam tip
use oxygen to break down food to release energy, carbon dioxide is produced
Arteriovenous oxygen difference as a waste product and the body must remove this. Respiration, therefore, is You will not be examined on
✚ Arteriovenous difference (A-VO2 diff) is the difference between the oxygen the taking in of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide. the structure of the lungs or
Arteriovenous difference the respiratory airways, but
content of the arterial blood arriving at the muscles and that of the venous
(A-VO2 diff) The difference knowledge of this will help
blood leaving the muscles.
between the oxygen
Lung volumes in your understanding of the
✚ During exercise the arteriovenous difference increases.
content of the arterial blood You need to understand the following five lung volumes and the impact respiratory system.
✚ This is because more oxygen is extracted by the muscles and used for
arriving at the muscles and
energy. they have on physical activity and sport: tidal volume, minute ventilation,
18 that of the venous blood 19
✚ Regular training increases the arteriovenous difference allowing trained inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume.
leaving the muscles.
performers to extract a greater amount of oxygen from the blood.
Check your understanding and progress at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes My Revision Notes: AQA A-level PE

Features to help you succeed

Exam tips Revision activities
Expert tips are given throughout the book to These activities will help you to understand each
help you polish your exam technique in order to topic in an interactive way.
maximise your chances in the exam.
Exam practice
Now test yourself
Practice exam questions are provided for each topic.
These short, knowledge-based questions provide the Use them to consolidate your revision and practise
first step in testing your learning. Answers are at the your exam skills.
back of the book.
Knowledge and skills summary
Definitions and key words
These summaries provide a quick-check bullet list
Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are for each topic.
provided.
Key words from the specification are highlighted in Online
bold throughout the book. Go online to check your answers to the
exam questions and try out the extra quick
Making links quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/
This feature identifies specific connections between myrevisionnotesdownloads
topics and tells you how revising these will aid your 3
exam answers.

My Revision Notes: AQA A-level PE

9781398360594.indb 3 11/08/22 3:31 PM

 My revision planner
My revision planner

  7 Exam breakdown

1 Applied anatomy and physiology

   9 1.1 Cardiorespiratory system
   9 1.2 Cardiovascular system
19 1.3 Respiratory system
25 1.4 Neuromuscular system
30 1.5 Musculoskeletal system and analysis of movement
35 1.6 Energy systems

2 Skill acquisition
47 2.1 Skill, skill continuums and transfer of skills
51 2.2 Impact of classification on practice
54 2.3 Principles and theories of learning and performance
60 2.4 Use of guidance and feedback
63 2.5 Memory models
63 2.5.1 Information-processing models
64 2.5.2 Efficiency of information processing

3 Sport and society

73 3.1 Emergence of globalisation of sport in the twenty-first century
73 3.1.1 Pre-industrial Britain: popular recreation (pre-1780)
75 3.1.2 Industrial and post-industrial development of sport
88 3.1.3 Post-Second World War (1950 to present)
98 3.2 The impact of sport on society and of society on sport
98 3.2.1 Sociological theory applied to equal opportunities

4 Exercise physiology
116 4.1 Diet and nutrition and their effects
122 4.2 Preparation and training methods
129 4.3 Injury prevention and rehabilitation

5 Biomechanical movement
134 5.1 Biomechanical principles
137 5.2 Levers
140 5.3 Linear motion
147 5.4 Angular motion
150 5.5 Projectile motion
153 5.6 Fluid mechanics

Check your understanding and progress at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

9781398360594.indb 4 11/08/22 3:31 PM

 6 Sport psychology
157 6.1 Psychological factors that can influence an individual
in physical activities

My revision planner
157 6.1.1 Aspects of personality
160 6.1.2 Attitudes
162 6.1.3 Arousal
166 6.1.4 Anxiety
168 6.1.5 Aggression
171 6.1.6 Motivation
172 6.1.7 Achievement motivation theory
174 6.1.8 Social facilitation
177 6.1.9 Group dynamics
181 6.1.10 Importance of goal setting
182 6.1.11 Attribution theory
185 6.1.12 Self-efficacy and confidence
187 6.1.13 Leadership
190 6.1.14 Stress management

7 Sport and society and the role of technology in

physical activity and sport
193 7.1 Concepts of physical activity and sport
201 7.2 Development of elite performers in sport
210 7.3 Ethics in sport
215 7.4 Violence in sport
220 7.5 Drugs in sport
225 7.6 Sport and the law
231 7.7 Impact of commercialisation
237 7.8 Role of technology

250 Glossary
260 Now test yourself answers
Exam practice answers and quick quizzes online at
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My Revision Notes: AQA A-level PE

9781398360594.indb 5 11/08/22 3:31 PM

 Countdown to my exams
Countdown to my exams

6–8 weeks to go One week to go

✚ Start by looking at the specification — make sure you ✚ Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of an
know exactly what material you need to revise and entire past paper and seek feedback from your
the style of the examination. Use the revision planner teacher, comparing your work closely with the mark
on pages 4 and 5 to familiarise yourself with the scheme.
topics. ✚ Check the revision planner to make sure you haven’t
✚ Organise your notes, making sure you have covered missed out any topics. Brush up on any areas of
everything on the specification. The revision planner difficulty by talking them over with a friend or getting
will help you to group your notes into topics. help from your teacher.
✚ Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow you ✚ Attend any revision classes put on by your teacher.
time for relaxation. Set aside days and times for all Remember, they are experts at preparing people for
the subjects that you need to study, and stick to your examinations.
timetable.
✚ Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision
down into focused sessions of around 40 minutes,
divided by breaks. These Revision Notes organise the The day before the examination
basic facts into short, memorable sections to make
✚ Flick through these Revision Notes for useful
revising easier.
reminders, for example the exam tips, knowledge and
skills summaries and key terms.
✚ Check the time and place of your examination.
2–6 weeks to go ✚ Make sure you have everything you need — extra
pens and pencils, tissues, a watch, bottled water,
✚ Read through the relevant sections of this book and sweets.
refer to the exam tips, summaries and key terms. ✚ Allow some time to relax and have an early night to
Tick off the topics as you feel confident about them. ensure you are fresh and alert for the examinations.
Highlight those topics you find difficult and look at
them again in detail.
✚ Test your understanding of each topic by working
through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the book.
Look up the answers at the back of the book. My exams
✚ Make a note of any problem areas as you revise, and
A-level PE Paper 1
ask your teacher to go over these in class.
Date:........................................................................................
✚ Look at past papers. They are one of the best
ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Time:.......................................................................................
Write or prepare planned answers to the exam
Location:.................................................................................
practice questions provided in this book. Check
your answers online and try out the extra quick
A-level PE Paper 2
quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/
myrevisionnotesdownloads Date:........................................................................................
✚ Use the revision activities to try out different revision Time:.......................................................................................
methods. For example, you can make notes using
Location:.................................................................................
mind maps, spider diagrams or flash cards.
✚ Track your progress using the revision planner and
give yourself a reward when you have achieved your
target.

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 Exam breakdown

Exam breakdown
This book covers all the content for Papers 1 and 2 of the AQA A-level PE exam.

Paper 1: Factors affecting participation in

physical activity and sport
✚ Section A: Applied anatomy and physiology
✚ Section B: Skill acquisition
✚ Section C: Sport and society

Paper 2: Factors affecting optimal

performance in physical activity and sport
✚ Section A: Exercise physiology and biomechanics
✚ Section B: Sport psychology
✚ Section C: Sport and society and technology in sport

Assessment
✚ Paper 1 and Paper 2 are both 2 hours long.
✚ Each exam has a total of 105 marks available and they are both worth 35%
of your A-level (i.e. 70% in total).
✚ Each section (i.e. see Sections A–C above) on both papers has questions
that total 35 marks.
✚ The question format is also the same, with each section having two
multiple-choice questions (2 marks), a number of short-answer questions
(to a total of 10 marks) and two questions requiring extended writing in
continuous prose (one worth 8 marks, the other worth 15 marks) – 35
marks in total per section of the exam paper.

The assessment objectives

Your answers will be marked by examiners who will look to see how well
you have met the three assessment objectives set in your papers. These are
explained below:

Assessment objective Requirements

AO1: Knowledge and understanding Identify/state/provide knowledge of the key term(s)
mentioned in the question
AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding Apply your knowledge and understanding to the example in
the question (e.g. a particular sport or a sports performer)
AO3: Analyse and evaluate this knowledge Analyse and evaluate your knowledge by:
✚ giving advantages and disadvantages
✚ stating the impact on the practical example in the
question
✚ providing reasons for the judgements made
✚ offering alternative viewpoints

My Revision Notes: AQA A-level PE

9781398360594.indb 7 11/08/22 3:31 PM

 Specific question advice
Synoptic assessment will be assessed in each paper and will draw on content
from any topic, regardless of which component that topic is predominantly
Exam breakdown

assessed in (e.g. Paper 2 topics such as sports supplements, goal setting or

theories of aggression could appear in Paper 1). These questions will always
be extended-answer questions worth 8 marks or 15 marks. There is one
8-mark and one 15-mark question in each section so that is three 8-mark and
three 15-mark questions in Paper 1 and the same for Paper 2.
‘Synoptic’ means that the question could ask for:
✚ Knowledge, application and analysis/evaluation of two topics from the
same section, for example:
✚ Anatomy – muscles and movement and fibre type
✚ Skill – types of practice and operant conditioning
✚ Sport and society – sports legislation and strategies to control crowd
violence
✚ Knowledge, application and analysis/evaluation of two topics from
different sections, for example:
✚ Psychology/Exercise physiology
✚ Exercise physiology/Sport and society and the role of technology
✚ Sport and society and the role of technology/Psychology
✚ Knowledge, application and analysis/evaluation of one topic from any
section in Paper 1 with another topic from any section in Paper 2.

Specific exam skills including synoptic skills

✚ Always look at the command word in the question and make sure you
understand what the command word wants you to do. For example, if
the command word is ‘discuss’ make sure you give both strengths and
weaknesses or offer alternative views of a debate.
✚ Synoptic questions are marked using level of response grids, so you are
not awarded 1 mark for each correct answer. For example, there are
2 knowledge marks, 3 application marks and 3 analysis or evaluation
marks for 8-mark questions and 4 knowledge marks, 5 application marks
and 6 analysis/evaluation marks for 15-mark questions. The examiner will
look at the depth and quality of your knowledge from the responses given
and place you in one of the levels linked to your knowledge, application
and analysis/evaluation.

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 1 Applied anatomy and physiology

1.1 Cardiorespiratory system

This topic explains the relationship between the cardiovascular system
(below) and the respiratory system (pp. 19–25), and describes how these
systems change prior to exercise, during exercise of differing intensities and
during recovery. Taking part in physical activity can have a positive effect
on both these systems. This relationship is therefore covered in the next two
sections.

1.2 Cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system is the body’s transport system. It includes the
heart and the blood vessels. During exercise, an efficient cardiovascular
system is extremely important, as the heart works to pump blood through
the various blood vessels to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the working
muscles and gather waste products such as carbon dioxide.

Impact of physical activity and sport on

health
Heart disease Exam tip
✚ Exercise helps prevent coronary heart disease (CHD), which occurs when
your coronary arteries, which supply the heart muscle with oxygenated While structure is not tested
blood, become hardened, blocked or start to narrow through a gradual in the exam, a good grasp
build-up of fatty deposits. This process is called atherosclerosis and the of how the components of
the cardiovascular system
fatty deposits are called atheroma.
are arranged and organised
✚ High blood pressure, high levels of cholesterol, lack of exercise and smoking
will enable you to better
can all cause atherosclerosis, which limits the supply of oxygen to the
understand how the system
heart, resulting in a heart attack.
functions.

High blood pressure

Atherosclerosis When
✚ Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the blood vessel
arteries harden and narrow,
wall. This pressure comes from the heart as it pumps the blood around
and become blocked with
the body.
fatty deposits.
✚ High blood pressure puts extra strain on the arteries and heart, and if left
untreated increases the risk of heart attack, heart failure, kidney disease, Aerobic A reaction that
stroke or dementia. occurs in the presence of
✚ Regular aerobic exercise can reduce blood pressure. It lowers both systolic oxygen.
and diastolic pressure by up to 5–10 mmHg, which reduces the risk of a
heart attack by up to 20 per cent.
Exam tip
Be aware that heart disease
Effects of cholesterol can lead to a heart attack.
There are two types of cholesterol: Past questions have asked
✚ LDLs (low-density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol in the blood to the you to make this link.
tissues, and are classed as ‘bad’ cholesterol since they are linked to an
increased risk of heart disease.
✚ HDLs (high-density lipoproteins) transport excess cholesterol in the blood
back to the liver, where it is broken down. They protect the artery walls
against LDL cholesterol and have a positive antioxidant effect. HDLs are
classed as ‘good’ cholesterol since they lower the risk of developing heart 9
disease.

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 Regular physical activity lowers bad LDL cholesterol levels, while significantly
increasing good HDL cholesterol levels.

Stroke
1 Applied anatomy and physiology

The brain needs a constant supply of oxygenated blood and nutrients to

maintain its function. The energy to work all the time is provided by oxygen
delivered to the brain in the blood. A stroke occurs when the blood supply to
part of the brain is cut off, causing damage to brain cells, which then start to
die. This can lead to brain injury, disability and sometimes death.
There are two main types of stroke:
✚ Ischaemic strokes are the most common form and occur when a blood clot
stops the blood supply.
✚ Haemorrhagic strokes occur when a weakened blood vessel supplying the
brain bursts.
Research has shown that regular exercise can help to lower your blood
pressure and help you maintain a healthy weight, which can reduce your risk Revision activity
of stroke by 27 per cent. Create a table to summarise
how physical activity
Now test yourself can have an effect on
heart disease, high blood
1 What effect does regular physical activity have on blood pressure and cholesterol?
pressure, cholesterol levels
Answer on p. 260 and strokes.

Impact of physical activity and sport on

fitness
Stroke volume
Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out by the heart ventricles in
each contraction. On average, the resting stroke volume is approximately
70 ml.
Stroke volume will increase due to the following:
✚ Venous return – when this increases then stroke volume will also increase.
✚ The elasticity of cardiac fibres – this is concerned with the degree of
stretch of cardiac tissue during the diastole phase (when the heart is
relaxed) of the cardiac cycle. The more the cardiac fibres can stretch the
greater the force of contraction will be.
✚ The contractility of cardiac tissue (myocardium) – the greater the
contractility of cardiac tissue, the greater the force of contraction.

Stroke volume in response to exercise

Stroke volume increases as exercise intensity increases. However, this is only
the case up to 40–60 per cent of maximum effort. Once a performer reaches
this point then stroke volume plateaus (evens out) because the ventricles
simply do not have as much time to fill up with blood, and so cannot pump
as much out.

Heart rate
Heart rate refers to the number of times the heart beats per minute. On
average, the resting heart rate is approximately 72 beats per minute.

Heart rate range in response to exercise

Heart rate increases with exercise, but how much it increases depends on the
intensity of the exercise. Heart rate will increase in direct proportion to
exercise intensity. The higher the intensity, the higher the heart rate. Heart
10 rate does eventually reach a maximum. Maximum heart rate can be

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9781398360594.indb 10 11/08/22 3:31 PM

 calculated by subtracting your age from 220. An 18-year-old will therefore
Exam tip
have a maximum heart rate of 202 beats per minute:
Maximum heart rate is
220 – 18 = 202
calculated as 220 minus

1.2 Cardiovascular system

A trained performer has a greater heart rate range because their resting heart age.
rate is lower than average, and their maximum heart rate is higher.
The graphs in Figure 1.1 illustrate what happens to heart rate during maximal
exercise, such as sprinting, and submaximal exercise, such as jogging.

Maximal exercise a = Anticipatory rise due to

c hormonal action of
200 adrenaline which causes
180 the SAN to increase
160 e
Heart rate

heart rate
140
120 b b = Sharp rise in heart rate
100 due mainly to anaerobic
f work
80
60 a c = Heart rate continues to
rise due to maximal
Time workloads stressing the
Rest Exercise Recovery anaerobic systems
d = Steady state as the
Submaximal exercise
athlete is able to meet
the oxygen demand
with the oxygen supply
200
180 e = Rapid decline in heart
Heart rate

160 d rate as soon as the

140 exercise stops
Anaerobic A reaction
120 e f = Slower recovery as body
f that occurs without the
100 b systems return to resting
80 a presence of oxygen.
levels; heart rate needs
60 to remain elevated to rid
Time
Lactic acid A by-product
the body of waste products,
Rest Exercise Recovery for example lactic acid
of anaerobic respiration. As
it accumulates, it causes
Figure 1.1 Heart rate responses to maximal and submaximal exercise fatigue.
Cardiac hypertrophy
✚ Regular aerobic training will result in more cardiac muscle. When the When the heart becomes
cardiac muscle becomes bigger and stronger this is known as cardiac bigger and stronger due to
hypertrophy. a thickening of the muscular
✚ Consequently, a bigger, stronger heart will enable more blood to be wall.
pumped out per beat (i.e. stroke volume). This is known as bradycardia,
Bradycardia When there is
which means there is a decrease in resting heart rate to below 60 beats
a decrease in resting heart
per minute. When this occurs oxygen delivery to the muscles improves
rate to below 60 beats per
because there is less oxygen needed for each contraction of the heart, as it
minute.
beats less frequently.

Cardiac output
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped out by the heart ventricles per
minute. It can be calculated using the following equation:
cardiac output (Q) = stroke volume (SV) × heart rate (HR)
Q = 70 ml × 72 beats per minute
Q = 5040 ml (5.04 litres)
It can be seen from this calculation that if heart rate or stroke volume
increases, then cardiac output will also increase.

Cardiac output in response to exercise

During exercise there is a large increase in cardiac output due to an increase
in heart rate and an increase in stroke volume. Cardiac output will increase as
the intensity of exercise increases until maximum intensity is reached. Then
it plateaus.
11

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 Table 1.1 shows the differences in cardiac output between a trained and
Exam tip
untrained individual, both at rest and during exercise. The individual in
this example is aged 18, so their maximum heart rate will be 202 beats Do not be caught out by an
per minute. exam question asking for
1 Applied anatomy and physiology

the effects of a period of

Table 1.1 Cardiac output during exercise and at rest training on resting cardiac
output. Resting cardiac
stroke volume × heart rate = cardiac output (SV × HR = Q) output remains unchanged
Exercise At rest – it is maximum cardiac
Untrained 120 ml × 202 = 24.24 litres 70 ml × 72 = 5.04 litres output that changes.

Trained 170 ml × 202 = 34.34 litres 84 ml × 60 = 5.04 litres It is important to

understand the impact of a
Impact of an increase in cardiac output on performance: bigger cardiac output on a
✚ Able to transport more blood to the working muscles and therefore more performer for AO2.
oxygen.
✚ Easier to continue working at a higher intensity for longer.

Now test yourself

2 Define cardiac output and stroke volume, and explain the relationship between
them.
3 Explain how and why the components of cardiac output would differ for an elite
football player at rest.
4 How would maximal cardiac output differ between a trained performer and an
untrained performer?
Answers on p. 260

Regulation of responses during physical

activity and sport
Heart rate increases with exercise, but how much it increases depends on the
intensity of the exercise. The higher the intensity, the higher the heart rate.

Cardiac conduction system

When the heart beats, the blood needs to flow through it in a controlled SAN A small mass of
manner – in through the atria and out through the ventricles. Heart muscle is cardiac muscle (sinoatrial
described as being myogenic because the beat is generated in the heart node or SAN) found in the
muscle itself with an electrical signal in the SAN (Figure 1.2). This electrical wall of the right atrium that
signal then spreads through the heart in what is often described as a wave of generates the heartbeat. It
excitation (similar to a Mexican wave), in the following order: is more commonly called
✚ The sinoatrial node (SAN) sends an impulse through the walls of the atria. the pacemaker.
✚ This spreads as a wave of excitation.
✚ This causes atrial systole/the atria to contract.
✚ The impulse then passes to the atrioventricular node (AVN), which delays
the impulse for around 0.1 seconds, enabling the atria to empty fully.
✚ The impulse passes down the bundle of His (in the septum of the heart) to
the Purkinje fibres in the (walls of) the ventricles.
✚ Ventricular systole then occurs/the ventricles contract.

Now test yourself

5 Identify the correct order of events in a cardiac impulse.

Answer on p. 260

12

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 Left atrium
Exam tip
When explaining the cardiac
Sinoatrial
node Atrioventricular conduction system, make

1.2 Cardiovascular system

node sure you can give the
correct order of events
involved in a cardiac
Right impulse.
atrium
Left
ventricle

Bundle
of His

Bundle
branches

Purkinje
fibres
Right ventricle

Figure 1.2 The cardiac conduction system

The conduction system ensures that heart rate increases during exercise to
allow the working muscles to receive more oxygen. The rate at which the
heart generates its own impulses from the SAN involves hormonal, neural
and chemical regulation.
Exam tip
Sympathetic and parasympathetic control Make sure you do not
The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are part of the peripheral confuse the sympathetic
nervous system. Their role is to transmit information from the brain to and parasympathetic
the parts of the body that need to adjust what they are doing to prepare for systems. The sympathetic
exercise: system is fight or
✚ The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for exercise, and is flight – it fires up the
often referred to as the ‘fight or flight response’. body for exercise. The
parasympathetic system is
✚ The parasympathetic nervous system has the opposite effect and
‘rest and relax’ – it slows
relaxes the body and slows down many high-energy functions. It is often
everything down.
described by the phrase ‘rest and relax’.

Making links
Knowledge of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems is needed in several
topics: heart, blood flow, respiratory system and neuromuscular system.

Hormonal regulation Adrenaline A stress

The hormone adrenaline is secreted by the adrenal gland and makes the hormone released by the
heart beat faster and stronger. nervous system to increase
heart rate.
Anticipatory rise
An anticipatory rise is when heart rate increases prior to exercise. It
occurs when the hormonal adrenaline is released by the nervous system
in anticipation of exercise. This stimulates the heart to increase both the
speed and force of contraction, therefore increasing cardiac output. This
results in more blood being pumped to the working muscles so they can
receive more oxygen for the energy they need.

Neural and chemical regulation

Medulla oblongata The
Neural regulation involves the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
most important part of the
systems. Chemical regulation involves the levels of oxygen and carbon
brain, because it regulates
dioxide in the blood and the pH of the blood. The sympathetic and the processes that keep us
parasympathetic systems are coordinated by the cardiac control centre alive. 13
located in the medulla oblongata of the brain.

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 The cardiac control centre is stimulated by chemoreceptors, baroreceptors and
proprioceptors. It will then send an impulse through either the sympathetic
system to the SAN to increase heart rate or the parasympathetic system to the
SAN to decrease heart rate.
1 Applied anatomy and physiology

Receptors involved in regulation of responses

during physical activity
✚ Chemoreceptors are tiny structures in the carotid and aortic arch that
detect changes in blood acidity caused by an increase or decrease in the
concentration of carbon dioxide.
✚ Proprioceptors are sensory nerve endings in the muscles, tendons and
joints that detect changes in muscle movement.
✚ Baroreceptors are special sensors in the aortic arch, carotid sinus, heart
and pulmonary vessels that respond to changes in blood pressure to either
increase or decrease heart rate.

How neural and chemical regulation works

✚ chemoreceptors → increase in blood carbon dioxide → cardiac control
centre → sympathetic system → SAN increases heart rate
✚ baroreceptors → increase in blood pressure → cardiac control centre →
parasympathetic system → SAN decreases heart rate
✚ proprioceptors → increase in muscle movement → cardiac control centre
→ sympathetic system → SAN increases heart rate

Making links
Exam tip
Knowledge of the receptors is the same for the control of heart rate, blood flow and
breathing. Do not be vague – tell
the examiner what the
receptors detect. For
Now test yourself example, chemoreceptors
detect an increase in
6 Identify and explain the roles of chemoreceptors and proprioceptors in increasing
carbon dioxide during
heart rate.
exercise – do not just say
Answer on p. 260 chemical changes.

Redistribution of blood during exercise (vascular

shunting)
The distribution of blood flow is different at rest compared with during
Vascular shunting The
exercise. During exercise the skeletal muscles require more oxygen, so more
redistribution of cardiac
blood needs to be redirected to them to meet this increase in oxygen demand.
output to where oxygen is
The redirecting of blood flow to the areas where it is most needed is known as
needed most.
vascular shunting.
✚ More blood goes to the heart because the heart muscle needs more oxygen
to beat faster and with more force.
✚ More blood goes to the muscles because they need more oxygen for energy.
✚ More blood goes to the skin because more energy is needed to cool the
body down.
✚ Blood flow to the brain remains constant because it needs oxygen for
energy to maintain function.
✚ A full stomach would result in more blood being directed to the gut instead
of the working muscles, and this would have a detrimental effect on
performance because less oxygen is being made available.

Vasodilation and vasoconstriction

✚ During exercise chemoreceptors detect an increase in carbon dioxide.
14 Baroreceptors detect an increase in blood pressure. Proprioceptors detect
an increase in muscle movement.

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 ✚ These receptors send impulses to the vasomotor centre located in the Vasoconstriction The
medulla oblongata. narrowing of the blood
✚ The medulla oblongata controls blood flow by sending out increased vessels to reduce blood
sympathetic nervous impulses to cause both vasoconstriction to the blood flow into the capillaries.

1.2 Cardiovascular system

vessels and the closing of the pre-capillary sphincters surrounding the
non-essential organs. Vasodilation The widening
✚ The medulla oblongata decreases sympathetic nervous impulses to cause of the blood vessels to
increase the flow of blood
both vasodilation to the blood vessels and the opening of the pre-capillary
into the capillaries.
sphincters surrounding the working muscles.

Now test yourself

7 Why does blood flow to the skin and heart increase during exercise?
8 Explain why there is a need for an increase in blood flow to the skeletal muscles
during exercise and how this is achieved.
Answers on p. 260

Transportation of oxygen
Arteries, arterioles, veins, venules and capillaries transport blood from the
heart, distribute it around the body and then return it back to the heart
(systemic circulation). They also transport deoxygenated blood from the heart
to the lungs and oxygenated blood back to the heart (pulmonary circulation).
✚ Veins transport deoxygenated blood back to the heart (with the exception
of the pulmonary vein), have thinner muscle/elastic tissue layers, contain
blood at low pressure, and have valves and a wider lumen.
✚ Arteries transport oxygenated blood around the body (with the exception
of the pulmonary artery), have the highest pressure, thick and elastic outer
walls, and have thick layers of muscle, a smaller lumen and a smooth
inner layer.
✚ Capillaries have a tiny lumen and are only wide enough to allow one red
blood cell to pass through at a given time. This slows down blood flow and
allows the exchange of nutrients with the tissues to take place by
diffusion. They are also one cell thick, which allows for a short diffusion
pathway.

Now test yourself Revision activity

9 Explain why arteries have the highest pressure. Create a spider diagram to
highlight the key structures
10 How does the structure of capillaries help diffusion?
of arteries, veins and
Answers on p. 260 capillaries.

Haemoglobin
Oxygen can be transported as follows:
✚ 3 per cent dissolves into plasma.
✚ 97 per cent combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Myoglobin A protein found
At the tissues oxygen is released from oxyhaemoglobin due to the in muscle cells which stores
lower pressure of oxygen that exists there. The release of oxygen from and provides oxygen.
oxyhaemoglobin to the tissues is referred to as oxyhaemoglobin dissociation. Mitochondria
Components of cells that
Myoglobin are often referred to as the
‘powerhouses’ of the cells
In the muscles, oxygen is stored by myoglobin, which is often called ‘muscle
because respiration and
haemoglobin’. It is an iron-containing muscle pigment in slow-twitch muscle
energy production occur
fibres that has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin. It stores the
there. 15
oxygen until it is used by the mitochondria in muscle cells.

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 Now test yourself

11 What is the difference between haemoglobin and myoglobin?

Answer on p. 260
1 Applied anatomy and physiology

Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve (Figure 1.3) helps us to understand
how haemoglobin in our blood carries and releases oxygen. The curve
represents the relationship between oxygen and haemoglobin.

At rest the high partial

100
Percentage saturation of
haemoglobin with oxygen

pressure of oxygen
in the lungs means
haemoglobin is almost
completely saturated
with oxygen

In the tissues, the partial

pressure of oxygen is lower,
therefore the haemoglobin
gives up some of its
oxygen to the tissues
0
Tissues Lungs
Partial pressure of oxygen

Figure 1.3 The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

From this curve you can see that in the lungs there is almost full saturation
(concentration) of haemoglobin but at the tissues the partial pressure of
oxygen is lower.
Bohr shift When an
The Bohr shift increase in blood carbon
During exercise this S-shaped curve shifts to the right. This is because when dioxide and a decrease in
muscles require more oxygen the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin in pH results in a reduction of
the affinity of haemoglobin
the blood capillaries to the muscle tissue occurs more readily. This shift to the
for oxygen.
right is known as the Bohr shift (Figure 1.4).

Low carbon dioxide

Percentage saturation of
haemoglobin with oxygen

High carbon dioxide

Bohr shift: additional O2
released from haemoglobin
pH 7.4
at lower pH (higher CO2
concentration)
pH 7.2 In the tissues, there is a low
partial pressure of oxygen and
high partial pressure of carbon
dioxide, so haemoglobin unloads
at this point; this means that
even more oxygen is released
Tissues Lungs to the tissues
Partial pressure of oxygen

Figure 1.4 The effect of changing acidity on the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

Three factors are responsible for this increase in the dissociation of oxygen
from haemoglobin, which results in more oxygen being available for use by
the working muscles:
✚ Increase in blood temperature – when the blood and muscle temperature
increases during exercise oxygen will dissociate from haemoglobin more
Exam tip
readily.
✚ Increases in partial pressure of carbon dioxide – as the level of blood When giving the causes of
carbon dioxide rises during exercise oxygen will dissociate more quickly the Bohr shift, do not forget
from haemoglobin. the word ‘blood’ – blood pH,
✚ A drop in pH – more carbon dioxide will lower the pH in the body; this blood carbon dioxide levels,
16 causes oxygen to dissociate from haemoglobin more quickly (the Bohr blood temperature.
shift — Figure 1.4).
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 MY
AQA
REVISION
AQA A-level
NOTES A-level
PE
Ensure you are on track to achieve the best grade possible with My Revision
Notes. Our clear and concise approach to revision will help you learn, practise
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My Revision Notes: AQA A-level PE will help you: ✚ Plan and organise your revision
Plan and manage your revision Develop your subject knowledge ✚ Reinforce skills and understanding
with our topic-by-topic planner by making links between topics
Practise and and exam breakdown introduction for more in-depth exam answers ✚ Practise exam-style questions
apply your skills ✚ Highly motivated/self-motivated with the desire to achieve/clearly set
goals to achieve.

and knowledge

AQA A-level PE
✚ Willing to self-sacrifice in order to succeed.
✚ High pain tolerance/resilience/perseverance/patience.
activity and sport

✚ High levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy.

with Exam-style ✚ Highly skilled physically and/or naturally talented.

For example, your tennis coach constantly praises your teammate for showing
✚ High level of physical fitness (e.g. sport endurance for distance runners).
determination and controlled emotions during matches. You decide to copy
✚ Good communicators.
Now test yourself

questions and their behaviour to gain the same reinforcement.

The
Nowopposing views of trait and social learning approaches give rise to the
test yourself
3 What is the equation used to describe the interactionist approach?
4 What are the three parts of Hollander’s model?
psychology

6.1 Psychological factors that can influence an individual in physical activities

frequent Now
nature vs nurture debate – i.e. are we born with our personality traits (nature) Answers on p. 268
or1doIdentify
we in the
factpsychological
learn them qualities
as we goyou feel are
(social necessary for an individual to
learning/nurture)?
develop as an elite performer.
in physical

test yourself
Answer
Now test on p. 271
yourself Making links
1 What are the differences between the trait and social learning approaches?
6 Sport

Trait, social learning and interactionist perspectives are also relevant to theories of

questions, and Consolidate

2 According to the social learning perspective, when is personality more likely to be leadership (p. 187) and aggression (p. 168).
Social and cultural factors
copied?
7 Sport and society and the role of technology

A wide range of social and cultural factors can influence the progression of
a Answers on p. individual
268

answer guidance your

young talented through to elite performance level, including the
following:
Using the interactionist perspective to improve
✚ The support of friends and family when starting out in sport and trying to performance
Interactionist perspective
online understanding
progress. Having friends and family present in the crowd at sports events ✚ If a coach understands their players’ innate personalities and how they
to support and encourage is viewed as very important, both socially and would ‘normally’ respond in specific situations, they can use this to their
The interactionist perspective states that personality is made of traits
✚ emotionally. advantage – for example, understanding that a centre forward with an
Socioeconomic status

of each topic
plus financial
✚ The the influence of what
resources of ayou havecan
family learned from your
be important inenvironmental
an individual’s aggressive personality is likely to retaliate when fouled.
An individual’s position in
experiences.
development because money is required to pay for specialist equipment, ✚ The coach might therefore substitute them if they observe that their level
the social structure, which
Trait and social
✚ travelling learning
expenses, approaches
specialist are and
coaching bothmedical
deemedsupport.
relevant(This
and are
is of aggression is increasing due to the centre back continually sliding in

with revision
depends on their job, level
therefore combined.
sometimes referred to as the ‘bank of Mum and Dad’.) An important social late. The coach can try to adapt the responses of this player by offering
of income and area they
We can
✚ and predict
cultural personality
influence and behaviour
on performer in a specific
progression situation.
is therefore an cognitive and somatic strategies (p. 170) to reduce their stress and
live in.
A performersocioeconomic
✚ individual’s will adapt to the situation they find themselves in, even
status. therefore levels of aggression.
behaving differently from how they normally would.
The social and cultural factors necessary to develop as an elite performer can
Lewin
be suggestedas
summarised that an individual’s personality is produced when both their
follows:
Exam tip
✚ This might form part of training sessions in which demanding situations
are created to generate a negative response from the player, who is then Revision activity activities
natural
✚ Highlypredispositions and the experiences
supportive family/high theystatus.
socioeconomic have combine in a specific given the opportunity to use the strategies. In future, when they are In pairs, have the nature
For AO1 make sure that you
situation.
✚ EvidenceHisofequation to describe this
equal opportunities andis B = f(P × E), meaning
anti-discrimination behaviour
practices is a a
within fouled, they will respond differently from their instinctive response. The versus nurture debate. Take
can identify the personal
function
sport, of
andansetting
individual’s personality
of equity targets. traits and the environment. factors that individuals player has learned to act in a more controlled way. an approach each – either
✚ If the player has a role of responsibility in the team, they will recognise trait or social learning.
ForHigh-quality,
✚ supportive
example, a generally educational
introverted provision/clear
rhythmic gymnast links to clubs.reserved,
is ordinarily require to develop as elite
performers, as well as the that they are a role model and therefore cannot react angrily.
butStructured
✚ has learnedlevels of competition
to adapt to progress
when performing, and through.
displays more assertive,
High levels of media coverage different support systems
✚
extroverted characteristics duringand role modelsto
a competition toappeal
aspire to
to.the judges.
and structures needed Exam tip
Hollander
Now test suggested
yourself that there are three aspects to an individual’s personality
(Figure 6.1).
2 Identify the sociocultural factors that encourage the development of elite
to support progression
through to excellence level.
Ensure that you use the correct terminology. Your example should relate specifically
to personality – trait, social learning and interactionist perspectives are also seen in
Avoid common
mistakes and
leadership and aggression, and therefore your example must be clear.
performers and improve the chance of UK athletes winning medals at the
Olympics. If the question asks for a practical example, you must give one.
1 = The core, you
Answer on pp. 271–272
enhance your
2 = Typical responses
3 = Role-related behaviour
1
Exam practice
2
Organisations providing support and
exam answers
Change
3 1 With reference to the interactionist approach, explain why a rugby player might
react differently when being high-tackled in two separate games.
progression
Environment

with exam tips

Answer online
Figure 6.1 The Hollander model
The specification focuses on three organisations as being particularly
Hollander believed
important that personality
when considering could be represented
talent identification and eliteby three concentric
performer Talent identification The
rings, with the innermost ring being the most difficult to penetrate.
progression: multidisciplinary screening Knowledge and skills summary
1 The
✚ core is the real you and what your true beliefs and values are. It does
UK Sport of athletes to identify those
with the potential for world- This topic involves the following knowledge (AO1): example. This can relate to a specific skill, performer or
✚ not
the change
English –Institute
it is the of
stable aspects
Sport of your personality.
(as an example Often
of a national this is
institute ofkept
sport)
class success. ✚ Explanations of the trait, social learning and situation.
✚ hidden.
the national governing bodies (NGBs) of sport
interactionist perspectives of personality.
2 Typical responses describe how individuals usually respond. AO3 marks are for analysis or evaluation. In this topic
202 3 Role-related behaviour is how an individual responds in a specific AO2 marks will require application of this knowledge – for an AO3 response might involve analysing the strengths/
environment. This might be uncharacteristic behaviour. It is the most example, applying the theoretical concept to a sporting weaknesses of trait or social learning perspectives, i.e. the
unstable aspect of your personality. It does not necessarily reflect the nature versus nurture debate.
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psychological core.

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159

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