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Introduction
For a long time, Egypt has faced many
problems and challenges across various fields,
collectively known as grand challenges. There
are 11 grand challenges, as illustrated in
Figure 0.1, each encompassing multiple sub-
problems. These challenges significantly affect
the development and economy of Egypt.
Among them, are urban congestion:
Overcrowding in cities like Cairo causes traffic,
pollution, and strain on public services. the
need to improve the use of arid areas Rapid
population growth: The fast-growing Figure 0.1: This figure shows the main grand challenges
population strains resources like healthcare, that faces Egypt
education, and housing. the impact of climate change: Egypt is vulnerable to rising
sea levels, especially in the Nile Delta, impacting agriculture and communities. and
efficient waste recycling: Addressing waste management is crucial to reduce
environmental pollution and improve resource recovery.

Egypt Grand Challenges:

Improving the use of arid areas
The arid and semi-arid regions that
make up 96.3% of Egypt's lands are
generally uninhabitable because of the
country's bad climate and scarcity of
water supplies as shown in Figure 1.1.
"Arid areas are defined as regions that
receive less than 250 millimeters (10
inches) of rainfall annually, while semi-
arid areas receive between 250 to 500
millimeters (10 to 20 inches)" is the official
definition provided by the U.S National
Figure 1.1: This figure shows the aridity index map of Egypt
Park Service. These regions have high
aridity, low vegetation, and limited water supplies.
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Only 3.7% of Egypt's land is arable land, and it is mostly found in the delta of
the Nile River. These regions are greatly populated and strongly dependent on
food production, agricultural, and urban growth, according to Figure 1.1. The
limited amount of arable land is under increased strain, which has led to the
expansion into arid and semi-arid lands.
The great expansion of arid lands has brought many challenges that affect
both the environment and the economy. The bad climate in these arid and
semi-arid areas restricts agricultural productivity, making it difficult to
satisfy the food requirements of a growing population.

Causes of improving the use of arid areas:

Desertification:
Desertification is the main cause of the challenges in Egypt’s arid
regions. According to The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies:
Desertification refers to the degradation of land and vegetation, soil erosion
and the loss of topsoil and fertile land in arid, semi-arid lands. Over 96% of
Egypt’s lands are deserts, and the expansion of desert conditions into the
arable land due to Desertification is a serious problem. Several causes of
desertification are poor farming practices, such as overgrazing and excessive
irrigation, accelerate soil degradation, leading to increased erosion. Egypt
ranks first in the world in the phenomenon of desertification, according to
what was announced in June 2011 by the
Executive Secretariat of the United Nations.
These processes reduce the fertility of the soil,
making it unsuitable for agriculture and
increasing the difficulty of reclaiming desert
land.
Water Scarcity:
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Another cause is water scarcity as Egypt depends mainly on the Nile

River for its freshwater supply as Shown in Figure 1.2. UNICEF Reports that:
Egypt is facing an annual water deficit of around seven billion cubic meters
and the country could run out of water by 2025. due to the need of water for
agriculture, industry, and domestic consumption. Egypt has limited rainfall
and groundwater sources for agriculture industry, and domestic use. With
limited rainfall and few groundwater resources, the availability of freshwater
is low in arid areas, which naturally lack water. This scarcity is a fundamental
barrier to improving these regions. Without reliable and affordable water
sources, projects needed for agricultural reclamation become unsustainable.

Economic Constraints:
Egypt's desert areas are hard to improve due to budgetary constraints.
Limited funding prevents the development of farming practices, necessary
infrastructure, and new technologies for land reclamation. Many farmers rely
on outdated tools and methods, which reduces their productivity.
Additionally, the costs of extracting water and setting up efficient irrigation
It's also expensive to collect water and install appropriate irrigation systems,
which makes it challenging to come up with workable alternatives.

Impacts of improving the use of arid areas :

Lack of food:
Lack of food is a critical issue that affects Egypt, especially in arid areas
where the insufficient availability, accessibility, and affordability of nutritious
food lead to food insecurity. In these regions, water scarcity and poor soil
quality exacerbate agricultural difficulties. In Egypt, a growing population of
over 106 million intensifies the need for food. According to the 2023 Global
Hunger Index, Egypt ranks 57 out of 125 countries, reflecting a moderate
level of food insecurity. The country relies heavily on global markets for more
than half of its staple foods, making it vulnerable to fluctuations in prices and
supply chain disruptions. This lack of food impacts not only physical health
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but also mental well-being. Communities affected by food shortages often face
increased poverty, limited economic opportunities, and decreased
productivity,

Migration and urbanization::

The increase in arid regions and shortage of
arable land significantly drives migration and
urbanization, forcing many individuals to leave their
rural communities in search of better prospects.
resulting in food shortages and economic hardship for
those dependent on farming. Consequently, families
migrate to urban centers like Cairo, which increase
the concentration and density of these areas. In
Figure 1.3: it shows that Egypt's population is heavily
concentrated in urban areas like Cairo and Giza, where resources and arable
land are more accessible, while the vast desert regions remain sparsely
populated due to harsh conditions.

Biodiversity Loss
The increasing arid lands in Egypt threaten Figure 1.3: This map demonstrates Egypt population
ecosystems and negatively impact biodiversity. The density and its distribution.
Nile River basin supports various species, including the hippopotamus and
Nile crocodile, while the Delta is vital for migratory birds (National
Geographic). Habitat fragmentation due to the lack of arable land endangers
endemic species like the Sinai ibex, forcing them to struggle for survival.
Projections suggest that urban growth could lead to up to an 80% loss of
wetlands in the Delta by 2050, further threatening food security and
livelihoods. According to Desert Research Center, the number of camels and
draught animals has decreased by 5.2% and 20%, respectively, due to
expanding arid areas and urbanization, further weakening traditional
agricultural practices. Consequently, biodiversity loss in Egypt presents
significant challenges to environmental sustainability and economic resilience.
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Recycle garbage and waste for

economic and environmental purposes

In the last five decades, Egypt has seen a sharp

increase in plastic use. Every year, about 250K tons of
plastic are wasted in Egypt. So, Egypt headed towards
recycling to solve this problem.
Recycling is the process of collecting and
processing materials that would otherwise be thrown
away as trash and convert it into new products.
Typical materials that are recycled include iron and
steel scrap, glass bottles, paper, plastics, etc.
Figure 1.4 explains: the basic steps to recycling:
first
Collecting: materials are collected from factories,
Figure 1.4: This figure shows the steps of
homes and other places. recycling

Then, Sorting: these materials are sorted by type

to prepare them for processing.
Processing: materials are cleaned and processed into raw materials that
can be used to make new products.
Manufacturing: the raw materials are used to produce new products.
the recycled products are bought and used.

Egypt ranked 1st regionally and 14th globally in terms of recycling rates.
Egypt currently has 28 recycling factories, noting that the target is raising the
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figure to 56, Egypt enjoys promising opportunities in the recycling sphere.

Environmental protection :
Many environmental challenges face the
communities like air and water pollution, and
recycling helps reduce pollution.
Energy saving: producing new products
from raw materials requires a lot of energy, but
recycling uses much less energy, as shown in
Figure 1.5: the difference between
manufacturing from raw materials and
recycling in terms of Figure 1.5: This graph demonstrates the difference between
manufacturing from raw materials and recycling in terms of
energy consumption. energy consumption

Reduction of landfill waste: landfill can

cause environmental problems. Recycling reduces the amount of waste that
goes to landfills.

Causes of Recycling garbage and waste for economic and

environmental purposes:

Conserving the natural resources:

Recycling conserves natural resources
by reusing materials instead of extracting
new ones. For example:
Plastics: recycling plastics reduces the
need for new petroleum, which is used to
produce plastic.
Metals: recycling steel or aluminum
reduces the need for mining ores.
Figure 1.6: This graph shows the resource conservation
through recycling.
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Glass: recycling glass saves sand and other raw materials needed for
new glass production.
Paper: recycling paper reduces the demand for trees, helping preserve
forests.

Preservation of wildlife:
Recycling plays an important role in protecting wildlife, recycling helps
preserve wildlife in several ways:
Reducing habitat destruction: recycling decreases the need for
extracting raw materials like wood, which often involves activities like
logging, recycling one ton of paper can save 17 trees. So, recycling paper
reduces the need to cut down trees, which helps preserve forests
Decreasing pollution in natural habitats: landfill waste can leak harmful
chemicals into the soil and water, contaminating the natural habitats of
wildlife. Recycling reduces the amount of landfill waste in these places.
Reducing risk to wildlife from harmful materials: animals can ingest waste
materials like metal scraps and plastic bottles, which can damage them, and
recycling reduces the amount of waste in the environment.
Economic factors:
Cost saving: recycling can be less expensive than waste disposal, as it can
lower landfill costs and reduce the need for waste management services.
Job creation: the recycling industry creates jobs in collection, sorting, and
processing, providing economic benefits to communities.

Impacts of Recycling garbage and waste for economic and

environmental purposes:
Reducing greenhouse gases::
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Recycling saves energy so it reduces greenhouse gas emissions, which

cause climate change. Using recycled materials to make new products reduces
the need for virgin materials and avoids greenhouse gas emissions that would
result from extracting or mining virgin materials. Manufacturing products
from recycled materials typically requires less energy than making from
virgin materials. Recycling saves up to 95% of the energy required to produce
aluminum from raw materials, recycling steel saves about 60-74% of energy.
Cleaner communities:
Recycling can create cleaner communities in several ways such as:
Less waste: by recycling more items, there is less waste that ends up in
landfills, streets, public areas, and parks. Recycling helps to keep
neighborhoods cleaner.
Decreased pollution by: recycling reduces the need for waste
incineration and landfilling which leads to air and water pollution. This
means that it reduces pollution by making air and water cleaner.
Contamination:
Improper sorting of recyclables can lead to contamination, making the
entire batch of recyclables unusable. Contaminated recycled materials can
lead to up to a 70% decrease in the quality of the recycled products. Recycling
can face many challenges due to contamination,
for example:
Improper sorting: when recyclables are mixed with non-recyclable like
food waste on paper can make it unsuitable for recycling.
Types of plastics: different types of plastic require different recycling
processes, mixing them can result in lower quality recycled materials.
Increased landfill use: when contaminated materials cannot be recycled,
they are sent to landfills. This increases the volume of waste in landfills and
causes pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
Therefore, Egypt must be careful in recycling because recycling has
negative effects as well as positive effects if used incorrectly.
Deal up with the population growth and its consequences
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Population is the term typically used to refer to the number of people in a

single area. Governments conduct a census to quantify the size of a resident
population within a given jurisdiction. The term is also applied to non-human
animals, microorganism, and plants, and has specific uses within such fields as
ecology and genetics.

There are now more than 8,000,000,000 people on planet earth. It took until
the early 1800s for the world
population to reach one billion. Now
we add a billion every 12-15 years.
According to the United Nations, the
global population will continue to grow
until the 2080s.

Population growth is one of the

most important topics we cover at Our
World in Data. For most of human Figure 1.7:
history, the global population was a tiny fraction of what it is today. Over the last
few centuries, the human population has gone through an extraordinary change.
In 1800, there were one billion people. Today there are more than 8 billion of us.
But after a period of very fast population growth, demographers expect the world
population to peak by the end of this century. In Figure 1.7: It includes how
populations are distributed worldwide.

Causes of Deal up with the population growth and its

consequences:
Increase in longevity:
If you live longer than the average person, then you could be said to have
longevity. Striving for your maximum potential age is the goal of longevity. This
potentially can be reached by practicing healthy behaviors and attitudes. Longevity
is defined as "long life" or "a great duration of life." The term comes from the
Latin word longevity. In this word, you can see how the words long and age
combine into a concept that means an individual who lives a long time. The most
important part of this definition is the comparative nature of it. Long life implies
longer than something—and that something is the average lifespan.
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Fertility rates:

The total fertility rate (TFR) of a

population is the average number of children
that are born to a woman over her lifetime, if
they were to experience the exact current age-
specific fertility rates (ASFRs) through their
lifetime, and they were to live from birth until
the end of their reproductive life.
Figure 1.8:
International migration:
People who move from one place to another in search of work or shelter are
called migrants. Most of the times migrants people are not skilled or educated
therefore they usually employed as daily wagers (workers who are paid at the end
of each day, for their services). Daily wagers do not get enough money for the
survival of their families and suffering from many problems such as they do not
have enough food to eat, sanitation, hygiene, a proper place to live etc.

Impacts of Dealing up with the population growth and its

consequences:
Ecological degradation:

Environmental degradation is an increasingly pressing issue that affects us

all. It is caused by a variety of factors, ranging from human activities to natural
disasters, and its effects can be devastating. Many of these effects can cause further
degradation, which means that this impact works as a downward cycle.
Fortunately, there are solutions, and we can all work together to mitigate its
impacts. Plant With Purpose exists to help reverse this cycle and create a more
sustainable future for communities all around our planet.

Increased conflicts

Medical innovations during the 1940s quickly resulted in significant health

improvements around the world. Countries with initially higher mortality from
infectious diseases experienced larger increases in life expectancy, population, and
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subsequent social conflict. This cross-country result is robust across alternative

measures of conflict and is not driven by differential trends between countries with
varying baseline characteristics. A similar effect is also present within Mexico.
Initial suitability conditions for malaria varied across municipalities, and anti-
malaria campaigns had differential effects on population growth and social
conflict. Both across countries and within Mexico, increased conflict over scarce
resources predominates and this effect is more pronounced during times of
economic hardship (specifically, in countries with a poor growth record and in
drought-stricken areas in Mexico). At least during this time period, a larger
increase in population made social conflict more likely

Higher risk of large-scale disasters like pandemics

Problems tend to arise primarily when populations become so dense as to

cause overcrowding. Overcrowding is often associated with decreases in quality of
living conditions and sanitation, and hence the rate of agent transmission is
typically very high in such areas. Age is the strongest risk factor for severe
COVID-19 outcomes. Patients with one or multiple certain underlying medical
conditions are also at higher risk. Additionally, being un vaccinated or not being up
to date on COVID-19 vaccinations also increases the risk of severe COVID-19
outcomes.
Deal with urban congestion and its consequences
Crowding or overcrowding is a situation in
which there are more people within a given space
than is considered acceptable from a safety and
health perspective. Safety perspectives depend 10,600,000
10,400,000
and urban congestion It is related to population
10,200,000
density, and this is an example to illustrate the 10,000,000
population of Cairo is 10,364,238 and its area is 9,800,000
3085 square kilometers the relationship 9,600,000
9,400,000
(population density)says population/the area so 9,200,000
10,364,238/3,085=About 3,360 one person per 9,000,000
2017 2024
square kilometer this graph shows the difference
in the population between 2017 and 2024 in
Figure 1.9: This graph shows population of Cairo.
2017the population was about 9,539,673 so
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9,539,673 /3085 = about 3092 one person per square kilometer. The Figure 1.9
shows that the percentage change between the two years is about 13%.
Traffic congestion(One of the causes of urban
congestion) increases travel time, , Which one can number of road accident
deaths
benefit from to do useful things ,which increases costs
for most people and air pollution In addition, noise 7,200
levels increase due to traffic congestion , makes people 7,000
6,800
be angry and bored ,and increases accidents Figure 6,600
1.10 presents number of accident deaths In 2020, the 6,400
6,200
number of road accident deaths was about 6,160, but in 6,000
2021, the number of road accident deaths was about 5,800
5,600
7101, meaning that the rate of increase in deaths 2020 2021
between the two years is equal to 15.2% ,as this graph number of road zccident deaths
shows. Figure 1.10: This graph shows the number of road accident
deaths.
This traffic congestion reduces the aesthetic,
cultural appearance of Egypt and also disrupts many things that might save
someone, such a disrupting an ambulance from rescuing a critical case, disrupting
a police car from rescuing innocent people or It slows down a fire truck from
rescuing people from the fire, and this may lead to risking the lives of innocent
people and making the situation worse, whether such as worsening illness,
kidnapping, or death
Causes of Dealing with urban congestion and its consequences:
Traffic congestion:
Traffic congestion is a situation in which the
road becomes almost immobile or does not actually
move. As an Example to clarify, in Greater Cairo in
general, you find many roads moving slowly, and this
leads to the loss of a lot of time. The driver of the car
must take into account approximately twice the travel
time as a precaution, and this is considered a
precaution. The existing traffic is relatively small,
otherwise traffic congestion may lead to many
accidents. In the year 2021, the number of people injured in road accidents in
Dakahlia Governorate reached about 11,630 injured,
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Population density:
the increase in population density at its current size constitutes enormous
pressure on the state’s general budget, which will, against its will, go towards
meeting the needs and services of citizens instead of establishing more economic
and development projects that provide a decent life for citizens, improve the
investment climate and contribute to achieving the progress of the Egyptian state
and placing it among the ranks of developed countries. Despite the sincere
Egyptian efforts made by the state to solve and address the issue of increasing
population density since the 1930s, it is still unable to
and this graph will explain more.
Female unemployment
The average number of children for working or
student mothers decreases by 25%, to 1.8 children per
woman, while the average number of children for non-
working women increases to 2.4 children per woman,
because increasing women’s participation in the Figure 1.11: This graph shows the average number of
children and use of family planning methods among
workforce leads to delayed marriage Consequently, educated and uneducated groups
the number of births decreases, and the average rate of
use of family planning methods increases, as indicated by the Figure 1.11.
Impacts of Dealing with urban congestion and its consequences:
Consumed costs:
The economic costs of traffic congestion in Cairo could be as high as 4
percent of GDP yearly the economic costs of congestion are beyond travel delays,
and they include wasted fuel, health impacts due to poor air quality and accidents,
and impacts on economic productivity. When all combined, the yearly economic
cost of traffic congestion could reach up to 4% of Egypt’s GDP. This means an
economic cost to Egypt of up to EGP 50 billion a year (USD 8 billion/year)1.
World problem
Almost all large metropolises of the world pay a heavy price for congestion,
but Cairo’s costs are excessive. New York loses about USD 10 billion/year2 on
delays and wasted fuel alone, and Jakarta USD 5 billion/year3. Cairo’s losses are
particularly significant given the relative importance of the city to Egypt’s overall
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economy: New York’s losses relative to the US GDP are negligible (0.07%) while
Jakarta’s losses represent about 0.6% of Indonesia’s GDP; the relative cost of
Cairo’s congestion to Egypt’s GDP therefore stands high at 4%.
Noise pollution
From blaring car horns to wedding parties, light pollution in Cairo has
reached alarming levels around the clock, leading to health problems. Residents
living in the city center are exposed to noise levels of 90 decibels on average, and
it never drops below 70 decibels. A full day inside a factory. According to a study
conducted by the National Research Center in Egypt in 2007 about Cairo, the noise
levels in different streets at different times of the day are more than the limits
Developed by the Environmental Protection Agency, noise pollution can contribute
to many health problems.
Reduce and adapt to the effect of climatic change.
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather
patterns. Such shifts can be natural, due to changes in the sun’s activity or large
volcanic eruptions. Climate change affects on economical field because it acts on
( Agriculture field and industrial field ) , climate change impact on agriculture field
because it controls precipitation patterns and weather events , which in turn control
growth of crops , As the years go by, climate change increasingly affects
agricultural crop growth, according to effect of climate change in Egypt , Wheat
yield will decrease by about 9% if the temperature rises by 2°C, and the decrease
rate will reach about 18% if the temperature rises by about 3.5°C. Water
consumption of this crop will increase by about 2.5% compared to its water
consumption under current weather conditions, Also Rice yield will decrease by
about 11% and water consumption will increase by about 16%.
Climate change affects on growth of agriculture crops, which in turn affects
on industrial field, industrial field very related to agriculture field because
agriculture provides industrial field with raw materials that responsible for
industry, that’s why climate change impact on industrial field.

Climate change impacts on medical field as shown as the static above there is a
decrease in crops production which in turn acts negatively on nutrition, also
climate change affects on human health due to warmer temperatures and shifting
weather patterns can worsen air quality, which can lead to asthma attacks and other
respiratory and cardiovascular health effects.
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Climate change affects on political field because it makes all countries collaborate
to find a solution to this global problem, and the evidence for that all countries
taking action to reduce emissions impose trade restrictions on countries with
weaker policies, leading to trade wars and increasing economic nationalism.
Causes of Reduce and adapt to the effect of climatic change.
Cutting down forests:
Cutting down forests is a severe
cause that leads to global warming which
results in climate change , forests
especially trees are very important for
overcoming climate change problem
because they participate in reduction of
carbon dioxide gas In air , as shown in
Figure 1.12: the percentage of carbon
dioxide gas increase every year that’s
because many governments release many Figure 1.12: This graph shows the average carbon dioxide
levels in the atmosphere worldwide from 1959 to 2023
forests in order to build Residential
facilities, commercial markets, companies and roads, and the evidence for that
There are some areas in Egypt witnessed a decrease in the area of agricultural land,
as a result of urban sprawl and other factors during the same period, by about 68.5
thousand acres.
Manufacturing goods:
Manufacturing and industry produce emissions, mostly from burning fossil
fuels to produce energy for making things like cement, iron, steel, electronics,
plastics, clothes and other goods. Mining and other industrial processes also release
gases, also from negative effects of manufacturing goods is the overuse of
resources, such as water and energy, and also it can cause air and water pollution.
Using transportation:
Most cars, lorries, ships and planes run
on fossil fuels, so That makes transportation a
major contributor of greenhouse gases,
especially carbon dioxide emissions. as shown
in Figure 1.13: the global world consumption

Figure 1.13: This graph shows the average world

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of energy is in continuous increase, Road vehicles account for the largest part, but
emissions from ships and planes continue to grow.
Generating power:
Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels that belongs to non-
renewable energy such as: coal, oil and natural gas causes a large chunk of global
emissions. Most electricity is still produced from fossil fuels; only about a quarter
comes from wind, solar and other renewable sources.
Impacts of Reduce and adapt to the effect of climatic change.
Hotter temperature:
Now days the temperature is in continuous
increase , that’s because the increase in carbon
dioxide gas in atmosphere , as shown in Figure
1.14 , 2023 is the most higher temperature among all
last years , that leads to more moisture
Figure 1.14: This graph shows the annual average of temperature
evaporates , which exacerbates extreme since 1967.
rainfall and flooding , causing more
destructive storms, also hotter temperature leads to increase the temperature of
water that leads to separating oxygen from water of seas and lakes , as a result
many fishes can’t breath and die .
Increased drought:
Water is becoming scarcer in more regions due to evaporation of water in
lakes and seas, Droughts can stir destructive sand and dust storms that can move
billions of tons of sand across continents. Deserts are expanding, reducing land for
growing food. Many people now face the threat of not having enough water on a
regular basis.
A warming and rising ocean:
The ocean absorbs most of heat in the
air that conduct to melt large amount of ice
sheets which in turn raise sea level which
leads to floods and disappear of many
coastal countries, as shown as Figure 1.15:
the sea level is in continuous increase by
passage of years. Figure 1.15: This graph shows the global sea level
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Lack of food:
Changes in climate and increases in extreme weather events are among the
reasons behind a global rise in hunger and poor nutrition, due to death of plants
and animals because they can’t adapt with the high temperature.