FA S H I O N b y DESIGN

JANICE GREENBERG ELLINWOOD

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FASHION BY DESIGN
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FASHION BY DESIGN
JANICE GREENBERG ELLINWOOD
marYmount unvERStY

FAIRCHILD BOOKS
n EW YORK
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VICE PRESIDENT AND GENERAL MANAGER,

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Copyright © 2011 Fairchild Books, A Division of Condé Nast Publications.

All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright

hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2009934620
ISBN: 978-1-56367-848-6
GST R 133004424
Printed in the United States of

America TP08
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FOR
my father,
Bennett Greenberg,
who said that nothing was more
sensually pleasing than the feeling of
fine silk tied in a Windsor knot, and
for my mother,
Hilda Podnetsky Greenberg,
who reminisced about the New Look of 1947.
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CONTENTS

Extended
Contents
vii Preface
xv
Acknowledgments
xix

CHAPTER 1 About Design 1

PART THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 27

I Line 29
CHAPTER 2 Form, Shape, and
CHAPTER 3 Space 51 Texture and

CHAPTER 4
Light 79 Pattern
107
CHAPTER 5
Color and Value 133
CHAPTER 6
Color and Industry 155
CHAPTER 7

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 177

PART I Balance 179
I
Emphasis 201
CHAPTER 8
Rhythm 219
CHAPTER 9
Proportion 241
CHAPTER 1 O Unity 259
CHAPTER 1

Glossary 287
1
Index 303
CHAPTER 12

vi
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EXTENDED CONTENTS

Preface xv
Acknowledgments
xix

CHAPTER 1 ABOUT DESIGN 1

THE DESIGN PROCESS 2
Problem Identification 2
Research 3
Ideation 3
Constraint Identification 3
Selection 3
Implementation 4
Evaluation 4
Refinement 4
Presentation 4
AESTHETIC DESIGN 5
The Bauhaus 5
The Elements and Principles of Design

7
STRUCTURAL DESIGN 8
Workmanship 9
Fabric and Design 11
Architecture and Fashion 11
BOX 1.1: MADELEINE VIONNET 12
Deconstruction and Fashion 15
BOX 1.2: CHARLES JAMES 16
FUNCTIONAL DESIGN 18
THE COMPONENTS OF FASHION 19
BOX 1.3: CLAIRE McCARDELL 20
Silhouette 22
Fabric 22
Color 22
Looks 22
Details 2
3
vii
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KEY TERMS 23
PROJECTS 23
REFERENCES 24

PART I : THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 27

CHAPTER 2 LINE 29
TYPES OF LINE 29
LINE IN FASHION 30
LINE DIRECTION AND QUALITY 31
The Vertical Line 31
The Horizontal Line 3
1
The Line Network 3
2
KEY TERMS 40
PROJECTS 40
REFERENCES 42
BOX 2.1: CHANEL 44
BOX 2.2: RUDI GERNREICH 48
CHAPTER 3

FORM, SHAPE, AND SPACE 51

FORM 51
The Body as Muse 51
SHAPE 55
Shape and Mood 59
BOX 3.1: CHRISTIAN DIOR 60
Shape and Symbolism 62
Shapes within Shapes 62
Two-Dimensional Pattern into Three-Dimensional Form 62
SPACE 63
BOX 3.2: REI KAWAKUBO 64
BOX 3.3: ISSEY MIYAKE 68
Space and Theater Costume Design 70
Space within the Garment 71
THREE SEAMLESS ELEMENTS 74

viii EXTENDED CONTENTS

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KEY TERMS 74
PROJECTS 75
REFERENCES 76

CHAPTER 4 TEXTURE AND LIGHT 79

TACTILE TEXTURE AND VISUAL TEXTURE 79
Actual Texture 79
Simulated Texture 80
Abstract Texture and Invented Texture 82
TEXTURE AND MATERIALS 82
The Structural Elements of Fabric 83
Experiencing Fabric 88
Non-Textile Clothing 88
AESTHETIC PROPERTIES OF TEXTURE 89
Drape 89
Hand 90
Density 9
0
Luster 90
Surface Contour 90
Thermal Character 91
TEXTURE AND THE DESIGNER 91
Fabric Dictating Design 92
Listening to Fabric—Literally
92 BOX
4.1: YVES ST. LAURENT
94
LIGHT 96
Light and Surface 97
Light and Environment 9
7
Light and Temperature 98
Four Categories of Light 98
Light’s Captivating Quality 10
0
KEY TERMS 101
PROJECTS 102
REFERENCES 102
BOX 4.2: MARIANO FORTUNY 104
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EXTENDED CONTENTS ix
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CHAPTER 5 PATTERN 107

MOTIF 107
Natural Object as Source 108
Man-Made Object Motifs 108
Imagination-Inspired Motifs
108
Symbolism as Source 109
Working with Motifs 109
Floral Patterns 109
Conversational Patterns 110
Traditional Patterns 110
Documentary Designs 111
PATTERNS IN FABRIC 117
BOX 5.1: GIANNI VERSACE 118
PATTERNING 121
Pop Art and the Grid 121
William Morris Patterns and the Grid 122
Layout 123
PATTERNS AND THE FASHION INDUSTRY 127
KEY TERMS 128
PROJECTS 128
REFERENCES 131

CHAPTER 6

COLOR AND VALUE 133

COLOR AND LIGHT 133
COLOR AND PIGMENT 136
A Spectrum of Theories
137
Using Color Schemes 139
Color Temperature 142
COLOR INTERACTIONS 142
Simultaneous Contrast 143
BOX 6.1: ROBERTO CAPUCCI 144
The Bezold Effect 146
Successive Contrast 146
Orphism, or “Simultaneism” 147
Other Phenomena of Color Perception 148
VALUE AND ITS PERCEPTION 149
Value and Perception 150

x EXTENDED CONTENTS
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KEY TERMS 150

PROJECTS 151
REFERENCES 152

CHAPTER 7 COLOR AND INDUSTRY 155

COLOR AND DYES 155
History, Fashion, and Color 157
COLOR FORECASTING 158
Color Advisory Associations 159
Social and Cultural Interpretation 159
DESIGNING FOR MASS FASHION 161
Color-Matching Systems 161
Color and the Consumer 162
THE DESIGNER AND COLOR 164
BOX 7.1: VALENTINO GARAVANI 166
KEY TERMS 172
PROJECTS 172
REFERENCES 172
BOX 7.2: VIVIENNE WESTWOOD 174

PART I I : THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 177

CHAPTER 8 BALANCE 179
THE BASICS OF BALANCE 179
Horizontal and Vertical Balance 180
SYMMETRY AND ASYMMETRY 185
Symmetry 185
BOX 8.1: HUBERT DE GIVENCHY 186
Approximate Symmetry 190
Asymmetry 193
OTHER TYPES OF BALANCE 194
KEY TERMS 198
PROJECTS 198
REFERENCES 198

EXTENDED CONTENTS xi
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CHAPTER 9 EMPHASIS 201

EMPHASIS DEFINED 201
EMPHASIS AND THE FIGURE 202
The Face 204
IMPLEMENTING EMPHASIS 205
Isolation 205
Contrast 205
BOX 9.1: ELSA SCHIAPARELLI 206
Placement 210
Repetition 212
Radiation 213
Structural Details 214
KEY TERMS 216
PROJECTS 216
REFERENCES 217

CHAPTER 1 O RHYTHM 219

VISUAL PATHWAYS 219
RHYTHM AND THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 221
THE STRUCTURAL EXPRESSION OF RHYTHM

224 KINDS OF RHYTHM

Repetition 224 224
Progression 225
Sequencing 226
Parallelism 227

BOX 1O.1: MADAME GRÈS 228

Alternation 232
The Grid 233
Broken Rhythm 233
Transition 235
All-Over Pattern 237
Radiation 237
KEY TERMS 238
PROJECTS 238
REFERENCES 238

xii EXTENDED CONTENTS

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CHAPTER 1 1 PROPORTION 241

PROPORTION AND THE FIGURE
241 ORGANIC
PROPORTION 242
THE GOLDEN MEAN 244
The Fibonacci Series 246
SCALE 247
BOX 11.1: YOHJI YAMAMOTO 248
PROPORTION AND THE DESIGN OF FASHION

252 KEY TERMS 256

PROJECTS 256
REFERENCES 256

CHAPTER 12

UNITY 259
VARIETY AND HARMONY 259
GESTALT PRINCIPLES 260
Law of Simplicity 260
BOX 12.1: JEANNE LANVIN 264
UNITY AND HARMONY IN FASHION

270 FASHION
INSPIRATION 275
DESIGNING A GROUP OF FASHIONS 276
Design as Corporate Brand 277
KEY TERMS 282
PROJECTS 282
REFERENCES 283

Glossary 287
Index 303

EXTENDED CONTENTS xiii

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PREFACE

F AshIon  s I n provides the student of fashion

design, or the interested layperson, with a foundation
for artistic decision making. Its focus is the design
theory that originated with the Bauhaus artists of the
1920s and 1930s and how it applies to fashion. The
chapters examine the design process, along with each
element of design—line, shape, form, space, texture,
light, pattern, color, and value—as well as each
principle of design—balance, emphasis, rhythm,
proportion, and unity. The reader moves step-by-step
through each topic, all supported by colorful illustra-
tions from the worlds of art, architecture, and most
importantly, fashion. The fashions in the book come
from the world’s most famous designers. In addition,
profiles of selected designers provide insight into their
artistic thinking and sources of inspiration, capitalizing
on the most recent histori- cal research and fashion
reporting. Art projects at the end of each chapter invite
the reader to experiment with each element or
principle, with the intent of developing discriminating
decision-making skills and a sophisti- cated eye for
fashion.
The introductory Chapter 1, “About Design,” outlines
the creative
design process, the Bauhaus artists and their
development of design theory, the elements and
principles of design, as well as the structural design
(e.g., draped, architectural, and deconstructional) and
the functional design of a garment. It also identifies
the terminology used in the communication of
fashion. Designer profiles include Madeleine Vionnet,
Charles James, and Claire McCardell.
Part I: “The Elements of Design” includes Chapters 2
through 7.
Chapter 2, “Line,” focuses on types of line, the
interpretation of line in fashion, and line direction and
quality. Designers profiled are Coco Chanel, Karl
Lagerfeld, and Rudi Gernreich.
Chapter 3 covers “Form, Shape, and Space.” In this
chapter, we explore the feeling designers have for the
human form as well as the importance of form in the
structure of clothing parts. We equate shape to
silhouette and examine an overview of historic
silhouettes. We also see how designers interpret shape
within the garment design and the flat pattern. Space
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is

xv
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defined from the Japanese perspective, by its

importance in Western fash- ion history, and in terms of
theater and dance costume. There is also dis- course on
the relationship between positive and negative space.
Profiles spotlight Christian Dior, Rei Kawakubo, and
Issey Miyake.
Chapter 4, “Texture and Light,” is divided between
these two subjects. The topic of texture encompasses
the kinds of texture, fabric structure, fabric terminology,
aesthetic properties of texture, and texture caused both
by construction techniques and by nontraditional
materials. We look at types of light as well as the ways
that designers use light in their designs and its purpose
in fashion. Designer profiles include Yves Saint Laurent
and Mariano Fortuny.
Chapter 5 covers “Pattern.” Topics include the
sources and interpreta- tions of motifs, common
patterns used in fashion, patterns that result from fabric
structure, application to the fabric surface, and pattern
that emerges from threads and yarns applied through
the fabric surface. This chapter also includes an
explanation of how to make a pattern, the types of
layouts, and how to prepare the pattern design. We also
look at the relationship between pattern, designing
apparel, and industry trends. Gianni Versace is the
designer profiled.
Chapter 6 examines “Color and Value.” Beginning with
color as light, the chapter includes the evolution of the
Standard Color Wheel, color rela- tionships, color
temperature, and visual color interactions. The section
on value comprises value scale, contrast, and influences
on perception. The designer profile features Roberto
Capucci.
Chapter 7 focuses on “Color and Industry.” It covers
color and dyes, color forecasting, the consideration of
color in designing mass fashion, consumer concerns,
color psychology, symbolism, and cultural meaning.
This chapter includes an overview of how designers
choose colors for their collections. Valentino and
Vivienne Westwood are profiled.
Part II, “The Principles of Design,” includes Chapters 8
through 12.
Chapter 8, “Balance,” explores kinds of balance, such
xvi PREFACE
as horizontal and vertical balance, radial balance,
balance of all-over pattern, and balance of three-
dimensional form. This chapter also covers symmetry,
asymmetry, and approximate symmetry. Hubert de
Givenchy is the designer profiled.
Chapter 9 is about “Emphasis.” This chapter
summarizes James Laver’s theories regarding the
purpose of clothing, with special emphasis on the
shifting of erogenous zones, supported by historic
examples. The methods to implement emphasis are
listed, such as isolation, contrast, placement, repetition,
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radi
atio
n,
and
con
stru
ctio
n
tech
niqu
es.
The
desi
gner
profi
led
is
Elsa
Schi
apar
elli.
The
focu
s on
one
desi
gner
is
pur
pos
eful,
in
orde
r to
dem
onst
rate
how
a
tale
nted
eye
can
cha
nge
at
will
the
loca
tion
of
emp
hasi
s on
a
rang
e of
desi
gns.
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Chapter 10 introduces “Rhythm.” The relationship

between each ele- ment and rhythm is discussed, as
well as how rhythm is implemented through
structural expression. The kinds of rhythm are
enumerated. This chapter includes a profile on
Madame Grès.
Chapter 11 centers on “Proportion.” Topics include
the relationship of proportion to the human figure, to
science, and to mathematics, including the golden
mean and the Fibonacci series. This chapter also covers
how designers determine proportion, the comparative
proportionate relation- ships for fashion, and
proportion’s relationship to the design elements. The
highlighted designer is Yohji Yamamoto.
Chapter 12 is on “Unity.” Here we define variety,
harmony, and the Gestalt Principles. Unity is discussed
in relation to the garment, as well as to mass fashion.
Designer influences include ideals of beauty and
sources of inspiration. This chapter culminates with
guidelines for maintaining unity across a group of
fashions. Jeanne Lanvin is the final designer profiled.
Fashion by Design is written and presented with
admiration for the great fashion designers who brought
artistic inspiration to industry. They added beauty to
our world, stimulated our intellect, and tantalized our
cre- ativity. We are forever in their debt!

PREFACE xvii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

W riting Fashion by Design has been a wonderful

opportunity to inte- grate my knowledge, teaching, and
enthusiasm for fashion. However, I could only complete
the task with the support and ideas of my colleagues at
Mary-
mount University: Dr. Pamela Stoessell, professor of fine
and applied arts; Annette Ames, associate professor of
fine and applied arts; the design expert and painter Judy
Bass, professor of fine and applied arts; and Dr. Bridget
May, furniture and interiors historian and professor of
interior design. I also thank Dr. Hyun Jung for sharing
her doctoral research at Hong-Ik Univer- sity on fashion
design and light. Dr. Jung has since taught at Texas Tech
Uni- versity. In addition, I want to thank my acquisitions
reviewers Doris Treptow, Savannah College of Art and
Design; Sass Brown, Fashion Institute of Technology;
Lorynn Divita, Baylor University; Hyunjoo Im, Cal Poly,
Pamona; Lombuso S. Khoza, University of Maryland,
Eastern Shore; as well as my development reviewers,
Su-Jeong Hwang Shin, PhD, Texas Tech Uni- versity; Julia
F. Cooper, Ohio State University; and Theresa M. Winge,
PhD, Indiana University, for their contemplative
feedback.
The team at Fairchild Books truly brought Fashion by
Design to
fruition. My gratitude goes to Robert Phelps,
development editor, my men- tor and a gifted writer;
Elizabeth Greenberg, photo editor (and fashion his-
torian); Carolyn Eckert, creative director; Jennifer Crane,
editorial development director; Ginger Hillman,
production director; Jessica Rozler, production editor;
Joanne Slike, copyeditor, Noah Schwartzberg, ancillaries
editor; and the incomparable executive editor Olga
Kontzias, who embod- ies the vision of Fairchild Books.
Finally, I thank my family for their investment of a
laptop in my efforts and their wonderful support: my
sister, Dr. Donna Greenberg of Harvard Medical School
and Massachusetts General Hospital, and my daughters
Amy Rosenthal, Lindsey Rosenthal, and Samantha
Rosenthal, who also generously lent both writing advice
and technological expertise on com- mand. Special love
and appreciation go to my husband, Jamie Ellinwood, for
all of his patience and advocacy along this journey.
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xix
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CHAPTER 6 COLOR AND VALUE

OBJECTIVES C o L or s t HE first element in fashion to have visual

impact, often before the silhouette, look, or details can
To examine the perception of color
as light and as pigment be assessed. It attracts the shop- pers’ eyes as they
enter a store and directs their path to the fixture or
To describe the display
systems of color that unit that features it, even though only the sleeve and
predict the success with side of the garment may be apparent.
which colored pigments A seemingly infinite number of colors are available
combine, to the fashion designer. These originate in nature, as
especially the Standard
Color Wheel
the American painter Georgia O’Keeffe (1887–1986)
demonstrated through her iconic flowers, skulls, and
To identify color combinations landscapes (ur E s 6.1a anD B). The perception of color is
or schemes actually more complex than one might presume. It is
both an external occurrence and an internal sensation.
To define color The traditional explanation of color refers to the manner
temperature and in which the sensation of light is transmitted to the
explain the optical or
brain through the eye, originating from electromagnetic
environmental factors
that affect waves that radiate from a light source and reflect on a
color interaction surface. Artists, designers, and chemists are more
concerned with color in dyes and pigments. Moreover, color
To explain how has the poten- tial to influence mood and carry cultural
value affects significance.
perception This chapter focuses on theories regarding color and
its relationship to light and to pigment, as well as color
temperature and the ways in which colors interact with
each other. We will examine the variables that influence
the perception of color and its value, which refers to the
degree of its light- ness or darkness. (In Chapter 7,
“Color and Industry,” we will look at the fashion and
textile industries, the psychological influence of color,
COLOR AND LIGHT and its cultural significance.)

Color is perceived in the presence of light. That is

evident from the experi- ence of moving about the
OPPOSITE
bedroom in the middle of the night. Edges of forms may
A look from Missoni’s Resort present themselves in the darkness, but the colors of
2011 collection. the blanket or bedside lamp do not. When light is
COURTESY OF WWD/LUCA BELLUMORE strong, colors appear more intense, like they are under
the sunlight in a tropical climate. A rainbow organizes
its colors in a particular order or spectrum, including red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, blue-violet, and violet.
“Indigo” is often the term used for blue- violet in the
spectrum.
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133
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RIGHT
6.1a Georgia O’Keeffe is
considered a master colorist
as demonstrated in her iconic
flower paintings such as
Red Amaryllis (1937).
GEORGIA O’ KEEFFE MUSEUM,
SANTA FE/ART RESOURCE, NY

BELOW
6.1 O’Keeffe’s paintings
B
of the American Southwest
feature a unique color scheme,
such as Near Abiqui, New Mexico
(1941).
GEORGIA O’ KEEFFE MUSEUM,
SANTA FE/ART RESOURCE, NY

The recognition of this order is credited to the

physicist and mathe- matician Sir Isaac Newton (1642–
1727) and the experiments he conducted in the
seventeenth century. Newton placed a glass prism in
front of a ray of daylight as it entered a darkened room.
The prism caused the white light to bend, or refract,
breaking it down into the spectrum of colors described
above (ur E 6.2). Each of these is thought to
distinguish itself to the human eye, because of a
different range of wavelengths of radiant energy. Hence, it
is considered the visible spectrum. A wavelength is the
distance between the crests in a wave of energy. Red,
for instance, has the longest dis- tance in wavelengths,
while violet has the shortest.
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134 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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6.2 Sir Isaac Newton discovered

that a glass prism enables
a light ray to break into
the visible spectrum.

Both physicists and artists have developed theories

regarding the com- bination of colors in light. These
theories are particularly relevant to indi- viduals who work
as lighting designers, videographers, and Web site
designers. They are also meaningful to theater
costumers, whose work is seen under lighting, and to
producers of fashion shows, for the same rea- son. They
understand that the dynamic of working with colored
light rays is called additive color. That means the more they
are mixed with other colors, the lighter they become. The
basic or primary colors of light, those that cannot be mixed
by combining any other colors, are red, green, and blue.
(That is also from where the computer screen’s term
“RGB” origi- nates.) When combined together in equal
amounts, the result is white light. However, when these
colors of light overlap in varying amounts, other
interesting colors form, and these are called secondary
colors. The overlap- ping of red and blue creates magenta.
Red and green make yellow, while green and blue produce
cyan (urE 6.3).

6.3 When the primary colors of

light—red, green, and blue—
intersect, they create the second-
ary colors of magenta, yellow, and
cyan. All of these additive
primaries create white light.

COLOR AND VALUE 135

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White light contains all colors of the visible

spectrum in equal amounts. When it hits a surface, two
possible actions result. Either it is reflected in sharp,
white highlights, which the fashion designer
experiences with the use of sequins, beads, satin, or
vinyl. The layperson sees it when observing the dance
of sunlight on water. In most other scenarios, some of
the white light penetrates the surface of an object, and
it absorbs all of the wavelengths except one. That is the
color that is perceived when the unab- sorbed
wavelength is reflected to the viewer’s eye. The surface of
a Red Deli- cious apple, for instance, absorbs all
wavelengths except those that cause the sensation of
red. An object with no pigmentation appears white.
When a surface absorbs almost all of the wavelengths,
and few are reflected, the object looks black. The
process of experiencing these sensations through
reflected light is called subtractive color. When creating
fashion, the designer is primarily concerned with the
color(s) reflected to the eye or the pigment or dye of
the fabric.

COLOR AND PIGMENT Theories about pigments originate from a desire to

organize colors and their relationships in order to
predict and maximize their visual effects. Consider all of
the individuals to whom that is important—painters,
print- makers, jewelers, sculptors, illustrators, textile
designers, floral designers, architects, landscape
architects, interior designers, visual merchandisers, as
well as fashion designers. Before we survey these theories,
let’s look at a few color terms.
Hue is the general term or family name of a color,
which is determined by its wavelength on the light
spectrum or its corresponding sensation based on its
location on the organizational chart called the color
wheel. (A description of color wheels follows this listing
of color terminology.) Value is the darkness or lightness
of a hue. This refers to the lightest form of the hue,
gained by adding white to it, the darkest form, which
results from adding black, and all of the scale in
between. Adding white to the hue pro- duces its tint.
Adding black creates its shade. Intensity or saturation refers to
the range of brightness to dullness of a hue. Colors in
their purest, most brilliant state are at maximum
saturation. To the extent they are grayed means they
are in low saturation. Chroma is synonymous with
saturation, a measure of a hue’s purity or brilliance. A
surface or object with an identi- fiable hue is described
as chromatic. Those without it, such as white, gray, or
black, are achromatic. The term is also used for surfaces
that are trans- parent but is more often interchangeable
with the word neutral. Neutrals have special significance
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to the fashion designer. In not having hue, neutrals

136 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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are presumed to present harmony with each other

and/or with another color. As a result, they are prized
for their versatility in a wardrobe, and they are
considered appropriate for a range of occasions.
Neutrals are also dis- cussed in Chapter 7, “Color and
Industry.” As previously mentioned, pri- mary colors are
those that cannot be mixed by any others. In any
method of color organization, they combine to form
secondary colors, which, in turn, combine with one
another to produce tertiary colors.

A SPECTRUM OF THEORIES
In addition to the work of Sir Isaac Newton, theories
about color date back to the Greek philosophers and to
the Renaissance artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci.
Many other theories developed from the eighteenth
century to the present. One of these is the system of
color that is the most relevant for fashion design. Several
fashion books refer to it as the standard color wheel. Most
students are introduced to it at the elementary level of
education, so it is familiar. Bear in mind that it is built
on the reasoning of several theorists; that is why it is so
user-friendly and reliable.
Sir David Brewster (1781–1868), an English physicist
who was the inventor of the kaleidoscope, laid the
groundwork for the system while examining the work of
Newton. He believed that the light spectrum was
actually composed of three individual types of light—
red, blue, and yel- low—that he called primary colors.
Although this belief was not held in high regard,
Brewster is credited with the perception that three
properly chosen colors of light, when mixed in careful
proportions, are all that are necessary to reproduce all
color sensation.
German painter Phillip Otto Runge (1777–181) wrote a
book on his theory of color for pigments, which organized
12 hues around what he identified as three primary colors:
red, blue, and yellow. He arranged them in the form of a
sphere, leading to the first three-dimensional color
model.
Louis Prang (1824–199) knew color from other
perspectives. As a boy, he learned to dye fabric. When he
migrated from Germany to the United States, he worked
as a wood engraver, lithographer, color printer, and
pub- lisher. He is even acknowledged as the originator
of the Christmas card. Prang wrote extensively on color,
and his teachings had a profound effect on American art
education. His color wheel featured 12 hues, which
included primary, secondary, and “intermediate” colors,
along with their shades and tints.
Johannes Itten, the painter and originator of the
preliminary course at the Bauhaus who was discussed
in Chapter 1, taught both color and design and
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published books on color. He created a “star” of color for

his preliminary

COLOR AND VALUE 137

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course, which was a flattened version of Runge’s sphere.

It too encompassed 12 colors around the three primary
colors of red, blue, and yellow. From this organization
evolved Itten’s wheel, in which he placed yellow at the
top, because it is the brightest hue and the closest to
white light. In the center, Itten placed a triangle
featuring the primary colors and surrounded by the
secondary colors of green, violet, and orange (urE
6.4).
It is clear that the Standard Color Wheel resulted
from many theorists and applications. One other color
wheel, sometimes referred to as the Process or Light
Wheel, is a twenty-first-century invention that is not
directly relevant to fashion. It is a 12-hue color wheel
that features the pri- mary colors of red, green, and
blue, like the primary light colors. The sec- ondary
colors are magenta, cyan, and yellow. This system is
relevant for the computer applications used in the work
of the graphic designer.

t HE muns E  “ coor tr EE ”
There is one other color system to consider: the Munsell
Wheel or color tree, named for professor and artist
Albert Munsell (1858–1918). Munsell attempted to
integrate hues with intervals of values. For that the
system is noteworthy. Munsell featured five “principal”
colors that he based on nature—yellow, red, green,
blue, and purple. These choices were also based on the
color interaction of afterimage, which is discussed later in
this chap- ter. Munsell organized the color wheel into a
tree form where intervals of value, measuring lightness
and darkness, are placed along the trunk or ver- tical
axis. Any color along the trunk is a neutral, while the
branches or hori- zontal intervals measure the
saturation of a hue. That places the purest

6.4 Johannes Itten’s Color

Wheel—12 colors around the
primary colors of red, blue, and
yellow—is basically the Standard
Color Wheel used today. Note
the primary and secondary
colors featured in the center.
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138 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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form of each hue at the outside edge. This system is

used for dye manufac- turing for yarn and fabric
coloration, as well as industry production for interior
design and cosmetics (urE 6.5).

USING COLOR SCHEMES

The ingenious function of a color system is that it offers
a guide for discov- ering the color combinations,
schemes, or relationships that should have the greatest
visual impact. The Standard Color Wheel does that for
the fashion designer. The placement of a hue on the
color wheel indicates the most workable color schemes.
The fashion design student should remem- ber,
however, that each hue on the color wheel represents a
color family, and the success of that hue in combination
with any other is true for any shade, tint, or intensity of
it. The dynamics of blue, in the purity of the way in
which it is perceived on the Standard Color Wheel,
denotes the same pre- sumptions for robin’s egg blue,
deck blue, or navy blue.
The simplest is the monochromatic color scheme, where a
garment
design rests on one hue (urE 6.6a). It might be the
color of the entire garment, or one part of it, or the
dominant color of a pattern, where the others are
achromatic or neutral. Or the design may combine
different val- ues of the same hue. One predominant
color may seem boring, but the con- sumer finds it
easy to wear.
The next simplest is called tone on tone and involves
two hues that lie next to each other on the color wheel
(ur E 6.6B). These are harmo- nious because they have
a portion of the same hue in common.

6.5 The Munsell Color Wheel,

or “Tree,” integrates five
principle hues with intervals of
values.
SCIENCE MUSEUM/ SCIENCE
AND PICTURE LIBRARY
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COLOR AND VALUE 139

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Adjacent hues on the color wheel create an analogous

color scheme (ur E 6.6c). Usually there are three hues,
but sometimes as many as five. Often the combination
is recognized in nature. Yellow, yellow-orange, orange,
and red-orange simulate the imagery of autumn leaves
or fire.
A complementary color scheme contains two hues that
are opposites on the color wheel (urE 6.6D). Of these,
the most familiar are red and green, because they are
often featured in Christmas decorations. They are
especially effective for that purpose because opposites
intensify each other when placed in proximity. On the
contrary, red and green in their purest forms may seem
overbearing for clothing, especially in the case where
one color lies above the waist and the other below. The
lesson, then, is to use them in smaller doses or in
varying tints, shades, or intensities. There is an
interesting result when opposite pigments are
combined, as in the case of paint. In equal doses, they
result in gray, so adding an opposite hue in smaller
degrees can make a color more grayed. In actual
practice, the paint combination may look more like
brown or taupe. When a designer is illus- trating a
garment design, the performance of color in paint,
pencils, pastels, or markers is important. However, in a
garment, the question of combining colors comes up
when two different-colored yarns are used that are
woven or knitted in the same fabric structure. Red and
green yarns used equally in the same structure would
construct a gray fabric.
Cultivating complementary colors in a design brings
a wider range of color possibilities than those that result
from adjacent hues. A split com- plementary color scheme
uses one hue and the two on either side of its
complement (ur E 6.6E). More variation occurs from
using tints, shades, and intensities of these hues. A
double complementary scheme consists of two colors on
either side of a hue and the two on either side of its
complement (urE 6.6).
A color scheme featuring three hues equidistant on
the color wheel is a triad (urE 6.6). The most familiar
triadic color scheme includes the three primary colors—
red, blue, and yellow. They were beloved by the
Bauhaus in the 192s. They are often chosen for the
toys, environments, and clothing for young children.
They are also reminiscent of the circus.
The final color scheme in the list is known either as
a tetrad or a double split-complement (urE 6.6H). It refers to
four colors that are equidistant on the color wheel. The
layout of the combination forms a rec- tangle. This is
the most complex of all the color relationships. It works
more successfully if the colors are not used in equal
proportions.
Selecting a color scheme or story is an important
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step in the creation of any successful art or design

product. The painter Claude Monet and his

14 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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A B C

D E
F
G
H

6.6 a Monochromatic color scheme. colleague Impressionist painters, Auguste Renoir (1841–
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS
1919), Camille Pis- sarro (183–193), and Alfred Sisley (1839–
6.6B Tone-on-tone color scheme. 1899), among others, omitted the color black from their
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS
paint palettes. At the time, there was continuing
6.6c Analogous color scheme. research in optics and the theory of complementary
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS colors was new. They reasoned that shadows were not
6.6D Complementarycolorscheme. black but had color, so they employed a color’s
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS complement for them, because the complement offered
the contrast that best featured a color’s brightness
6.6E Split complementary
color scheme.
(ur E 6.7). Conversely, the
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS

6.6 Double complementary

color scheme.
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS

6.6 Triad color scheme.

ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS

6.6 H Tetrad color scheme.

ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS

6.7 In The Greenhouse,

by Auguste Renoir, the color
palette omits black and
employs complementary colors
to provide contrast.
VISUAL ARTS LIBRARY/ART
RESOURCE, NY

COLOR AND VALUE 141

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6.8 The color scheme in Two

Women from Tahiti (1892) by
Paul Gauguin is high-toned and
packed with emotion.
ERICH LESSING/ART RESOURCE, NY

movement of painting called Fauvism, which featured

painters such as Paul Gauguin (1848–193), Henri Matisse
(1869–1954), and André Derain (188– 1954), used colors that
were described as unnatural and violent. The high-
toned colors were meant to reflect emotion, rather than
reality. “Les Fauves” is French for “the wild beasts” (urE
6.8).

COLOR TEMPERATURE
The Standard Color Wheel organizes hues by color
temperature, another valuable indicator for color
choice. Color temperature is experienced from
interaction with nature. Colors that are warm—those
that are yellow- based, oranges and reds to violets—
occupy half of the color wheel and con- vey associations
with the sun or fire. When hit with light, they actually
feel warmer. Those that occupy the opposite side of the
color wheel, blues and greens, are cool, summoning
thoughts of sky, grass, foliage, and water. These
visually recede by comparison to the warm hues.
All designers develop a sensitivity for, knowledge of,
and ability to manipulate color. The Italian fashion
designer Roberto Capucci (193–) has been a master of
both color and form (BOX 6.1).

COLOR The experience of working with color teaches that its

INTERACTIONS final form is not always predictable. That is because
there are both environmental and opti- cal factors that
affect the perception of it. A stylist, as a result, may try
dif-
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142 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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ferent color accessories with a fashion in order to

discover which make the biggest impact in a photo
shoot. A painter sometimes mixes a color on the palette
only to find it looks different on the canvas.

SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST
One example of this phenomenon is called simultaneous
contrast. In short, this means that a color looks different
when placed in proximity to another color. This is the
reason, for example, that complementary colors appear
to intensify one another. Their similarities decrease and
their dis- similarities increase (urE 6.9). This
BELOW LEFT observation is credited originally to the French chemist
6.9 Simultaneous contrast means Michel Eugène Chevreul (1786–1889), the director of the dye
that colors look different house for Gobelins tapestries in Paris during the early
depending on what other colors nineteenth century. He was asked to determine why
are placed in proximity.
some of the colors appeared differ- ently in the Gobelins
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS
tapestries. With his expertise in dyestuffs and tints, he
BELOW RIGHT determined that the colors looked different because of
6.1 Josef Albers’ painting series the colors they were placed beside. He published his
Homage to the Square (1960– findings in The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors in 1839.
1964) explores the visual effects of The timing was critical, because that knowledge inspired
simultaneous contrast. both the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters
ALBERS FOUNDATION/ART
RESOURCE, NY
to think carefully about what color brushstrokes were
placed in proximity. The painter Josef Albers (1888–1976)
experimented with this concept in a series of paintings
entitled Homage to the Square, in which he placed varying
hues within square formats (urE 6.1).

COLOR AND VALUE 143

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BOX 6 .1

rOBErTO
CAPUCCI

n taY, ro BE rto Capucci is considered a legendary fashion designer,

and something of a wunderkind, because he opened his fashion
house there at the age of 21. Nevertheless, he preferred to call
himself a researcher. He was born in Rome in 193 and obtained
an education at the Academy of Fine Arts. He wanted to be a set
designer, costume designer, or an architect, but instead developed
a life as a couturièr. He presented his first collections in Florence in
1951 and opened a Paris salon in 1962. It was not long before Capucci
discovered that he preferred freedom from the ruling fashion
trends and the demands of the fashion calendar. Unlike his
contemporaries, he eventually delivered one collection annually in
dif- ferent towns and mostly in museums. A collection was the
product of his research.
That was appropriate, because his concept of haute couture was
as an art form, inspired by the fashions of the 195s. He thought of
ABOVE fashion as architecture within which the body inhabits. He measured
urE BOX 6.1a Roberto the success of each design by the elements of line, texture, volume,
Capucci’s unique sculptural and color, without forgetting their relationship to the human figure.
He gained inspiration from his garden, which instilled in him a sense
evening gown from his
of balance, proportion, har- mony, and color.
autumn–winter collection of
For one collection he prepared as many as 1,2 sketches, drawn
1980–1981 features a monochro- in black and white, so his selections were made without the benefit
matic color scheme. of color. Ironically, the choice of color con- tributed to his sense of
PHOTO BY MINO LA FRANCA perfection. He might reproduce up to 172 shades of one color for a
particular dress. That dress might require four months of work and
OPPOSITE TOP 2 yards of fabric.
urE BOX 6.1B Capucci chose His architectural or sculptural dresses were geometric in feeling.
a complementary color The linear and planar qualities referred to crystalline structures,
combination for this evening while the curvilinear volumes resembled floral forms. He
gown from the autumn–winter manipulated fabrics with pleating or cut them into mosaics. A
botanist might see the designs as flowers, while a mathematician
collection of 1982–1983.
would appreciate their geometry. A historian would identify them as
PHOTO BY FIORENZO NICCOLI
soft suits of armor, but a painter would admire his choice of color.
The colors were the result of his inspirations, which ranged from
OPPOSITE BOTTOM the flight of a color- ful bird during an African safari to the simple
urE BOX 6.1c Capucci uses peeling of an orange. In some instances, Capucci would limit himself
cool and warm colors on opposite to just black and white, so the absence of color would empha- size
sides of the fabric structures to line and space. More typically, his color choices were described as
add dimension to his design. The phantasmagoric or iridescent.
gown was designed in 1989. In one garment he would include the green of an emerald, the
green of a new leaf, the green of the sea, the green of an apple,
PHOTO BY MINO LA FRANCA
and the green of a glass bottle. Or he would pair a cool color with a
warm one, always considering whether the color was inside or
outside of the dress, whether it was part of the body’s form or part
of the outer wrapping. He used a variety of color schemes—
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monochromatic,
complementary,
analogous, or
warm with cool,
sometimes
interspersed with
a neutral (urE
BOX 6.1a–c).
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THE BEZOLD EFFECT

Rug designer Wilhelm von Bezold (1837–197) discovered
another color interaction, which is now called the Bezold
Effect. In rug designs using a few colors, he found that
by changing just one, he created a completely dif-
ferent visual product (urE 6.11). This is especially
exciting for fashion and textile designers. With the
change of just one color, a fabric print or pattern
produces a completely new product for the consumer.

SUCCESSIVE CONTRAST
Chevreul reported another optical phenomenon that
was also identified by the German poet Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832). Goethe’s
observations were meant to be a response to Newton’s,
but he concentrated on the behavior of the eye instead
of light. He was the first to suggest that shadows had
color. Chevreul identified Goethe’s idea as successive con-
trast. In the simplest terms, they observed that if one
stares at a color for a long time and looks away, the
complementary color appears in an after- glow. There is
a physiological reason for this occurrence. The human
eye contains two different layers of cells—rods, which
record lightness and darkness, and cones, which
distinguish hues. These serve as photoreceptors in the
retina. The cones can register only one color in a
complementary pair at a time, a function referred to as
opponent theory. Staring at a color for a length of time
fatigues the cones, which then revert to seeing the
color’s complement. The contemporary term for
Chevreul’s idea is called after- image. The painter Jasper
Johns (193–) played with this concept in a series of
paintings called Flags (urE 6.12). If the viewer stares at
the dot in the center of the flag for a period of time,
and then shifts to the dot in the rec- tangle below, the
American flag appears in its characteristic red, white,
and blue, the complements of the colors in Johns’
painted flag.

6.11 Changing one color in

a multicolor design
changes its entire
appearance.
ILLUSTRATIONS BY
ERIN FITZSIMMONS
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146 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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6.12 Jasper Johns explored the

theory of successive contrast in his
art series called Flags (1968). Star-
ing at the flag image for a while and
then switching to the dot in the
rectangle below should create
the image of the American flag
in its characteristic colors.
THE MUSEUM OF MODERN
ART/ LICENSED BY SCALA/
ART RESOURCE, NY

ORPHISM, OR “ SIMULTANEISM”
There was a movement in both painting and fashion
that expanded upon Chevreul’s theory of simultaneous
contrast. The movement originated with the painter
Robert Delaunay (1885–1941) and his wife Sonia Terk
Delaunay (1885–1979), who was a painter, clothing
designer, and textile designer. It was called Orphism, but
Robert preferred simultaneity (or simultaneism). The
former term was named for the Greek god Orpheus and
meant that movement, light, and rhythm are more
important than the presentation of an object. The
reference to Orpheus was to music, because his
paintings encompassed so many colorful harmonies.
Both Robert and Sonia were influenced by the
systematic placement of color practiced by the
Impressionist painters and the bold, saturated colors
used by the Post- Impressionist and Fauve painters. In
addition, they were friends with the prominent couturièr
Paul Poiret, discussed in Chapter 3, who freed women
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COLOr AND VALUE 147

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from the corset and originated the hobble skirt. In

exploring colors and the effect of those beside them,
their paintings, clothing, and textile designs
demonstrated animation caused by simultaneous
contrasts within a design, attracting the eye in different
directions and causing a sense of rhythm and
movement. In addition, the contrasting and juxtaposed
colors in geometric shapes suggested new and different
shapes (urEs 6.13a anD B).

148 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

BELOW LEFT
6.13 a This painting by
Robert Delaunay reflects his
philosophy of simultaneous
contrasts that began the
movement of Orphism
or use of simultaneity.
ERICH LESSING/ART RESOURCE

BELOW RIGHT
6.13 B Sonia Terk
Delaunay’s simultaneous dress
in wool, silk, velvet and fur from
1913 explores the use of
simultaneity in fashion.
ILLUSTRATION BY
JANICE GREENBERG ELLINWOOD
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also dependent on the qualities of

OTHER PHENOMENA OF COLOR the surface from which it is reflected.
PERCEPTION
Another variable
that influences the
perception of color
is the size of the
colored area. A
huge expanse of
color appears
brighter than a
small one. The
smaller the area,
the more the color
dulls and the edges
lose their
sharpness.
Colors change
their appearance
according to the
lighting under
which they are
perceived. Claude
Monet changed the
colors he used to
paint La Cathédral de
Rouen, according to
the time of day, as
discussed in
Chapter 4 (ur E s
4.16a anD B). That is
because the angle
of the sun’s rays
changes, while
clouds and
atmospheric
particles cause light
refraction.
Regarding the
interior,
incandescent
lighting can look
yellow, while flores-
cent light has a
blue cast. Artists,
designers, and even
consumers prefer
nat- ural light, in
order to see colors
in their purest form.
C
ol
or
pe
rc
ep
tio
n
is
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A smooth, shiny surface, which has maximum light

reflection, makes a color appear lighter. The fashion
designer explores this quality when choos- ing satin or
taffeta fabrics or metallic yarns. Conversely, a rough or
porous texture, like the loopy bouclé knit or tweed,
makes colors look darker.
Most people are not acutely sensitive to color
changes. They learn color from experience, and it
remains in their visual memory. A house looks white
whether viewed at daybreak or sunset. This
phenomenon is called color constancy. It is a method by
which the brain preserves well- being, so familiar
objects are consistently recognized.

VALUE AND As previously discussed, value refers to lightness and

ITS PERCEPTION darkness. It is perhaps easier to understand how value
affects a hue than how value itself influ- ences
perception. Adding white to a hue forms a tint and
adding black makes a shade, but how does one
comprehend value itself? The potential gradations
between white and black on a gray scale are infinite,
but there is a limit to the number that humans can
distinguish. In this vibrant, highly technological world,
how does one conceive of value? It was easier before
color was a possibility in photography, television, and
film. Value was all that the viewer saw in old
photographs, early films, and television.
One way to think of value is in terms of relativity, by
comparing one value to another. Low-key values refer to
the middle gray values to black. High-key values are those
from white to the middle grays. A value scale gives the
concept a context, as one tone is viewed against the
next (urE
6.14). Contrast is critical; it is the amount of difference in
values. High contrast draws attention and provides
clarity. Low contrast contributes variety in a subtle
manner.

6.14 The value scale shows

all of the values possible in a scale
from white to black.
ILLUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS

HIGH KEY LOW KEY

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COLOr
149
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VALUE AND PERCEPTION

Here are some of the influences that value has on
perception: Light values advance and enlarge, while
dark values recede. That means they can be
manipulated to create the illusion of slimming or
expanding the human figure.
Value affects apparent density. Dark values have
greater visual weight. Because of our sense of gravity,
there is greater visual comfort with darker values
placed close to the ground. A dark top over a light
bottom may seem top-heavy.
Light values juxtaposed with dark values push each
other apart. A white top over a dark skirt tends to break
up the body and therefore is more appropriate for a tall
figure.
Extreme value contrast distracts from hues; they
are more evident in the presence of subtle contrast. As
a result, consider using high contrast in apparel with
neutrals and low contrast with fashion colors.
The astute fashion designer has a command of
both color and value. That contributes to both the
flattery of the figure and the success of each design.

KEY TERMS

achromatic electromagnetic waves simultaneity

additive color high contrast simultaneous contrast
afterimage high-key values split complementary
analogous hue spectrum
Bezold Effect intensity standard color wheel
chroma low contrast subtractive color
color low-key values tertiary colors
color constancy monochromatic tetrad
color temperature neutral tint
color wheel opponent theory tone on tone
complementary Orphism triad
contrast pigment value
cool primary colors value scale
double complementary saturation visible spectrum
double split-complement secondary colors warm
dye shade wavelength

15 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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PROJECTS These are short-handed exercises for

X. COLOR EXERCISES.
students to observe some of the color theories discussed
in the chapter. Required supplies: three- by five-inch
index cards or Bristol board or mat board cut to the
same dimension; balls of yarn in a number of colors
(these may be shared among students in the classroom).
For each exercise, yarn is wrapped around the card
strand by strand. The products are evaluated from a
distance.

A. Monochromatic color scheme—Wrap yarn in

four shades of the same hue around the index
card or board in equally sized stripes.

B. Analogous color scheme—Choose three to five

colors that lie adja- cent to one another on the
Standard Color Wheel. Wrap the colors of yarn
around the index card or board in stripes of equal
widths.

C. Complementary color scheme—Wrap yarns of two

complementary colors on the Standard Color
Wheel around the index card or board, alternating
every other strand. What color is perceived from
the final product at a distance?

D. Split complementary color scheme—Choose one

hue on the Stan- dard Color Wheel and the two
on each side of the color’s comple- ment. Wrap
the three hues of yarn around the index card or
board in stripes of equal width.

Bezold Effect—Return to the product you made

E.
for a, b, or d. Cre- ate the same striped product,
replacing one of the colors with a new one.
Compare the two products. Are they significantly
different?
Consider whether this is also an example of simultaneous
contrast.

Find a reproduction of a
2 . MASTER PAINTER’ S COLOR SCHEME.
favorite mas- ter painting. Choose three to four colors
in the painting and match them with 1-inch squares of
Color-aid paper, gouache paint, markers, or colored
pencil. Obtain an exact match. Mount the
reproduction on white board, leaving an adequate
margin around the reproduction. Adhere the three or
four squares in the lower right margin, just below the
reproduction. The col- ors identified represent the
scheme chosen by the master painter.

Design a gar-
’. FASHION FEATURING MASTER PAINTER’ S COLOR SCHEME.
ment using the three to four colors that the master
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painter used in the

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reproduction. Draw at least five versions in your

sketchpad before deciding on the best of the group.
Create a larger version on Bristol board. Show colors
by using cut Color-aid paper, markers, or gouache paint,
adhering to the exact match. If you are using colored
pencils, choose drawing paper for the final form of the
design and mount it on white Bristol board.

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152 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

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Florida State University. Sir David Brewster. Science,

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Stewart, M. (28). Launching the imagination: A comprehensive
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Prentice Hall.

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