Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Towards a large-scale integration of renewable energies in Morocco T

a,c b,c,⁎ c,⁎ d d b a
M. Boulakhbar , B. Lebrouhi , T. Kousksou , S. Smouh , A. Jamil , M. Maaroufi , M. Zazi
a
Université Mohammed V, École Normale Supérieure de l'Enseignement Technique de Rabat, Rabat, Morocco
b
Université Mohammed V, École Mohammadia d'Ingénieurs, Rabat, Morocco
c
Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, SIAME, Pau, France
d
Ecole Supérieure de Technologie de Fès, U.S.M.B.A, Route d'Imouzzer, BP 242, Fez, Morocco

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Renewable energies are a sustainable, unlimited and decarbonised solution to address future energy challenges.
Renewable energy integration In this context, Morocco has a considerable advantage to position itself on this promising market. Furthermore,
Energy storage renewable energies have been highlighted as a key strategic source for the country's green growth. Morocco has
Power to X adopted the renewable energy path through a strategy targeted on the development of solar, wind and hydro-
Morocco
electric power to boost its energy policy by adapting it to the challenges posed by today's world. Nowadays,
Thermal energy storage
Concentrated solar power
Morocco is facing a challenge to reach 52% by 2030 of its total renewable energy capacity, which will exceed
42% by the end of 2020. The main objective of this paper is to study a scenario for 2030 for the Moroccan
electricity system and to identify the challenges that need to be addressed in order to accelerate the integration
of renewable energies in the Moroccan energy mix and to achieve a possible export of such green energy towards
Europe.

1. Introduction future [5]. Many governments around the world have directed their
transition policies to more sustainable and accessible energy systems
The challenge of responding to the world's climate change is a [6–9]. In Morocco, electricity consumption demand increases at an
worldwide environmental problem that will impact all countries annual average of 7%, since 2002 [10]. The electrical power production
around the globe. Environmentalists alert international society and industry in Morocco is facing challenges involved with sustained
businesses that natural resources will run out faster than anticipated growth of demand, added to environmental protection requirements,
[1]. Indeed, energy demand in developed and developing countries is that's why energy security [11] and mitigation of emissions and en-
rising dramatically. By 2030, 40% and 50% increases in energy con- vironmental pollution are identified as the main motivating forces for
sumption is expected in Europe and in the USA, it will be doubled in the transformation of the existing electricity power supply system to a
India and it's expected to triple in China [2]. Since then, the global sustainable form of electricity [12–17].
world interests to increase the use of renewable energy sources and At COP 21 conference held in Paris, Morocco is promising an opti-
reduce the GHGE as a key solution. mistic and binding deal. It is in this perspective that the Moroccan
The use of renewable energy sources (RES) can contribute to the government has launched a holistic plan to boost the percentage of
decarbonization of the power system and to ensure a sustainable energy renewable energy in the energy mix and substantially increase energy
supply throughout the world [3,4]. Over the past century, the share of efficiency. Goals have been established to increase the percentage of
renewable energy in the energy mix of many developed countries has renewable energy electricity generation capacity (42% by 2020 and
increased considerably and this trend is expected to continue in the 52% by 2030 – see Fig. 1) and objectives to decrease energy

Abbreviations: GHGE, Green House Gas Emissions; RES, Renewable energy sources; SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals; TOE, Tonne Oil Energy; MASEN,
Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy; CSP, Concentrated Solar Power; PV, Photovoltaic; ONEE, National Agency for Electricity and Water; PETS, Pumped Energy
Transfer Station; IRESEN, Institute of Research on solar energy and New Energies; IPPs, Independent Power Producer's Electricity.; LNG, Liquefied natural gas;
CCGTs, Combined Cycle Gas Turbines; SG, Smart Grid; SET Roadmap, Roadmap for Sustainable Electricity Trade; WWTP, Waste Water Treatment Plan; PtX, Power to
X; PtH, Power-to-Hydrogen; MSF, Multi-Stage Flash; MED, Multi-Effect Distillation; RO, Reverse Osmose; ED, Electro Dialyses; MVC, Mechanical Vapor compression;
TVC, Thermo-Vapor compression; BWRO, Brackish Water Reverse Osmose; SWRO, Sea Water Reverse Osmose; V2G, Vehicle to Grid; RETs, Renewable energy
technologies; RE, Renewable Energy; EU, European Union; R&D, Research and Development
⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: b.lebrouhi@etud.univ-pau.fr (B. Lebrouhi), tarik.kousksou@univ-pau.fr (T. Kousksou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101806
Received 27 May 2020; Received in revised form 4 August 2020; Accepted 25 August 2020
Available online 02 September 2020
2352-152X/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 1. Installed capacity in Morocco.

consumption by 12% by 2020 and 15% by 2030 through energy effi- Currently, Morocco's renewable electricity system is widely di-
ciency enhancements [18–21]. For comparison, the European Com- versified and has a mix of solar, wind and hydroelectric power plants.
mission has adopted a mandatory goal of achieving 32% of renewable Table 1 presents the total installed and planned capacity in 2018 and in
energy by 2030, with the possibility of revising this target upwards by 2020, respectively [27].
2023 [22]. The Kingdom of Morocco is currently considered as one of the
However, as electrical systems incorporate higher levels of RE, the leading countries in the world's energy transition, especially in Africa,
quality and reliability of the power supply becomes more challenging to with several programmes to generate electricity from renewable
manage [23]. Although there are many alternative options to facilitate sources.
the integration of RE systems, they are costly and complex [24]. In
addition, to ensure these options, significant changes in the organiza-
tion and functioning of electrical systems are required. 2.1. Solar program
Many papers [10,13,17] have explored Morocco's renewable energy
potential under various perspectives with a focus towards its national Morocco has taken advantage of its geographical position and en-
energy strategy development. However, in this present paper, the cur- vironment to gain an edge in the field of renewables, especially solar
rent situation of the Moroccan energy strategy is assessed with an in- energy [28]. The average incident solar radiation varies between 4.7
depth analysis of the main renewable energy projects completed or and 5.6 kWh/m2/day with a number of hours of sunshine that varies
under development in Morocco. As well as it focuses on a general scope from 2700 hours/year in the North of Morocco to more than 3500
of the main actual trails and challenges facing the national energy hours/year in the South.
strategy, with a clear and detailed roadmap of the key elements and Initiated in 2009, the Moroccan Solar Plan is a very ambitious
guidelines to be followed by Morocco in order to achieve its objectives project. A number of solar power plants have been planned and
in terms of renewable energy and energy efficiency by 2030. scheduled to be installed as part of this project. The Moroccan Agency
for Solar Energy (MASEN) was set up specifically to execute these
projects. Its mission is to implement all projects related to the National
2. Current status of major RE projects in Morocco Energy Strategy and to co-ordinate and supervise all other activities
connected with this initiative. Table 2 lists the major projects com-
In addition to its commitments in favour of the climate (GHGE re- pleted, in the process or planned in sites, with total investment esti-
duction of 32% by 2030), the Kingdom of Morocco faces many chal- mated at approximately USD 9 billion through to 2020.
lenges in its energy transition. Efforts are aimed at matching the supply We note that PV technology is featured in all projects due to a de-
and demand of primary energy, which is increasing by 5% per year, crease in the price of photovoltaic modules of more than 80% over the
driven by the electricity demand, which is growing at a fairly steady last ten years [29]. As part of the Mediterranean Solar Plan, Ouarzazate
annual rate of more than 6%, through the development of new elec- plant has benefited from European co-financing. The overall Ouarza-
tricity production capacities, which should bring the installed capacity zate project includes four power plants: Noor 1, Noor 2, Noor 3 and
to 25,000 MW in 2030. Security of supply also remains one of the major Noor 4 with different technologies. Noor 2 has a capacity of 200 MW
challenges of the Moroccan energy model, which it is attempting to based on parabolic mirror technology and Noor 3 is equipped with a
address through the diversification of its energy resources. solar tower of 100 MW capacity. Noor 4 based on photovoltaic tech-
Morocco's primary energy demand and electricity demand will both nology has an output of 72 MW. With a capacity of 160 MW, Noor 1 is
be expected to double by 2030. Figs. 2 and 3 show the evolution of the currently one of the largest concentrated solar thermal (CSP) parabolic
primary energy demand and electricity consumption in Morocco re- cylinder power plants in the world.
spectively [25]. Through 2020, in accordance with the SDGs (Sustain- The solar power plant Noor 1 is mainly equipped with the advanced
able Development Goals), the Kingdom of Morocco is making good Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) generation, with Parabolic Trough
strides towards sustainable, secure and modern electricity. However, Collector (PTC) [30]. By comparing this technology to solar energy
the ultimate target is to build a more diversified power system with a tower, linear Fresnel Reflector and parabolic dish collector, the PTC
significant contribution from renewable sources. with thermal oil and molten salt storage is considered to be the simplest
In 2018, Morocco installed 34% of renewable energy (i.e. 3,700 and most mature system [31,32] Prospective sites for CSP plants are
MW), divided as follows: 1,770 MW, 1,220 MW and 711 MW respec- generally selected based on the global distribution of Direct Normal
tively originate from hydroelectricity, wind power and solar energy Irradiance (DNI) [33]. Commercially viable CSP plants should maintain
[26]. a DNI of at least 2000–2800 kWh/m2/yr [33,34]. The Rankine cycle

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 2. Morocco's primary energy demand in Millions TEP [25].

with molten salt storage is the operating principle of the Noor 1 plant Table 1
(see Fig. 4) [35,36]. Total installed and planned capacity in 2018 and in 2020.
As shown in Fig. 4, the Noor 1 plant consists of three parts, which Plant type 2018 Capacity installed (MW) 2020 Capacity to be installed (MW)
are the solar field, the power block and the thermal storage system.
These parts are properly outlined by Kuravi et al.[37]. The Noor 1 Solar 710.8 2000
Wind 1220 2000
power plant's solar field consists of 400 parabolic trough loops arranged
Hydro 1770 2000
in parallel and connected to each other. Each loop consists of 4 arrays of
solar collectors in series and each array is composed of 12 solar col-
lector elements. The solar collectors composed of very reflective para- Table 2
bolic mirrors and heat collection elements (HCE) installed in the center Major solar projects.
of the dish. A monitoring system allows the collectors to follow the sun
Plant/Site Production capacity Technology Commissioning year
from sunrise to sunset [37]. Once the direct solar irradiation is received
on the solar field and reflected by the parabolic collectors to the ab- Ain Beni Mather 472 MW CSP/PV 2011
sorber, where the heat is transferred to the heat transfer fluid (HTF). A Ourazazatte 580 MW CSP/PV 2018
synthetic oil which is used as HTF circulates through the collectors. At Foum Al Oued 500 MW CSP/PV 2020
Boujdour 100 MW PV 2018
the output of the solar field, the HTF is collected and then pumped to an
Sbkhat –Tah 500 MW CSP/PV 2020
expansion tank, which is connected to the power block unit to transfer NOOR Tafilalt 120 MW PV 2019
its energy to water. The power block includes a steam generator, pre- NOOR Atlas 200 MW PV 2020
heater, steam turbine, power generator, condenser, cooling systems (air NOOR Argane 200 MW PV After 2020
condenser and cooling tower) and auxiliary equipment. The steam
generator has two heat exchanger trains including economizers, eva-
porators, superheaters and preheaters. The HTF flows through the two (discharge mode). The HTF flows in heat exchanger to charge/dis-
heat exchanger trains in order to produce steam at high temperature charge the thermal storage system. The molten salt circulates from the
and pressure. cold storage tank through the heat exchanger and enters the hot salt
The Noor 1 plant has been designed with two tanks of an eutectic storage tank, with temperature of approximately 368°C. The tempera-
molten salt composed of a mixture of sodium nitrate and potassium ture of the cold molten salt is about 292°C. When the storage system is
nitrate (60% NaNO3 + 40% KNO3). This mixture has a high heat discharged, the molten salt from the hot storage tank is sent back to
transfer coefficient and high thermal storage capacity. The function of cold storage tank through the heat exchanger that is used to heat up the
the thermal storage system is to store excess sensible heat from the solar cold HTF. The heated HTF is then sent to the power block.
field (charge mode) during daily sunshine hours, in order to extend
plant operation during night or when solar irradiation is insufficient

Fig. 3. Morocco's electricity consumption in TWh [25].

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 4. Schematic of PTC power plant with thermal storage [36].

2.2. Wind program Table 4

Wind Power Projects in development.
The favourable geographical location of Morocco provides it an Project Capacity Year of commissioning
important wind energy potential, estimated at about 6000 MW [13,38].
Most of Morocco's windiest regions are located in the extreme north on TAZA 150 MW 2021
the Strait of Gibraltar side in the Tangier-Tetouan region, the Essaouira Law 13-09 SAFI 200 MW 2021
Repowering Koudia 100 MW 2021
region, the South Atlantic area from Tarfaya to Lagouira and the Taza
corridor between the Atlas and Rif mountain ranges. The wind field is
characterized by average wind speeds above 8 m/s for the windiest One of the most important projects in wind energy program is the
regions [17]. giant Tarfaya wind farm (see Fig. 5), which is operational. It is the
Under its energy strategy, Morocco has implemented an ambitious largest wind energy project on the African continent. The year 2015 has
wind energy program to promote the deployment of renewable en- witnessed the injection of the total capacity of this park of 300 MW. In
ergies. This program intends to expand installed wind power capacity to addition to electricity production, the wind program also includes in-
2,000 MW by the end of 2020 and to boost this capacity to 2,600 MW dustrial integration of the wind energy sector, as well as the promotion
by 2030. Table 3 shows the commissioned wind power plants and of research and development and technical training in this field. In this
Table 4 lists the projects in development [39]. sense, the program includes the manufacture of equipment for wind
farms in the national industrial fabric to amplify and sustain its impact
on the national economy in general and the development of wind en-
Table 3
ergy in particular.
Commissioned wind power plants.
Project Capacity Year of commissioning
2.3. Hydropower program
Amgdoul 60 MW 2007
Tanger I 140 MW 2009
Koudia Al Baida/Toress 50 MW 2000 In Morocco's new energy strategy, 14% of the country's energy
Cimar 5 MW 2011 production will come from hydropower by 2020. Installed hydropower
Lafarge 32 MW 2009 capacity will be increased from 1,730 MW in 2008 to 2,000 MW in
Trfaya 300 MW 2014
2020 through the construction of new hydropower dams and Pumped
Akhfenir 100 MW 2014
Akhfenir 2 100 MW 2016 Energy Transfer Station (PETS).
Foum Al Oued 50 MW 2014 Morocco currently has 1,770 MW of hydropower generation capa-
Haouma 50 MW 2014 city, of which 464 MW is in PETS mode [41]. This production capacity
Jbel Khalladi 120 MW 2018
is really achievable only when water reservoirs are at their maximum.
Aftissat 200 MW 2018
PEI 85 — MIDELT 180 MW 2019 This is not always the case, rather the opposite; Morocco is a semi-arid
PEI 850 — BOUJDOUR 100 MW 2019 country. In hydraulics, the other element that must be taken into ac-
Law 13-09 – OUALIDIA 36 MW 2019 count in Morocco is irrigation. Thus, turbining to produce electricity is,
PEI 850 — TISKRAD 300 MW 2020 therefore, dependent to a certain extent on irrigation needs. However,
PEI 850 — TANGER II 70 MW 2020
throughout the world, the production of hydroelectric power is always
PEI 850 — JBEL LAHDID 200 MW 2020
Total 2,093 MW lower than the level of existing installed capacity dictates. In 2011, for
example, hydropower production is in sharp decline, with only 2.2 TWh

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 5. Tarfaya Wind farm [40].

Fig. 6. Hydroelectric Plant near Agadir – Morocco [42].

Table 5 Table 6
Current situation of the hydro projects by Mars 2020. Future hydropower projects in Morocco.
Project Capacity Project Location Capacity Situation

PETS Afourer 464 MW Afrer Agadir 465 MW Under construction

Diverses usines 337 MW Step Abdelmoumen Agadir 350 MW Under construction
Al Wahda 240 MW Ifhsa Oued Laou 300 MW Under construction
Allal El Fassi 240 MW M'dez El Mnzel Sefrou 300 MW Under construction
Bin El Ouidane 135 MW Khenifra Khenifra 125 MW Under construction
Al Massira 128 MW BarOuender Taounate 30 MW Under construction
Afourer 94 MW Tamejout Beni Mellal 30 MW Under construction
Ahmed El Hansali 92 MW Tillougit I Beni Mellal 26 MW Under construction
Tanafnit 40 MW Boutferda Azilal 18 MW Under construction
Total 1,770 MW Tillouguit II Beni Mellal 8 MW Under construction

compared to 3.7 TWh in 2010, a year with abundant rainfall in Mor- the end of 2020. Meanwhile, Morocco plans to build about sixty large
occo. PETSs that are constructed or under development are expected to dams over the next twenty years; however, most of them should be
serve as a storage mechanism for solar and wind energy Fig. 6 shows dedicated to water resource management, and therefore not necessarily
The PETS of 350 MW at the Abdelmoumen site in the Agadir region to power generation. Table 5 shows the current situation of the hydro
which will increase the hydraulic capacity of Morocco to 2120 MW by projects [39], and Table 6 shows the future hydropower projects in

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Morocco [10]. Moroccan government needs to diversify financing models for renew-
able energy projects and stimulate private sector investment in RE. In
addition, it needs to capitalize on the high potential of biomass through
2.4. Biomass program concrete projects and immediate investments.

In addition to solar, wind and hydraulic power, the process of di-

3. Key elements for successful transformation of the power system
versification of energy resources in Morocco also concerns biomass.
Currently, Morocco has considerable biomass potential thanks to a
In Morocco, renewable energy policy has gained attention as an
forest area of more than 5,350,000 ha, Halfa areas of nearly 3,300,000
effective solution to recognize ecological problems and achieve sus-
ha, an agricultural area of nearly 9,000,000 ha and a highly diversified
tainable growth and with high economic impact [45]. Fulfilling the
livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) of around 7,000,000 livestock units
targets for renewable electrical energy development in Morocco by
[43]. Despite its enormous resources in biomass, Morocco currently has
2030 presents a new challenge regarding the integration of renewable
only less than 1% of its potential capacity because of its high initial
energy sources. This must not involve any systems integration problems
expenditure and the lack of knowledge about energy production tech-
but opportunities abound the further increase power system flexibility,
niques and processes [13]. Nevertheless, its main potential has yet to be
efficiency and remove constraints in the current power system opera-
covered by national policies, although some small companies already
tion. For a productive electricity transition focused on a broad renew-
are involved in this sector.
able portion, a systemic approach is required, given the evolution tra-
In order to organise the use of biomass efficiently, the Department
jectories of supply and demand, electricity infrastructure and the
of Energy and Mines in Morocco has initiated a national strategy for the
competition of various flexibility options to ensure the stability of the
energy recovery of biomass. This initiative has been financed by the
system (interconnections, active demand management, energy storage).
European Union, as part of the support for the reform of the energy
A forward-looking study in electricity allows this increasing need for
sector. This initiative was initially based on an evaluation of the busi-
flexibility to be measured while recognizing other pathways for max-
ness potential of biomass, with an analysis of the main material flows,
imizing renewable energy adoption in Morocco.
coming from the sectors of agriculture, forestry, waste management and
wastewater treatment, according to the indications of the Department
of Energy. Until now, two agricultural regions (Northen and Souss- 3.1. Improving and reinforcing the national power grid
Massa) have been studied to evaluate their biomass energy potential.
These two regions generate agricultural waste of the order of 1.3 mil- Energy transition in Morocco is expected to have a significant im-
lion tonnes per year and 8,198 tonnes per year respectively. The re- pact on the national power grid stability, generating both a significant
covery of this waste shows a potential of 417,806 MWh in the northern need for a network (to integrate a growing fraction of renewable pro-
region, i.e. a saving of 0.33 million tons of oil. Moreover, even if the duction and benefit from the proliferation of intermittent production)
potential exists, this does not mean that it is exploitable. The costs as and a decrease in its utilization rate (linked to self-consumption and
well as the profitability have yet to be determined. In the Souss-Massa decentralization of production). The transition to a high proportion of
area, a few pilot projects, financed by donors, have already been tested. RE in Morocco will represent a complete redesign of the power grid,
Other projects are under development to promote the exploitation requiring a comprehensive reflection to optimize investments in
of biomass as an energy source, and the most important of them are: transmission (or perhaps distribution) networks and production plants.
Congestion problems observed in systems where generation assets are
• Program for disseminating biogas digesters in the Souss-Massa re- located far from consumption areas (e.g. offshore wind farms in
gion; northern Germany, solar and wind generation in northern and western
• Development of new biofuels technologies. China for industrial consumption centers in the east and south) de-
monstrate the importance of these challenges.
MASEN (Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy) has also started to The Moroccan power system has an extensive and complicated
explore options for initiating waste-to-energy projects. While, IRESEN network, comprising a dense transmission grid with 3,000 km of 400 kV
(Institute of Research in Solar Energy and New Energies) has commis- lines, about 9,000 km of 225 kV lines, 147 km of 150 kV lines and about
sioned in 2018 a prototype combining solar thermal collectors and 11,780 km of 60 kV lines [44]. The network was created fifty years ago
biomass for electricity production [44]. and is a combination of old and new technological elements. The ma-
It is interesting to outline that large-scale biogas production is still jority of the network's system is outdated and subject to aging due to
at the stage of feasibility studies, particularly by private investors. The the effects of stress, such as extreme temperatures, vibrations, water
legislative framework remains insufficient since there is no obligation infiltration and damage due to civil engineering works [44,46]. Several
for biogas recovery. The major obstacles to the dissemination of biogas initiatives have been implemented by the National Agency for Elec-
technologies in Morocco are probably the non-availability of water and tricity and Water (ONEE) to reinforce the electricity grid. Table 7
the insufficient technical monitoring of the installations and the in- summarizes the grid expansion planned between 2019 and 2020 [25].
adequacy of incentives. However, these initiatives are unfortunately insufficient to meet Mor-
Based on the analysis of the results obtained in the first half of 2020, occo's 2030 objectives.
we can recognize and appreciate the considerable progress accom- There is an urgent need to modernize and improve the Moroccan
plished in recent years by Morocco, leading it to achieve the 2020 grid infrastructure to ensure a wide penetration of wind in the energy
targets. However, to achieve the ambitious targets set for 2030, the mix [47]. Most wind farms are either remote from the power grid or

Table 7
Planned grid reinforcement added between 2019 and 2020.
Reinforcement 2019 Horizon end of 2020
• Installation of a third transformer of 400/225 kV • Setup of a 3-phase line of 400 kV (300 km)
• Installation of a third autotransformer of 400/225 kV • Setup of a 3-phase line of 400 kV (300 km)
• Setup of a 3-phase line of 400 kV (55 km) • Setup of a 3-phase line of 400 kV
• Setup of a 3-phase line of 400 kV (400 km) • Addition of a new post of 400/225 kV
• Replacement of a 225/60 kV transformer by a 400/225 kV transformer.

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 7. Regional and international interconnections.

have poor electrical infrastructure that limits their level of penetration Despite the dispatching system, there are still production losses based
into the power grid. Today, the large amounts of electricity from re- on future energy forecasts and emergency needs. Another important
newable sources and solidarity between territories are the main vectors problem is that most of the electrical energy produced in the grid
for the evolution of the power grid and new challenges for transmission cannot be stored. Therefore, the smart grid is essential to correlate
system operators. Some regions will essentially be importing and others electricity generation with demand [50]. The development of smart
will be strongly exporting. The mesh and density of the electricity grids is an essential prerequisite for moving from a unidirectional to a
network will be a key point in guaranteeing access to electricity and bidirectional system, making it possible to act on demand and to adapt
security of supply from renewable energy sources. consumption in part to instantaneous production capacities. Smart grids
The integration of renewable energies in the Moroccan electricity are designed to improve control of the electrical system throughout the
system also requires the mobilization of flexible modes of production to entire chain of value from the producer to the end consumer. By making
address their intermittency and improve the stability of the power grid. a portion of consumption (industrial and domestic) dependent on
Today, the introduction of combined cycle power plants operating on available production, they make it possible to reduce demand peaks and
natural gas is positioned in Morocco as one of the most appropriate thus reduce maximum production capacities in a given geographical
means to meet the challenges of intermittent power generated by re- area. Similarly, it is perfectly possible to program certain equipment
newable energies. Gas is expected to play a major role in the electricity (e.g. electric vehicles) to receive energy when there is a given over-
mix and according to [48] in 2011 the gas demand in the MENA production. The smart grid can reduce transmission and distribution
countries grew faster than in other regions., since Morocco plans to losses by monitoring the capacity to distribute electrical energy effi-
import 5 billion cubic meters (bcm) of LNG via a new LNG import ciently through communication technologies. Digitalisation of network
terminal, which will provide 2,400 MW of new combined cycle gas will in some ways be a condition for the success of the energy transition
turbines (CCGTs).Morocco's needs for flexibility will increase and will [51]. The deployment of renewable energies is challenging the way in
mainly be provided via decentralized tools (energy storage, erasure, which the supply-demand balance has been achieved in the electricity
consumption modulation, electric vehicles batteries, decentralized sector until now.
production) requiring the aggregation of a large number of diffuse Flexibility and security of the energy system must rely on the op-
points; distribution network operators will become real operators, re- erating capability to allow both generation and usage dispersal and
sponsible for active network management and the organization of local distortion between service quality and continuity [46]. That's why the
flexibility markets. The exploitation and optimization of the sources of smart grid remains an essential element to develop in order to meet the
flexibility (question of global optimization / local optimization) will ambitious target of 2030.
become an essential issue in Morocco.
3.3. Developing interconnections at regional level and with Europe
3.2. Smart grid in Morocco
One of the most practical ways to reduce the intermittency of re-
The principal challenge for electricity distribution in Morocco is newable energy is to interconnect them in order to mitigate the varia-
associated to environmental and climatic conditions caused by long tions in electricity generated from such intermittent sources. For that
land distances, vast forests, severe winter seasons and high number of purpose, Morocco needs to reinforce electricity interconnection infra-
overhead lines [49]. These problems require advanced automatic so- structures at the regional level and with the European continent (see
lutions for fast defect management and long term grid forecasting. Fig. 7). Electricity importations represent the main source of flexibility
Accordingly, in 2008 the ONEE installed a new more modern and ef- in Morocco since they play an important role in balancing supply and
ficient national distribution control centre called "Dispatching". The demand [44].
new system, which has been installed in Casablanca city, manages in By exporting green electricity to Europe, considering its proximity
real time and under different conditions, between the change in elec- to Spain, Morocco has the potential to become an important actor in the
tricity production facilities and a steadily rising of the national demand. export of renewable electricity to a large regional market. In this

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regard, several EU countries have interestingly implemented a more effective operation of the Moroccan electricity market.
"Roadmap for Sustainable Electricity Trade" (SET Roadmap) and signed
an official declaration during the COP22 with Morocco. In this per- 3.5. Energy storage
spective, Morocco has already achieved significant electricity inter-
connection capacities with Spain (1,400 MW). Currently, the inter- One of the main drawbacks of using renewable energy sources is the
connection with Spain is the unique link between Europe and North management of their intermittent production. Thus, even if Morocco
Africa. Morocco is also interconnected with Algeria, with an exchange holds the world record, especially in wind energy, the load factor, i.e.
capacity of 1,200 MW. The African market is very promising since it is what the installation actually produces in relation to its capacity, is
relatively poorly electrified and represents real investment opportu- 40% for wind energy projects and falls at best to 20% for photovoltaic
nities for future years. Currently, Morocco continues the process of projects. For the latter, it is therefore necessary to use electricity storage
regional integration of energy markets. Firstly, the country has a project [12].
to establish an electrical interconnection line to Portugal with a capa- Energy storage can render several services to power grids [53]:
city of 1,000 MW. Morocco is also planning to expand the inter-
connection with Spain by a third line with a capacity of 700 MW. • It can be used to address erratic and rapid variations in energy de-
Discussions are under way to establish new interconnection lines with mand and prevent the possible requirement for frequency adjust-
Mauritania. ment from the main power system. It can also resolve temporary
Thanks to the electricity interconnections with Algeria and Spain, power interruptions, minimize harmonic distortions, and prevent
Morocco is positioned as a leading electricity market player in the voltage drops and bursts.
Western Mediterranean region and fully plays an important role both as • It avoids a partially loaded main power system, which is held op-
a regional energy hub and as a transit country for cross-border elec- erational to meet unplanned, unexpected demands and electrical
tricity exchanges. An ambitious project (Xlinks) is under consideration urgencies resulting from the breakdown of generation plants and/or
to develop a new 3 GW submarine cable linking Morocco to the UK, transmission lines.
which will allow green electricity to be sent directly to the UK without • It helps to handle the peaks of the daily demand curve.
using existing infrastructure in Spain and France [52]. The project will • It allows excess electricity generated during off-peak hours to be
generate 6% of the UK's electricity demand. Given the important role of stored to meet increased demand during peak hours.
interconnections in improving reserves capacity, the development of • It ensures the storage of electricity produced by renewable energies
electricity generation from renewable sources and the increase of RE in order to adapt fluctuating supply to shifting demand.
integration capacity from new interconnection projects are under con-
sideration. The first large-scale electricity storage project in Morocco is the 460
In line with the 2030 objective, Morocco is expected to significantly MW Afourer Pumped Storage Power Station (PETS), commissioned in
boost investment in electricity trading and interconnections and to play 2004. It consists of a hydraulic system composed of two 1.3 million-m3
an important role in the development of the regional electricity market water reservoirs connected by a pipeline with two hydroelectric pro-
in West Africa and its integration into the European market. duction units between the basins. The Abdelmoumen WWTP located in
Taroudant province will enhance hydraulic storage capacity in
3.4. Reorganisation of the electricity sector Morocco. This station, piloted by the ONEE, has been under construc-
tion since July 2019 after the project was awarded to the consortium
ONEE is currently the major player in Morocco's electricity market; led by the French company Vinci Construction and including the
it is the sole purchaser and responsible for power imports and exports company Andritz Hydro. The €284 million contract consists of the
and the purchase of electricity generated by independent power pro- construction of a WWTP (Waste Water Treatment Plan) with two basins
ducers (IPPs), surplus electricity from self-generators and all renewable connected by a 3 km transfer line with a 350 MW reversible hydro-
electricity production from MASEN projects. [44]. ONEE holds long- power plant located in the middle.
term power purchase agreements (PPAs) with these entities. ONEE also It is interesting to mention that the Noor 1 power plant is equipped
owns generation plants, including coal, gas and wind (which will be with a 3 hours thermal storage system. For Noor 2 and 3 plants, the
transferred to MASEN by 2021). ONEE's own generation market share thermal storage time is up to 8 hours. This will guarantee continuity of
has decreased, with the growth of renewable energy projects developed energy distribution, even in the evening, at times of peak consumption
by MASEN [44]. [54]. CSP thermal storage was also chosen to ensure 5 hours of au-
Otherwise, under Law 38-16, ONEE has to transfer all renewable tonomy for the first phase of the 800 MW Noor Midelt station in hybrid
energy generation assets within five years to MASEN (with the excep- technology: CSP and PV. A 2nd phase, currently being prequalified by
tion of pump storage hydro plants, plants that are critical for the na- MASEN, is competing between different solar technologies with sto-
tional electricity supply security and plants under Law 13-09). In terms rage, in particular PV and CSP associated with different thermal storage
of market shares in 2016, ONEE supplied power to the national market or battery technologies, with the aim of ensuring a stable power in-
from its own plants (29.2%), and through IPPs (52.9%) and imports jected into the grid up to 230 MW.
(14.6%), with power from private industrial producers accounting for Energy Storage Technologies (EST) can be classified in to [55]:
the remainder (3.3%) [44]. The structure of the electricity industry is
detailed in the Fig. 8. • Mechanical storage systems [56] like Pumped Hydro-Storage (PHS),
Two observations can be drawn from the analysis of Fig. 8: Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) and Flywheel Energy Sto-
rage (FES) technologies.
• The National Agency for Electricity Regulation, which was created • Electrochemical storage systems [57] like batteries (Lead acid,
in 2016, has not yet initiated its principal missions to ensure ef- NiCd/NiMH, Li-ion, metal air, sodium sulphur and sodium nickel
fective operation of the electricity market and to control the trans- chloride) and flow batteries (Redox flow battery (RFB) and Hybrid
mission and distribution operators. There is an urgent need to al- flow battery (HFB)).
locate financial and human resources to this agency to ensure its • Electrical storage systems [53] like Supercapacitors (SC) and Super-
function in the Moroccan electricity market. conducting Magnet energy storage (SMES) systems.
• The reorganisation of the ONEE and its business model by separ- • Chemical energy storage [58], which emphasizes hydrogen (H2) and
ating the activities of the electricity value chain (i.e. generation, synthetic natural gas (SNG) as secondary energy, vectors, as they
transmission, distribution and marketing) is required to ensure a could have a considerable impact on the storage of large quantities

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 8. Structure of the electricity industry [39].

of electrical energy. of high-energy systems in combination with high power systems ap-
• Thermal Storage Systems (TSS) [59], which includes sensible, latent pears to be more efficient EST [63]. High power storage systems pro-
and thermochemical storage technologies. Thermal sensible storage duce energy at very high rates, but typically for short time periods.
is the most mature technology but has the lowest energy density, Conversely, high-energy storage systems can generate energy for longer
which is followed by the latent storage and then by thermochemical periods [63,64]. To ensure its place in an electrical system, the hybrid
storage. Thermal storage can provide important services to Mor- energy storage system must not only demonstrate its technical re-
occan power system and increase the flexibility of the network. levance but also prove its economic viability. The most appropriate
Many thermal storage options can be developed in Morocco such as energy storage technology for a given storage situation should be
the storage of excess renewable electrical energy in buildings (e.g. chosen according to needs, available space and financial resource.
domestic hot water tank). The development of district heating net- Actually, no legislative or regulatory framework exclusively dedi-
works in Morocco can also give a growing role to the massive cated to the regulation of energy storage exists in Morocco. However,
thermal storage in Morocco [60]. the electricity storage legislation is expected to change in order to ad-
dress the evolutions and challenges presented by the recent dynamic of
The principle of the above technologies has been presented in detail energy transition in Morocco. To ensure a sustainable energy strategy in
in various articles [56,61]. Power density and energy density are two Morocco, the implementation of energy storage solutions adapted to the
main characteristics of energy storages technologies [62]. The higher Moroccan context is essential. As well as developing mature solutions
the power and energy density, the lower the required volume for the such as PETSs and CSP storage [65], it is time to achieve benchmarks
storage system. So, EST can be classified according to discharge time with new technologies such as lithium batteries and storage via hy-
[56,57,62]: drogen [66] as part of the ambitious Power-To-X techniques in the R&D
phase.
• Short discharge time (seconds to minutes): SMES and FES. The en- The promulgation of a legislation to regulate energy storage is ne-
ergy-to-power ratio is less than one. cessary to initiate the development of new large-scale storage projects.
• Medium discharge time (minutes to hours): FES and for large ca- In addition, it is recommended to integrate tax incentives to encourage
pacities, electrochemical storage systems, which is the dominant entrepreneurship in the field of energy storage with a view to opening,
technology: lead acid, Li-ion and sodium sulphur batteries. through Smart Grids, the national electricity grid to the surplus injec-
• Long discharge time (days to months): H2 and SNG. For these EST, tions of industrial and private owners.
the energy-to-power ratio is greater than 10. The main advantage of
H2 and SNG is the high energy density, superior to all other storage
systems. 3.6. Power to X in Morocco

PHS, CAES flow batteries systems are situated between storage "Power-to-X" is a way of storing electrical energy for greater flex-
systems for medium and long discharge times [53,58]. Like H2 and SNG ibility. The excess of the available energy can be stored in other forms:
systems, these EST have external storage tanks. However, the energy chemical or industrial products, etc. The first step of the PtX pathway
densities are rather low, which limits the energy-to-power ratio to va- consists in using low-carbon electricity and water to produce hydrogen
lues between approximately 5 and 30. by means of water electrolysis: the power-to-hydrogen (PtH) segment.
Among all existing technologies, whether commercially available or Hydrogen can be used immediately (e.g. as a fuel for mobility or as
under development, there is no technology that can achieve both power feedstock in industry), or used in further synthesis steps with carbon,
and energy density at the same time. In this context, the hybridization nitrogen or oxygen to produce chemical compounds such as methane,
ammonia or gasoline that replace fossil fuels [50]. Fig. 9 shows the

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 9. Power-to-X applications [67].

Fig. 10. Evolution of water desalination Market between 2013 and 2020.

power to X applications [67]. the photovoltaic and wind energy output of these technologies. In this
With its geographical position and outstanding wind and solar ca- sense, "green ammonia" will provide Morocco with opportunities to
pacity, Moroccan government is able to achieve a valuable share of the fulfil the long-term demands of its local fertilizer industry and foreign
'Power-to-X' market expected to be between 2% and 4% of global market [68].
production in 2030[68]. Otherwise, economic assessment of hydrogen Morocco will therefore draw up a roadmap for hydrogen and PtX
production potential from solar energy in Morocco is detailed in [69]. products, a roadmap for hydrogen technology and related PtX products
According to a study carried out by the World Energy Council for Morocco, and establish sustainability requirements as part of the
Germany, Morocco is among the countries with a high potential in hydrogen / PtX roadmap. Otherwise, several exporting industries are
terms of Power to X. Power to X requires an energy mix that allows facing a critical situation due to the implication of the carbon tax on the
plants to run for as long as possible during the 24 hours. Solar energy products exported by most European countries. For this reason, the
can cover about 30% of the need. If we add the contribution of wind Moroccan industry must promptly respond to the new requirements and
power, we can reach 50%. This means that up to 70–80% can even be constraints of the European market in which the power to X represents
achieved if storage is used. The other goal is to reach a balance between one of the best potential solutions to promote the national economy.
the cost of hydrogen or fossil-fuel ammonia production and the cost of

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

3.7. Water desalination technologies and renewable sources is among the most promising ap-
proaches for the development of the sector [70]. During the drought
Freshwater is a crucial factor in regional economic development. periods in the last three decades, Morocco is facing a real issue in water
Domestic users, agriculture and industry require large quantities of supply, due to the water demand increasing and because of the climate
freshwater. Meeting current and future demands for freshwater has changes [72,73]. The first desalination plants in Morocco were installed
become a serious challenge in many countries of the world [70,71]. in 1975 to address the shortage of potable water in the southern re-
However, seawater and sometimes brackish water desalination con- gions, and all subsequent schemes contribute to water supplies in
stitute an important option as a very safe water source comparatively to southern Moroccan areas that shortage fresh water and have in-
conventional water supply. Nevertheless, the world desalination market sufficient brackish water availability [81]. Agadir's seawater desalina-
has experienced rapid expansion since the beginning of the 2000s, with tion plant is the Africa's largest desalination station with a capacity of
growth in contracted capacity increasing by an average of 8.1% per 275,000 m3 per day, expandable to 450,000 m3 a day. In addition, to
year [72]. Fig. 10 shows the evolution of water desalination market reduce production costs, the station will be coupled to a wind power
between 2013 and 2020 [73]. The current technologies of water de- plant. Table 9 shows more details about water desalination plants in
salination are classified into two categories, according to the principle Morocco [81].
applied [74,75]: Since desalination is such an energy-intensive operation, its eco-
nomic feasibility is directly affected by the resources needed to generate
• Thermal processes involving a change of phases: freezing and dis- fresh water [82]. That's why the interest in renewable energy – driven
tillation. desalination systems have been growing very rapidly, the number of
• Processes using membranes: reverse osmosis and electro dialysis. developed plants is still limited, and the applications are primarily in
early stages of development [83].
Among the above methods, distillation and reverse osmosis are With a huge capacity of renewable energy sources and with the
technologies with proven efficiency in desalining seawater. Indeed, 2020 and 2030 goals, the use of the energy surplus coming from re-
these two processes are the most commercialized in the world desali- newable sources or the alimentation of the desalination plants by re-
nation market. The other techniques have not experienced a significant newable energy sources represent one of the most pioneer's solution to
development in the field due to problems generally related to energy reduce the production cost in the desalination plants. Moreover, more
consumption and/or the size of the investments they require. Fig. 11 studies had been contacted by many research shows how Morocco
shows awarded membrane and thermal desalination capacity between could use its high potential of renewable energy sources coupled with
1990 and 2014 [73]. the desalination plants [77,84].
Regardless of the salt-water separation process envisaged, all desa- In Morocco, the seawater desalination market seems promised to
lination plants consist of four stages: continue to grow in the coming years. However, the current technolo-
gies can only meet certain targeted needs concentrated in a few regions.
• Seawater intake with a pump and coarse filtration, The high costs of these plants limit their dissemination throughout the
• Pretreatment with finer filtration, addition of biocidal compounds country, which suffers from fresh water shortages for economic reasons
and anti-pattern products, and whose hydraulic infrastructures are generally deficient.
• The desalination process itself, The energy consumption of desalination plants coupled with en-
• Post-treatment with possible remineralization of produced water. vironmental uncertainties implies imperative technological evolutions
in order to support the development of this sector. Cooperation between
At the end of these four stages, the sea water is made potable or project developers and energy specialists makes it possible to envisage
industrially usable; it must then contain less than 0.5 g of salts per liter the large-scale development of photovoltaic and wind-powered struc-
[76]. However, energy consumption accounts for about 41% of the total tures.
costs of a reverse osmosis desalination plant [77]. Table 8 represents a In the absence of an efficient distribution network and sufficient
comparative study of the energy consumption of the different desali- financing capacities, decentralized desalination systems are more re-
nation technologies [78]. Otherwise, to minimize energy consumption, levant than large-capacity plants to fulfil Morocco's demands.
more studies have been conducted [79,80]. Moreover, small-scale infrastructure would make it possible to reduce
Several studies indicate that the combination of desalination the amount of investment required and reach isolated populations

Fig. 11. Awarded membrane and thermal desalination capacity, 1990–2014 [73].

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Table 8
Comparative analysis of the energy consumption of the different desalination technologies.
Desalination type Desalination technology Average Energy Consumption (kWh/m3)

Desalting by thermal installation Multi-stage flash (MSF) 23.45

Multi-effect distillation (MED) 17.95
Mechanical vapor compression (MVC) 9.5
Thermo-vapor compression (TVC) 16.3
Membrane desalting Reverse Osmose (RO) 3
Electro dialyses (ED) 4.15

Table 9 vehicles in Morocco was conducted by [90], it shows the reasons in-
Water desalination projects in Morocco. fluencing the Moroccan choices of transportation modes, in particular,
Location Technology Capacity m3/d Year
those taken according to electric vehicles technologies. It also explores
potential options for incorporating this green transport style into the
Trafaya ED 75 1975 Moroccan context, while respecting their preferences and limitations. In
Boujdour MED-VC 250 1977 several studies, rechargeable electric vehicles are used in combination
Trafaya BWRO 120 1983
Laayoun SWRO 7 000 1995
with renewable energies at different levels of the electrical system
Boujdour SWRO 800 1995 [91–93].
Agadir RO 275 000 2021 The integration rate of electric vehicles in 2018 was estimated at
0.02% [94]. A literature review and prospects for sustainability about
adoption of electric vehicles are detailed in [95]. Otherwise, [96] de-
while reducing the energy consumption of the devices by exploiting the scribes the challenges and assessment of electric vehicles integration,
great potential of renewable energy in Morocco. with a comprehensive analysis of political, economic, social, technical,
legislative and environmental aspects and rigorously assesses achiev-
3.8. Encouraging the adoption of electric vehicles ability of the EV integration. Thus, electric mobility contributes to the
independence of imported fossil energies, constitutes a lever for the
3.8.1. Electric mobility in Morocco integration of RE in the energy mix because partial electrification of
With over 5 million vehicles, transport sector is the pillar of transport encourages the installation of (decentralized) renewable en-
Moroccan economy accounts for 6% of GDP and employs 10% of the ergy production units, storage (V2G: vehicle to grid) and the valoriza-
urban active population. Morocco has a road network of about tion of surpluses for the production of hydrogen [97,98].
60,000 km of roads, 1,000 km of expressways and 1,800 km of mo-
torways [85]. However, transport is the second polluting sector in 3.8.3. Barriers Matrix of Electric Vehicles Adoption in Morocco
Morocco and a major source of gas emissions; it is responsible for 15% Based on an in-deep analysis of the current electric mobility situa-
of total emissions of the kingdom. The major problem is that the tion and on data collected from electric mobility actors in Morocco,
transport sector absorbs 35% of national energy consumption including barriers of electric vehicles adoption are categorized on three major
50% of petroleum products [86]. For these reasons and because of the elements. Table 10 presents the matrix of these barriers.
transport remains an essential link in the development of the country's
economy, the interest in electric vehicles has increased in recent years 3.8.4. Recommandations
in Morocco. Many automobile manufacturers have installed in the Morocco expects a real growth in electric-vehicle sales in coming
kingdom at this point developed and commercialized their first modern years. However, the market is currently in a period of transition, as
electric models, proving that the electric drive is technically viable, companies and cities scale up to meet the demands. The demand for
environmentally friendly and affordable and it's a better solution in electric vehicles comes with a few factors that require collaboration
order to improve Moroccan economy. As well as the renewal of the between cities and car owners. Research agencies, vehicles manu-
state's vehicle fleet with electric and hybrid vehicles are one of the first facturers and operating entities are encouraged to maximize electric
measures that the government intends to put in place as part of the vehicles adoption based on local conditions, and to develop responsi-
kingdom's 2030 sustainable development strategy. Clean cars should bilities for implementation. Fig. 14 shows the four key elements for a
make up 30% of the fleet by 2021 [87]. Meanwhile, the deployment of successful transformation for EV adoption acceleration in Morocco.
a strong charging infrastructure is the backbone of the electric vehicle A voluntarist policy of the government, through concrete actions
adoption. Through IRESEN, Morocco has started some initiatives to and subsidies aimed to encourage consumers to buy green vehicles at
encourage the development of electric mobility. The example is the competitive prices, are the main acts allowing the development of
Green miles project that focuses on the installation of 74 charging electric mobility in Morocco. Finally, it is necessary to ensure the
points to cover more than 600 km highway. Furthermore, the im- compatibility of charging, communication, and billing and payment
plementation of 2 charging units coupled to photovoltaic panels in systems and to adapt them to the Moroccan context.
Rabat City [88]. Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 represent respectively the evolu-
tion of charging pools number in Morocco between the last trimester of 3.9. Energy efficiency
2018 and the second trimester of 2020 and the distribution of plugs by
charging speed [89]. According to the national energy strategy adopted at the end of
2008, energy efficiency is considered a key element of economic and
3.8.2. Electric mobility and renewable energies social progress [99]. In this context, a number of measures to save
Transport always goes with energy, and the major question is where energy and control energy consumption in various sectors (industry,
the energy needed comes from? Otherwise, given the impact of trans- buildings, agriculture, public lighting and transport) have been adopted
port on the consumption of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions, in Morocco.
the implementation of a policy allowing the development of electro To support energy efficiency programmes, Law 47-09 on energy
mobility in Morocco represented an important fraction of the renewable efficiency was published in 2011 [100]. It focuses on energy audits,
energy objectives. In this context a socio-economic study of electric energy impact studies, energy performance in several sectors,

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Fig. 12. The charging pools evolution in Morocco.

rationalisation of the energy used by public establishments and local must promote energy efficiency, the reduction of greenhouse gas
authorities, the creation of the status of energy service companies and emissions, the reduction of fossil fuel consumption and the deployment
the introduction of technical controls for audits by accredited compa- of renewable energies.
nies. The new thermal building regulation, which defines energy per- Different instruments can be implemented locally in each region to
formance rules in Buildings, was drafted in 2014. In 2019, the energy achieve the 2030 energy efficiency targets and accelerate the transition
audit of industries is mandated. to a more energy-efficient society:
The goals for energy efficiency, which have been adjusted from
2009′s initial ambition, are now 5% by 2020 (compared to 12% in- • Assess the potential of energy savings, renewable energy and heat
itially) and 20% by 2030 [99,101]. This delay in implementing the recovery in each region [102]. Waste heat recovery can lead to two
energy efficiency objectives is due to the positioning of the AMEE complementary heat valorisation processes [103]:
(Moroccan Agency for Energy Efficiency), its organisation and the lack ■ Internal valorization, to meet the heat needs in the company;
of human and financial resources needed to carry out this important ■ External valorization, to meet the heat needs of other companies
project. Current analysis of Morocco's energy sector reveals that there is or, more generally, of a region, via a district heating network. In
significant potential for additional energy savings in the country [99]. addition to thermal recovery, the heat can also be transformed
We consider that the success of the energy transition policy in into electricity, for internal or external use.
Morocco can only be achieved through local authorities (Region, • Reducing energy consumption: in particular, by improving the
Municipalities and Communes), which are in the first line to apply and thermal isolation of public buildings, switching off public lighting
adapt the national objectives in terms of energy efficiency to the local after a certain period, promoting car sharing as well as clean and
context. Local and regional authorities should be committed to a pro- collective transport, mutualising facilities, encouraging local pro-
cess of achieving a balance between energy consumption and produc- duct, etc.
tion at local level by reducing energy needs as far as possible and re- • Development of renewable energies: for example, through a regional
specting the national energy system's equilibrium. In their policies, they programme for the installation of photovoltaic panels on public

Fig. 13. Ddistribution of plugs by charging speed.

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

Table 10
Barriers matrix.
Vehicles Agencies and operators Grid and charging infrastructures

Institutional • Difficulties for manufacturers in engaging with cities • Negative public perception • Limited planning for long-term implications
and e-mobility actors • Weak governmental coordination • Lack of law of energy integration in Law voltage
• Targeted policies toward sustainable urban transport • Not enough policies supporting the adoption of
are still quite limited electric vehicles
Financial • Lack of financing options • Scaling investment past initial pilot programs • Large capital expenses for grid infrastructure
• High upfront capital costs of electric vehicles • Strong financial management and business
models
Technological • Range and power limitation of electric vehicles • Lack of information on how to start • Limitations of the charging stations
• Disjointed or limited electric vehicles marketplace • Lack of operational data • Grid instability
• Lack of information on advantages and disadvantages • Lack of standards and regulations on charging
of electric vehicles. infrastructures
• Lack of understanding of the requirements to
upgrade infrastructure

buildings, the implementation of district heating networks in- renewable energy technology, and helping to develop a local manu-
tegrating renewable energies in new urban areas, etc.... facturing industry.
• Implement a thermal renovation program for existing residential MASEN and IRESEN are responsible for implementing R&D projects
buildings, and integrate the issue of environmental quality into this and identify strategic topics to guide the R&D and create a real and
program. concrete research map. IRESEN is a network of applied research plat-
• Development of Eco-neighbourhoods. forms at the service of researchers and innovation actors. Based on the
• Environmental education: by promoting awareness in schools, en- implementation of current projects, IRESEN will have to assess the
couraging information for residents... progress, priorities and organization of R&D governance in order to
ensure the success of Morocco's energy transition for 2030.
Other measures are needed at the national level to ensure that en- Continued support is needed for universities and educational cen-
ergy efficiency can fully contribute to the energy transition in Morocco: tres to ensure that students, scientists and operators are informed and
trained in RE technologies. To this end, it is recommended that re-
■ Establishment of a national energy efficiency fund. search, education and training in RE be included in the legislative
■ Implement norms and financial mechanisms to support energy ef- framework and educational policies. In addition, it becomes necessary
ficiency policies. to strengthen the coordination of energy technologies and R&D be-
■ Reinforcing the expertise, the human and the financial resources of tween different agencies, universities and government in order to avoid
the AMEE. duplication of activities and to develop stronger synergies between
■ Creation of an AMEE office at the level of each region. The covid 19 industry and universities.
sanitary crisis that recently affected the entire world has clearly
revealed the necessity to develop locally an economic, energy and 4. Conclusion
social policy in relation to the specificities of each region.
■ A legislative framework to regulate and control the conformity in Morocco has made the transition to renewable energy a high
terms of quality and safety must govern renewable energy equip- priority since the 2009 national energy strategy. After 2020, the
ments introduced in the national market. Moroccan government has set an ambitious long-term target for re-
■ National competence and expertise must also be created to develop newable energy by reaching 52% of total installed capacity by 2030, by
testing laboratories to facilitate the study and certification of energy taking advantage of the country's high potential conditions for wind
equipments and regional construction materials. and solar power in addition to the contributions of hydropower, thus
demonstrating a clear long-term commitment. However, Morocco must
3.10. Innovation and Energy R&D implement several measures and strategies in order to achieve the
ambitious target of 2030. Among these measures: the modernization of
Morocco has outstanding RE prospects, including solar, wind and the electricity network with the introduction of intelligent metering and
biomass technologies. Such technologies have different needs in terms analysis systems, the development of regional and international inter-
of support for research and development, demonstration and market connections and the promotion of energy storage.
development [104]. Moreover, innovation remains an important link Otherwise, the kingdom must complete the regulatory framework
for a wide integration of these technologies [105]. The energy research, for open and transparent access to low-voltage grid, including through
development and innovation policies remain mandatory to enhance the harmonized permitting, and tariff structures. It is urgent for policy-
Morocco's ambitious energy policy priorities, boosting the use of makers to explore possibilities for developing the "power to x" concept

Fig. 14. Key elements for a successful transformation for EV adoption acceleration in Morocco.

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M. Boulakhbar, et al. Journal of Energy Storage 32 (2020) 101806

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