Original Article

Single-parent Adolescents’ Resilience Journal of Indian Association for Child and

Adolescent Mental Health
1–7
and Psychological Well-being: The Role © The Author(s) 2024
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of Social Competence and Emotion in.sagepub.com/journals-permissions-india
DOI: 10.1177/09731342241239441
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Surendra Kumar Sia1,2 and Athira Aneesh2

Abstract
Background: Previous studies have shown that children and adolescents living with single parents are prone to behavioral
and psychological difficulties and experience a poor sense of well-being. Also, the period of adolescence is critical for the
development of an individual in multiple aspects; it is important to focus on their well-being and associated factors for a
better transition into adulthood.
Aims: This study aims to find the mediating role of social competence and emotion regulation on the relationship between
resilience and psychological well-being among single-parent adolescents.
Methods: This was a cross-sectional study. The study sample was 385 adolescents residing in Kerala (179 boys and 206
girls, mean age = 15.03, SD = 1.45). A total of 185 participants (48.1%) were from families that lost either of their parents
to death, and the other 200 participants (51.9%) were from divorced or separated families. Self-reported measures for resil-
ience, social competence, emotion regulation, and psychological well-being were used for data collection. Data were analysed
using IBM SPSS and AMOS version 24.
Results: The results showed that resilience, the prosocial behavior dimension of social competence, and the cognitive reap-
praisal dimension of emotion regulation indicate significant positive associations with the psychological well-being of adoles-
cents living in single-parent families. The expressive suppression dimension of emotion regulation and the antisocial behavior
dimension of social competence have a substantial negative connection with the psychological well-being of adolescents
raised by single parents. The findings suggest that resilience directly predicts psychological well-being; prosocial behavior and
cognitive reappraisal partially mediate the association of resilience and psychological well-being.
Conclusion: According to our findings in this study, developing social competence skills and adaptive emotion regulation
strategies can improve the psychological well-being of adolescents living with single parents. The results have multiple clinical,
educational, and community implications.

Keywords
Single parent family, adolescent, psychological resilience, social competence, emotion regulation, psychological well-being

Introduction anguish has a detrimental effect on the competence, adaptability,

and general well-being of their kids.4,5
The concept of a single-parent family is not new to Indian
society, though it has recently been discussed. In India, most
cases are due to the demise of a parent, followed by divorce 1
Department of Applied Psychology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry,
and separation. Moreover, most single-parent families are run India
by women.1 2
Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
As reported, children and adolescents raised by single
Corresponding author:
parents are vulnerable to delinquent behavior, and low devel- Surendra Kumar Sia, Department of Psychology, University of Delhi,
opmental achievements, and are more likely to develop psychi- Delhi-110007, India.
atric issues and substance abuse.2,3 Single parents’ psychological E-mail: surendra.sia@gmail.com

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2 Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health

Adolescence consists of physical, emotional, and psycho- and interpersonal objectives is emotion regulation (ER).
logical changes. The quality and nature of an individual’s adult Researchers are investigating how children’s ER abilities are
life depends on how effectively he navigates the transition impacted by their sociocultural background, especially family
through adolescence. These transitions are critical because they relationships and situations.20 Adolescent mental health and
indirectly shape and modify cognitions, emotions, and behavior, the connection between mindfulness and psychological
enabling them for their next life stage.6,7 This stage of life is discomfort are impacted by ER. Adolescent social anxiety is
significant and the involvement of parents and other family correlated with non-acceptance of emotion, lack of clarity,
members could help to strengthen the values learned from and emotional awareness.21 According to research findings,
family and peer interactions. A healthy and supportive family difficulties in coping with emotions are linked to symptoms
environment is essential for a child’s social development.8,9
of psychopathology.22 Adolescents’ well-being is correlated
This type of parenting can influence children’s thinking
to their preferred ER strategy. ER difficulties are associated
and learning processes.10 Single-parent households can lead
with low levels of subjective well-being in adolescents.23
to a lack of parental attention, significantly impacting chil-
dren. Furthermore, more delinquent behavior may result from Adolescents living in nuclear families tend to use expressive
a child’s experiences with transitions than from their family’s suppression rather than cognitive reappraisal. Moreover, ER
current or previous structure.11,12 The psychological health of mediates the relationship between parental attachment and
adolescents raised by single parents deserves more attention. empathy in adolescents.24
The idea of psychological well-being (PWB) includes In light of these research conclusions, the following
elevated levels of pleasant operations that can encompass hypotheses were formulated.
various relationships with people and the surroundings, both
interpersonally and interpersonally.13 Numerous factors like H5: Cognitive reappraisal will be positively related to the
parenting, social interaction, social support, resilience, and PWB of adolescents.
social competence (SC) can directly influence PWB.14 H6: Expressive suppression will be negatively related to
According to Walsh (1996), adolescents who are resil- the PWB of adolescents.
ient enough view divorce, separation, and living with just H7: The link between resilience and PWB will be mediated
one parent as an emotive and empowering shift. Moreover, by dimensions of emotion regulation in adolescents.
they can identify and use supportive systems and benefits.15
Children and adolescents from single-parent households who There is a visible lack of studies regarding adolescents living
are resilient are better able to cope with stressful situations in single-parent households conducted in the Indian context,
and circumstances both during and after family dissolution.16 although studies have been conducted among single parents
This review’s insights led to the formulation of the subse-
regarding their social, emotional, and psychological functioning
quent hypothesis.
and mental health.25–27 Therefore, through the present study we
have made a sincere attempt to contribute in that direction by
H1: Resilience would be positively related to the single-
parent adolescent’s PWB verifying the abovementioned formulated hypotheses.

Social competence could significantly predict the mental

health and well-being of an individual.17 In general, SC is
broadly described as the capacity to create and sustain
Material and Methods
effective peer interactions and beneficial social outcomes by
managing one’s own and environmental resources.18 Reduced Research Design
social skills are reportedly common in children from disrupted Cross-sectional correlational research was the research
families, whereas socially competent children experience method adopted in the present study. Standardized question-
higher PWB and academic achievement.19 naires were used for data collection.
The following hypotheses were formulated based on
these findings. Participants

H2: 
Prosocial dimension of SC will have a positive This study included 463 single-parent adolescents aged 13–17
relationship with the PWB of single-parent adolescents. (225 boys and 238 girls) from Kerala. Due to missing data, 78
H3: 
Antisocial dimension of SC will have a negative participants were excluded, resulting in a final sample of 385
relationship with the PWB of single-parent adolescents. adolescents (179 boys and 206 girls). Mothers ran 95% of sin-
H4: The relationship between resilience and PWB will gle-parent households. A purposive sampling technique was
be mediated by dimensions of social competence in adapted to select participants. Informed consent was obtained
adolescents. from participants and their parents. More than 95% of the par-
ticipants were living with single mothers. About 48.1% of the
An individual’s capacity to identify, understand, and integrate participants were under single parenting due to the demise of
emotional information while managing both intrapersonal one parent, and 51.9% were due to divorce or separation.
Sia and Aneesh 3

Measures and lower RMSEA is always considered a better model fit.

Though an RMSEA value less than 0.08 is acceptable, and
Four questionnaires, including a sociodemographic data
˂0.05 is associated with a better model. Mediation analyses
sheet, were used in the study to collect self-report data. The
were carried out for further research.
tools used were psychometrically reliable and valid. Original
questionnaires were in English, and a Malayalam-translated
version of the tools was used for data collection.
Results
(1) Brief Resilience Scale28
This measure includes six items to measure the Descriptive Statistics and Demographic Characteristics
resilience of the participant with Cronbach’s alpha 0.71.
Following data collection, a frequency analysis was per-
(2) Psychological Well-being Scale29
formed in SPSS to check for any potential trends. A total of
The present study used an 18-item version of the
463 data were collected from the participants, due to incom-
42-item scale with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83. On a
plete and missing responses, 78 of them were excluded from
7-point scale, respondents indicate how strongly they
the analysis. Further, 385 participants’ responses were ana-
agree or disagree with each of the 18 statements.
lysed using IBM SPSS AMOS version 24.
(3) Multisource Assessment of Children’s Social
The mean age of the participants was 15 years, and
Competence Scale30
46.5% of the sample were males and 53.5% were females.
This scale includes 15 items in total with four factors of
Most of the participants lived with single mothers. A total of
social competence: cooperation abilities and empathy
185 adolescents (48.1%) were from families where one parent
that measure the prosocial dimension, impulsivity, and
was deceased, the remaining 200 (51.9%) were from sepa-
disruptiveness measure the antisocial dimension with
rated or divorced families, and 44.9% of the participants lived
Cronbach’s alpha of 0.66.
in the presence of grandparents. About 70% of the sample is
(4) Emotion Regulation Questionnaire31
from rural, and only 30% are from urban settings.
The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire is a 10-item
The descriptive statistics for the study variables depict
scale that measures one’s capacity to manage emotions
that the average (mean) PWB reported by single-parent
in two different ways: “cognitive reappraisal and
adolescents was 83.82 (SD = 10.14). The mean resilience,
expressive suppression” with Cronbach’s alpha 0.68.
prosocial behavior, antisocial behavior, cognitive reap-
praisal, and expressive suppression are 3.08 (SD = 0.54), 24
(SD = 3.6), 13.2 (SD = 3.8), 27.41 (SD = 6.6), and 18.08
Statistical Analysis
(SD = 4.7), respectively. Resilience shows a significant positive
The primary data analysis used frequency, percentages, mean, correlation coefficient with cognitive reappraisal (r = 0.11),
and standard deviation. The product-moment coefficients were prosocial behavior (r = 0.36), and psychological well-being
calculated to determine the magnitude and direction of the rela- (r = 0.22), whereas a negative coefficient for antisocial
tionship between study variables. In addition, various other behavior (r = 0.23). Expressive suppression shows a negative
preparatory analyses, including reliability, were determined relation with psychological well-being (r = −0.14) but posi-
using SPSS version 24. We conducted a confirmatory factor tive relation with antisocial behavior (r = 0.12); moreover,
analysis of the variables used in this study to develop a meas- antisocial behavior depicts negative correlation with psycho-
urement model with an acceptable model fit. The maxi- logical well-being (−r = 0.17) (see Table 2). The normalcy
mum-likelihood method in the AMOS version 24 was used to requirements were satisfied because the computed values for
test the measurement model. The model fit indices, also known skewness and kurtosis fell between −1.96 and +1.96 (skew-
as measures of goodness of fit, help us to scrutinize the ness: −1.33 to 1.243, kurtosis: −0.673 to 1.622). The data is
observed model by comparing it with the theoretical model. considered standard when the skewness and kurtosis values
Widely used fit measures are normed chi-square, Probability, are less than two.32 The confirmatory factor analyses were
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), compara- carried out for all the tools used in the present study to oper-
tive fit index (CFI), goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted good- ationalize the constructs using the AMOS software. Items
ness of fit index (AGFI), and parsimony goodness of fit index loaded poorly and those cross-loaded items were removed,
(PGFI). Various researchers give acceptable levels of these dif- and required modification indices were applied to obtain
ferent indices. Normed chi-square is considered good when it the necessary model fit. Measurement model analysis of the
is less than 5 and best when it is less than 3. GFI, CFI, and measures used in the study is presented in Table 1.
AGFI are good fit indices that show how far the theoretical and The correlation results (Table 2) indicate that resilience is
observed models fit each other. These indices’ values can range positively and significantly correlated to the overall PWB of
from 0 to 1, indicating better model fitness when the values adolescents living with single parents (r = 0.217, P < .01). The
increase. However, if the value is greater than 0.9, it would be prosocial behavior dimension of SC (r = 0.355, P < .01) and
considered the best fit. RMSEA is an imperfect fit measure, the cognitive reappraisal dimension of ER (r = 0.102, P < .05)
4 Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health

Table 1. Fit Indices Obtained for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) of Measures Used.

Measures
Fit Indices R CS ER PWB
GFI 0.98 0.92 0.97 0.93
CFI 0.97 0.94 0.94 0.91
AGFI 0.96 0.89 0.95 0.90
TLI 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.89
RMSEA 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05
Note: R, resilience; CS, social competence; ER, emotion regulation; PWB, psychological well-being.

Table 2. Mean, SD, and Correlation Matrix of Study Variables.

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Resilience 3.08 0.54 1
2 Cognitive reappraisal 27.41 6.6 0.102* 1
3 Expressive suppression 18.08 4.7 −0.018 0.301** 1
4 Prosocial behavior 23.95 4.2 0.355** 0.081 −0.058 1
5 Antisocial behavior 13.22 3.9 −0.234** −0.001 0.122* −0.386** 1
6 Overall psychological 83.82 10.14 0.217** 0.160** −0.138** 0.210** −0.173** 1
well-being
Notes: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 3. Mediation Analysis Summary.

Confidence Level
Relationship Direct Effect Indirect Effect Lower Bound Upper Bound P Conclusion
Res ® Pro ® PWB 2.387* 0.662 0.045 1.39 .033* Partial mediation
Res ® Anti ® PWB 0.329 −0.071 0.804 .099 No mediation
Res ® CogR ® PWB 3.009* 0.314 0.043 0.793 .021* Partial mediation
Res ® ExpS ® PWB 0.055 −0.239 0.408 .661 No mediation
Notes: *P < .05; Anti, antisocial behavior; CogR, cognitive reappraisal; ExpS, expressive suppression; Pro, prosocial behavior; Res, resilience; PWB,
psychological well-being.

also show a significant positive association with resilience, Furthermore, the study attempted to investigate the medi-
where the antisocial behavior dimension of SC (r = −0.234, ating role of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppres-
P < .01) shows a significant negative correlation. Furthermore, sion dimensions of ER in the relationship between resilience
PWB shows a significant positive correlation with the proso- and PWB. The findings highlighted a significant indirect
cial behavior dimension of SC (r = 0.210, P < .01) and the effect of resilience on PWB through cognitive reappraisal
cognitive reappraisal dimension of ER (r = 0.160, P < .01) and (b = 0.314, t = 1.725, P = .021). Further, the mediating role of
a significant negative correlation with the antisocial behavior the expressive suppression dimension was found to be insig-
dimension of SC (−0.173, P < .01) and expressive suppression nificant in mediating the linkage between resilience and PWB
dimension of ER (r = −0.138, P < .01). (b = 0.055, t = 0.343, P = .661). Hence, cognitive reappraisal
The present study investigated the mediating role of partially mediated the relationship between resilience and
prosocial and antisocial dimensions of SC in the relationship PWB, whereas expressive suppression shows no mediation.
between resilience and PWB. The findings highlight a signif- Table 3 displays the summary of the mediation analysis.
icant indirect effect of resilience on PWB in the presence of a
prosocial dimension (b = 0.662, t = 1.952, P = .033). Analysing
the role of the antisocial behavior dimension in mediating the Discussion
relation between the contributing variable and PWB, the study
found an insignificant effect (b = 0.329, t = 1.502, P = .099). It is well documented that the absence of one parent affects
Hence, prosocial behavior partially mediated the association the children’s psychological state, including the development
between resilience and PWB, whereas the antisocial behavior of behavioral issues, poor self-concept, difficulties in social
dimension showed no mediation. aspects, and relationships with the parents. Single-parent
Sia and Aneesh 5

households and their interactions influence adolescents more between resilience and PWB of single-parent adolescents,
than any other age group. Studies report that sudden changes partially supporting H4 and H7. According to research find-
in the familial environment, like divorce or separation, will ings, resilience and prosocial behavior correlate positively,
negatively impact children and adolescents. and resilient individuals appear to be more socially adapt-
The study aimed to understand the relationship between able.36,37 In the past years, various studies reported a positive
resilience and single-parent adolescents’ PWB and determine correlation between resilience and positive aspects of well-
whether social competence and emotion regulation impact being and mental health; improving resilience among single-
the relationship between resilience and PWB. According to the parent adolescents can enhance their well-being. Developing
correlation analysis results, resilience significantly improves PWB resilience can help an individual to be lenient of negative
among single-parent adolescents, supporting H1. Resilience is emotional states like stress, anxiety, and depression as they
one of the major contributing factors to well-being and mental challenge one’s coping skills and mental health.38
health, especially in middle and late adolescence. Research Family interactions and their contributions to different
suggests a positive association between resilience and PWB aspects of human behaviors and perceptions of life events are
among children and adolescents and resilience is negatively significant in cultures like India. Apart from other parts of the
correlated with the indicators that diminish mental health.33,34 world where single parents are mostly on their own, in our
Developing resilience can improve coping skills and society, children from single-parent families can interact with
mental health. Results show that intra- and interfamily their grandparents and other extended family members, influ-
support and open communication with family members and encing their emotional and social development. This can be
friends can promote resilience in single-parent families. considered a positive aspect of collective cultures like ours;
Unlike Western culture, Indian families maintain frequent people are always in connection with one another, contrib-
interactions with relatives and friends, which helps people uting to each other’s mental health. The basics of emotion
share and reduce the negative impacts of their stressful expe- management and social interactions are instilled in a person
riences. Such interactions help them perceive more support from the family in the early years of life. Positive emotion
from others and improve their well-being. regulation strategies and social competence skills can directly
Results also indicate a significant positive correlation contribute to the PWB of an individual. Furthermore, resil-
between PWB and prosocial behavior, supporting H2, and ient individuals are capable of creating a positive outlook
a significant negative correlation with antisocial behavior, toward life and hence, they may have positive emotion regu-
supporting H3. These findings are substantiated by research lation strategies and prosocial behaviors. This can be a reason
evidence stating that adolescents’ social competence could for the indirect effects of cognitive reappraisal and prosocial
better predict psychological and subjective well-being.17–19 behavior in the relationship between resilience and PWB.
Social competence was significantly associated with adoles-
cents’ emotional, social, and PWB. High cooperation skills,
low impulsivity, and disruptiveness in adolescents result in
PWB. Researchers suggest that reinforcing social compe- Conclusions
tence during childhood and adolescence can enhance PWB, In conclusion, this research complements earlier research on
academic performance, and cognitive development. Present the PWB of adolescents raised by a single parent. Ultimately,
findings add to the existing literature. this study found that among adolescents raised by a single
Furthermore, a significant positive relationship was parent, resilience, social competence, emotion control, and
obtained between cognitive reappraisal and a significant nega- PWB were significantly correlated. The findings indicate that
tive correlation with expressive suppression. Hence, H5 and H6 apart from the direct contribution of resilience to PWB, it pre-
are accepted. According to the literature, emotion regulation dicts well-being through prosocial behavior and cognitive
influences an adolescent’s mental health and has a significant reappraisal.
impact on psychological distress and mindfulness. Cognitive
reappraisal was closely associated with well-being outcomes
and positive mental health indicators.35 Moreover, cognitive
reappraisal is a good way of emotional regulation and a protec- Key Messages
tive factor for emotional well-being. Studies reported a positive
correlation between cognitive reappraisal and positive affect, This study shows that women run most single-parent house-
whereas expressive suppression was associated negatively with holds, and adolescents need immediate attention and supervi-
positive affect and mindfulness. Individuals who frequently sion. Since resilience is a strong indicator of well-being,
use cognitive reappraisal experience better positive emotions helping single-parent adolescents become more resilient can
and show superior interpersonal functioning and chronic use of safeguard and improve their coping skills, sense of well-
suppression can lead to higher levels of depression and anxiety. being, and happiness. The only data used in this study is the
The results demonstrate that the prosocial behavior responses of the adolescents, which can be extended to their
and cognitive reappraisal partially mediate the relationship parents and teachers for future research. Other significant
6 Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health

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