Civics & Community Engagement 6 BS 4 Years,

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 Civics & Community Engagement 7 BS 4 Years,
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CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION TO CIVICS & CITIZENSHIP

Civics, Citizenship & Civic Engagement

Civics: The study of the rights and duties of citizenship is called ‘Civics’.
In Arabic, this branch of knowledge is known as ‘Madniat’, that is, the
study of Madina (the City) and its natives. The word ‘Civics’ it-self is the
combination of two words, ‘Civis’ and ‘Civitas’, taken from Latin language
speaking of ‘city’ and ‘citizens’ respectively. Civics basically deals with
how things work in daily routine of citizens in their own city.

Twenty five hundred years ago, Greece was divided into so many small-
scale states. Each population or city had the rank of a separate state and
such states were even recognized as ‘City States’. Civics, at that time,
was the study of issues and affairs of these city states. After Alexander
the Great conquered the region, these city states were merged into a
considerable state. The study of affairs of mighty states was also
identified as ‘Civics’. Even today, Civics includes the knowledge of states
and problems of natives living in. The term ‘Civics’ was first used in 1887
when it was formally classified as a proper “Discipline” or “Branch of
Knowledge”.

Civics & its Evolution: The study of city and citizenship set about around
twenty five hundred years ago. In that era, the culture and civilization
reached to its highest level in different areas of Greece. The intellectuals
served a lot in the field of Art & Knowledge and Politics & Government.
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle belong to the same epoch. In this particular
period of time in history, Plato wrote ‘The Republic’, Aristotle wrote ‘The
Politics’ and helped in laying the foundation of ‘Civics’. They both critically
analyzed the laws and drawbacks of a state along with its system of
government.

Ancient Greece was divided into One hundred and fifty eight (158)
city states. Each state consisted of self-standing population of a few
thousand people, having its own system of government. Athens, Sparta
and Syracuse were included in the list of those city states but these are
now known as big cities of modern Greece. Ancient City States were
independent and self-reliant. In some of the states, democratic system of
government was observed. Due to less population, even the citizens
themselves used to take part in legislation and formation of government
policy enjoying freedom of opinion while keeping up with their democratic
system of government.

After the conquest of Greece by Alexander the Great, the concept

of ancient city states came to an end giving birth to one whole state of
considerable size. Like Greece, such small-scale states also existed in
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Rome. When the Great Roman Empire came into being, these
inconsiderable states were, likewise, incorporated into one single state.
This journey towards colossal states caused vastness in the field of
Civics. The study regarding extensive states got extended and gradually
the length of topics in the discipline of civics was prolonged. The modern
state is consisted of many cities, and countless towns and villages.
Therefore, the circle of the study (Civics) discussing its issues and affair
has also been stretched out. Now, it not only throws light on local issues
but as well as on national issues.

Citizen: In the Greek states, all natives were not to be considered

‘Citizens’. Only those individuals enjoyed the position of being one, who
were eligible to take part in political, administrative and judicial
proceedings. The laborers, servants, roustabouts, farmers, and the
foreigners were not recognized as ‘citizens’. In the modern times, each
native is categorized as citizen of his own city except foreigners. Today,
the role of a citizen is not only restrained to the populated area of the city
but has expanded towards national and international level.
Civic Engagement: Civic engagement refers to the active participation of
individuals in the political, social, and community aspects of their society.
It encompasses a wide range of activities aimed at improving the well-
being of a community and fostering a sense of responsibility toward the
common good. This engagement can take various forms, including voting
in elections, volunteering for community service, participating in local
government meetings, joining advocacy groups, and engaging in public
debates or discussions about policy issues.
Civic engagement involves both formal and informal actions.
Formal actions include voting, running for office, or working with
government institutions, while informal actions involve grassroots efforts,
such as community organizing or awareness campaigns. It is driven by a
sense of duty, rights, and belonging in a society, motivating individuals to
contribute to shaping their social, economic, and political environments.
The goals of civic engagement are to enhance democratic
governance, promote accountability, and foster inclusivity. By
participating in civic activities, individuals help create a more responsive
government and a cohesive society where the interests and needs of the
public are better addressed. Civic engagement empowers citizens to
influence decision-making processes and create positive social change.

Definitions

Patrick Geddes: “Civics is the name of city life and the problems
regarding it.”

This definition by Patrick Geddes is very confined, and does not

cover the whole of civics as it refuses to take notice of the national and
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international issues of citizens.

Dr. Aziz Ahmad: “Civics is the study of individuals and institute whose
individuals either are the members by birth or they become its members
by choice.”

A.T.Shaw: “Civics is the branch of knowledge which focuses on the

rights and duties of citizens who have been living as a member of well-
arranged organization.”

Oxford Dictionary: “The study of rights and duties of citizenship is called

‘Civics’.

Putnam Becker: “Civics is the knowledge of city life and its philosophy.”

E. M. White: “Civics is the branch of human knowledge that has a link

with citizen, and his past, present and future. It basically discusses every
aspect of life of the citizen i.e.; social, economic, and religious aspects.”

F. J. Gould: “Civics is the study of emotions, activities, tasks and those

institutions, through which every individual whether male or female can
perform their duties and be benefited by any political organization.”

The Utility & Significance of Civics

Civics plays important role in modern social studies. The role of

citizens in social, democratic and political life is of much significance
these days. If they play their part well, it can bring them proficient
outcomes. Civics gives birth to the supportive atmosphere for successful
social and political life as well as it organizes the individual and
communal life. It also makes a man aware of local, national and
international fields resulting in the formation of agile society. Therefore,
the study of civics is considered mandatory now a days. The Usefulness
of Civics in our Life is as Follows:

1-Training of Citizens: The knowledge of the citizen is the main concern

in the field of civics. This knowledge provides political, social and moral
guidance to the people making them aware of their role and importance
as to what they have to do in order to live in a strong state and well-
ordered society. If people are politically aware of their problems, the
approach to solve those issues is elevated. When a person is familiar with
the role of his country on local, national and international level, he can
serve in a more advantageous way.
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2-Emergence of Better Role: Civics is standardized branch of knowledge.
It differentiates between good and evil, urging people to adopt the
virtuous traits. This type of knowledge promotes the emotions of love,
sacrifice, sympathy, patience and co-operation. People tend to respect
others’ feelings. They start to take care of joint interest along with
personal interests. Civics is against prejudices, hatred and abomination
and gives training of truthfulness, honesty, openheartedness and
generosity to the individuals.

3-The Equal Proportion of Loyalty: Each person has link with many
institutions simultaneously. He thinks of his personal interest as well as
family, tribal, village and civic interests. He also becomes the member of
optional associations in his surroundings. At the same time, he has
association with some political party having his own separate beliefs.
Usually people face problems due to clash of interest. Therefore, it is
necessary to be loyal with some institute but if the loyalty with one
institution is opposed to the other and creating hindrance then what a
man should do? The study of Civics guides citizens in this regard and
bestows upon them the true sense of equal proportion of loyalty.

4-Promotion of Social Values: Man cannot live without society as he is a

social animal. While living with other people where a man is facilitated, he
faces different troubles too. Such problems are solved through different
rules and regulations in the society. Some social limits are executed and
good citizen always take care of them as they advance towards a civilized
and cultured society. Patience and Tolerance play very important role in
this regard. If each person respects the ideas of other people, hurts no
one, then, for sure, it will result in a valuable environment. Through Civics,
apprentices come to know about social values and finally they act upon
the principle of “Live and let live”.

5-Rights and Duties: The rights and duties of the citizens are widely
discussed in the field of Civics. The rights are those facilities which are
bestowed upon the citizen from the society and state. In return, a citizen
performs many duties. The rights and duties are always in, alliance with
one another. Civics illustrates the importance of the rights and duties
making individuals aware of it and stresses upon performing duties and
then seeking rights.

6-Growth of Democracy: Man has experienced different systems of

government and the best among them is democracy. In this system of
government, the real source of power is public. People select their
representatives who govern. The right growth of democracy in any
country depends on the role of its public. If people are not aware of their
democratic rights, then the true sense of this system is terminated. The
study of Civics provides the suitable environment for the democracy.
Further, it proves to be helpful in the emergence of competitive
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government and its better performance.

7-Realization of Problems: Civics makes its apprentices aware of their

political, social, economic and civic problems. They think of their national
issues minutely. And it is clear as day that when a nation realizes its
problems, it immediately begins to solve them. In this branch of
knowledge, educational, medical, industrial, agricultural, military, social
and economic problems of people are discussed as well as the solution is
identified. The constitutional monarchy of Switzerland made Civics a
compulsory subject in schools while realizing its importance so that it
may lead to the coming of good citizens.

8-Economic Development: The main problems of the citizens are linked

with the economic aspect. Their politics and morality are much influenced
by the economic condition. Unemployment, poverty, low standards of life,
unjust division of wealth and inflation make life of hard knocks. People
are living under the burden of taxes. The study of civics not only points
out the industrial, mineral, trade, and other economic problems but it also
has the problem solving characteristics.

9-Cultural Awareness: The progress of culture and civilization is the

human progress. If the nation is devoid of cultural awareness, and its
natives are busy in living their personal lives only, there process of joint
development becomes slow. The realization of a civilized society gives
birth too many virtuous traits in the citizens. They learn the art of living.
They adopt their own culture, art, customs and traditions, occurrences
and lifestyle and have their own separate identity among different nations.
The study of Civics enlightens people with the features of culture and
civilization and gives them apprehension of future planning.

10-International Affairs: Through the study of Civics, we come to know

that a person’s life is not confined to his personality or nation, but he is
also the member of universal human society. In the modern era, the
establishment of international associations, the development of
international laws, and the immensity of international relations helped a
lot in highlighting the international aspect. Today, no state can live alone
and it has to make connections with other states. The problems of any
nation cannot be solved without international co-operation. We can say
that, today, human problems are examined on international level.

11-Local Institutions: In civics, the problems of cities, towns and villages

are specifically discussed. And to eradicate those problem, the
institutions that are autonomous bodies on local level, are taken notice of,
for example, Civics particularly talks about Union Councils, Union
Committees, Municipal Committees, District Councils and other local
municipal institutions. Such local institutions are also established in
Britain, America, France and other countries.
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12-The Passion of Helping Ourselves: The study of Civics teaches the
students to perform their local duties voluntarily instead of relying on
government only. The countries where there is political and cultural
awareness, people admit their responsibility for local affairs. In Pakistan,
people in villages especially like to help themselves where people build
road, make trenches and grooves on their own. Civics has helped a lot in
promoting such kind of behavior among people. The rural students
struggle hard to encourage this attitude.

13-The Encouragement of Leadership: The apprentices of today are

citizens for tomorrow and they have to govern their country. Some of
them may be selected as future President, Prime Minister, Chief Ministers
and Members of Parliament. Civics prepares people for the future
leadership and makes them realize their rights and duties. It makes them
aware of the formation of different constitutional institutions and their
performance as well as illustrates the importance of different political
and administrative offices. Civics plays an eminent role in providing the
nation a new leadership.

14-The Struggle for Beau-ideal: The philosophers gave much thought to

political, social and economic problems and presented their views. In
civics, such concepts are examined and the implementable ones are
adopted. The efforts to develop the society and state are proved to be
very helpful. Today the society fulfilling the demands of public welfare
can be revolutionized only in the light of these views. The study of Civics
enlightens the citizens with new trends and concepts and the process of
progress continues in this way.

15-The Importance for Third World: The individuals living in Asia, Africa
and Southern America are facing poverty, ignorance and diseases to the
larger extent. The western world has always been exploiting them. The
study of Civics can develop contemporary awareness in people of these
countries and they can get rid of their problems with their joint efforts as
civics plays vital role in promoting the awareness among people.

Salient Features of Civics

Civics is the study of the rights and duties of citizenship and the
functioning of government. It encompasses a wide range of topics related
to governance, democracy, and civic responsibility. Here are the salient
features of civics:
1-Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities: Civics focuses on educating
individuals about their rights as citizens, such as freedom of speech, the
right to vote, and protection under the law. Equally, it emphasizes the
responsibilities of citizenship, including obeying laws, paying taxes, and
participating in civic duties like voting and jury service. This balance of
rights and duties helps maintain a functioning society and ensures active
citizen participation in governance.
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2-Government Structure and Function: A key feature of civics is
understanding different forms of government, such as democracies,
republics, monarchies, and authoritarian regimes. It explores how power
is divided among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, ensuring
that no single entity holds unchecked authority. Civics also highlights the
importance of checks and balances to maintain accountability and
prevent the abuse of power within government institutions.
3-Democracy and Political Representation: Civics stresses the
significance of democratic participation through elections and voting. It
explains the electoral process and how citizens elect representatives to
govern on their behalf. This feature of civics ensures that individuals
understand the importance of voting as a means of shaping government
policies and holding public officials accountable to the people they serve.
4-Rule of Law and Constitutional Rights: The rule of law is a foundational
element of civics, underscoring the principle that everyone is equal under
the law. Civics explains the role of the constitution as the supreme law of
the land, outlining how it protects individual rights and governs legal and
political processes. Understanding constitutional rights helps citizens
navigate the legal system and advocate for justice and equality.
5-Civic Engagement and Public Participation: Civics encourages active
participation in community and national affairs. This may include joining
public discussions, attending town hall meetings, or engaging in protests
and advocacy. Public participation is essential for a healthy democracy,
and civics promotes volunteerism and community service as ways to
contribute to the well-being of society.
6-Civil Liberties and Human Rights: Civics places a strong emphasis on
civil liberties such as freedom of speech, assembly, religion, and the
press. It also fosters an understanding of universal human rights,
promoting respect for diversity and the protection of individual freedoms
against discrimination. These rights form the bedrock of democratic
societies, ensuring that individuals can freely express themselves and
participate in public life.
7-Political Ideologies and Parties: Understanding political ideologies is
another important aspect of civics. It explores the spectrum of political
beliefs, from conservatism and liberalism to socialism and libertarianism.
Civics also explains the role of political parties in representing different
viewpoints and organizing electoral competition, helping citizens make
informed choices when voting.
8-Global Citizenship and International Relations: Civics extends beyond
national borders by teaching global citizenship. It covers the role of
international organizations such as the United Nations and delves into
global issues like climate change, human rights, and international
conflicts. This helps individuals understand their role in the global
community and the interconnected nature of modern societies.
9-Economic Literacy and Public Finance: Civics often includes an
understanding of how public resources are managed. It explains taxation,
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government spending, and the economic systems that influence public
policy. This helps citizens comprehend how economic decisions impact
societal welfare and enables them to engage more effectively in
discussions about public finance and economic policy.
10-Ethical Responsibility and Civic Virtue: Civics promotes moral
responsibility and civic virtue, emphasizing the importance of integrity,
honesty, tolerance, and cooperation. These values are essential to
fostering a sense of community and ensuring that democratic
governance is carried out in the best interests of society as a whole.
Ethical behavior in both public and private life is seen as a cornerstone of
responsible citizenship.

CIVICS & OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

Knowledge of science basically has two branches:

1. Pure Sciences 2. Social Sciences

In pure science, the substance is being discussed i.e. Physics,

Chemistry, Botany, Zoology and Algebra etc. On the other hand, the
branches of knowledge which discuss human beings, are called ‘Social
Sciences’ i.e. History, Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Civics and
Psychology. Each subject throws light on some specific aspect of human
life. These subjects have a deep connection with one another and with
Civics too. The study of Civics contains the material regarding other
subjects too although it is very limited.

Civics and Sociology

Sociology is basically an ancient social science which can be

called the combination of all social studies. This branch of knowledge
discusses some distinguishing features of a society, basic social life and
social institutions. Sociology is the study about society and it covers
different standards of the beginning and evolution of a society. Social
customs and traditions, cultural relations, and different types of
mandatory and optional social institutions are part of this knowledge.
Sociology basically throws light on religion, culture, economics and ideas.

Similarity between Civics and Sociology

Civics is the study of human habits, activities, emotions and institutions.

Society and state are the main concern in this field. Sociology and civics
have a great link with one another.

1-Part and Whole: Sociology is one whole subject while Civics is the part
of it. In Sociology, we discuss all the other social sciences. This branch of
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knowledge illustrates many aspects of human life as well as civic aspect,
therefore, civics is the part of sociology. Sociology has been called,
‘Mother of all Social Sciences.”

2-Main Concern: Sociology and Civics both are social sciences which
discuss human beings. Civics talks about human rights and duties and
different political and social institutions whereas sociology covers the
social aspect, therefore, both the subjects reach the same level as both of
them are deliberate about one thing, that is , human beings.

3-Common Topics: Human beings are the main topic in both branches of
knowledge. But there are other topics which are common. Civics
specifically throws light on the link between individual and society. Both
the subjects explore beginning, evolution, characteristics and features of
the society. They both converse about religion and give the information
regarding the traditions of family, tribe, village, city and town. Sociology
contains much stuff and details from Civics.

4-The Base of Citizenship: Sociology can easily be recognized as ‘Base of

citizenship’. It is true that in civics, we study about civic life and
institutions but it is necessary to examine different things with great
attention to details. While in sociology, we study about human institutions,
social features, religion, beliefs, culture and civilization. If we give
importance to all the above mentioned topics, then it will be easier to fully
understand the topics of Civics. Arab Philosopher Ibn Khaldun presented
the basic principles of sociology in his book while talking about rise and
decline of nations which very clearly illustrate the link between sociology
and civics.

5-Human Welfare: In Sociology and Civics, human welfare is specifically

taken care of. Both branches of knowledge stress upon the character of
an individual and creation of a better society. So, we can say that the
motives for human welfare in sociology and civics are the same.

6-Sociology is Superior: To achieve the aims of Civics, students are

required to have knowledge about beginning and evolution of the society
which can be found in sociology (the study of society). Traditions and
social circumstances influence the lives of citizens a lot and their
recognition is gathered only through the study of sociology. Both the
branches of knowledge, in fact, help in providing a better life to the
citizens.

Dissimilarities between Civics and Sociology

1-Standardized Branch of Knowledge: In Sociology, we explore features

of a society, social institutions and social customs and traditions
whereas civics is the branch of knowledge which sets about standards. It
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differentiates between good and evil. Sociology only reveals social
customs and characteristics but civics recommend proposals for the
development of the society.

2-Vastness of the Subject: Sociology has more importance than Civics as

far as immensity of the subject is concerned. Civics is only the part of
Sociology. The topics in sociology are so many, where light is thrown on
political, economic, social, psychological, moral, civic and other fields. On
the other hand, the circle of civics is very limited and compact, it does not
have any alliance with sociology when one talk about its vastness.

3-A Bird Eye-view: Although many topics of both the subjects are the
same but it is clear as day that in sociology, we explore these topics
superficially while in civics, we study in detail.

4-According to Age: In civics, past, present and future of civic life and
social institutions are discussed while sociology only talks about past and
present and does not have any link with future. The sense for the better
future of an individual and society exist only in civics. There is no future
planning in sociology.

5-According to Awareness: Civics is concerned only with those human

actions which a man commits consciously. On the other hand, in
sociology, both conscious and unconscious actions as well as organized
and disorganized activities are examined.

6-Individual and Society: Although both the subjects give value to the
individual and society, but it is very clear that civics focuses more on the
individual, and sociology on the society. The main concern of civics is the
human being while sociology covers the whole circle of joint social life.
7-Religious Aspect: Religion cannot be disregarded while conversing
about beginning and evolution of the society, therefore, religious
discussion is part and parcel of sociology. Civics, however, does not have
much concern with creed and religion.
Civics and Geography
Civics and geography are connected because both look at how
people live together and how they interact with the world around them.
Civics is about how governments work, the rights and duties of citizens,
and how laws are made and followed. Geography is about the land, water,
climate, and how people live in different places. These two are linked
because the place where people live affects how they are governed. For
example, natural features like rivers or mountains can create borders
between countries or regions, and different environments may need
different laws. Places with lots of resources like water or oil might have
rules to protect or share those resources, and people living in cities or
villages may care about different issues. Geography also helps us
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understand environmental problems like floods or droughts, which need
governments to make plans and policies. In short, geography shapes the
way governments work and how people engage in their communities.
Similarities between Civics and Geography
Civics and geography have several similarities, even though they study
different aspects of human life and the world. Here are some key
similarities:
1-Both Study Human Interaction: Civics focuses on how people interact
with their governments and each other, while geography looks at how
people interact with their physical environment and space.
2-Impact on Society: Both civics and geography influence and shape
societies. Civics affects how people live together, make laws, and solve
problems, while geography affects where people live, how they use
resources, and how they adapt to their surroundings.
3-Concerned with Human Behavior: Civics studies the behavior of
individuals and groups within a society in relation to laws, rights, and
responsibilities. Geography also considers human behavior, particularly
how populations move, settle, and adapt to different environments.
4-Influence of Location: In both fields, location is key. Civics considers
the location of political borders and government jurisdictions, while
geography studies the physical and cultural characteristics of different
locations.
5-Problem-Solving Approach: Both civics and geography deal with solving
human challenges. Civics looks at issues like governance, citizenship, and
justice, while geography tackles problems like resource distribution,
environmental sustainability, and population growth.
6-Global Perspective: Both subjects encourage a global perspective.
Civics involves understanding how different political systems operate
around the world, while geography looks at how different regions of the
world are connected through the environment, trade, and culture.
These similarities show that civics and geography are both
essential for understanding how humans live, interact, and govern in
different physical and social environments.

Dissimilarities between Civics and Geography

Civics and geography differ in several key ways, as they focus on
different aspects of human life and the world. Here are the main
dissimilarities between them:
1-Focus of Study: Civics: Focuses on government, citizenship, laws, rights,
and responsibilities within society. It explores how people are governed
and how they participate in the political process.
* Geography: Focuses on the physical features of the Earth, such as
landforms, climate, and natural resources, as well as human-environment
interactions.
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2-Subject Matter: Civics: Deals primarily with social, political, and legal
structures, including topics like democracy, elections, and justice systems.
* Geography: Deals with physical landscapes, ecosystems, spatial
patterns, and how humans adapt to and impact their environments.
3-Main Concerns: Civics: Concerned with how societies are organized,
how governments function, and the roles and responsibilities of
individuals as citizens.
* Geography: Concerned with the Earth's physical features, spatial
relationships, and how people use and manage natural resources.
4-Scale of Study: Civics: Primarily focuses on societal structures at the
local, national, and global levels within a human context, such as laws and
governance.
* Geography: Studies both local and global scales, but emphasizes
physical spaces, natural boundaries, and environmental conditions.
5-Methods of Study: Civics: Involves analyzing laws, political systems,
constitutions, and civic responsibilities through historical, legal, and
political lenses.
* Geography: Uses tools like maps, satellite imagery, and geographic
information systems (GIS) to study the Earth’s surface and human
patterns of settlement.
6-Nature of Interaction: Civics: Primarily focuses on human-to-human
interactions within the framework of laws, governance, and social
responsibilities.
* Geography: Explores both human-to-environment interactions and
human-to-human interactions based on geographic locations, resources,
and environmental conditions.
7-Purpose: Civics: Aims to educate citizens about their rights, duties, and
how governments function, to foster active and informed participation in
society.
* Geography: Aims to understand the Earth's physical features, human
settlement patterns, and how people adapt to different environments.
In summary, civics focuses on human society, government, and
political systems, while geography centers on the physical world, spatial
relationships, and the interaction between people and the environment.

Civics and History

History is the study of past where causes and outcomes are

discussed. History is actually the combination of events and incidents of
different ages and it throws light on almost every aspect of life. Human
beings, their activities, and institutions are the subject of history as well
as it explores rise and decline of nations, cultural and literary progress,
spreading of literature, and evolution of art and philosophy.

Similarities between Civics and History

1-Main Topic: Many topics of civics and history are the same and both
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primarily talk about human beings. The problems in both the disciplines
are, to some extent, identical. Many events, occurrences and revolts in
history are also the part of civics. Moreover, both the branches of
knowledge belong to social sciences and cover different human aspects.

2-The base of Civics: Professor Seeley has written; “Political Science

without History has no root; History without Political Science has no
fruit.”

This explanation by Professor Seeley can be acceptable as far as

civics and history are concerned because many topics of civics are the
part of history. If they are separated from history, there will be a great
room in this branch of knowledge.

3-Research Center: The research center for civics is history. The past of
people and nations help in providing experiences. The past experiences,
revolts, and wars give a lesson to the coming generations. It is said that
those individuals and nations always face damages who do not learn
from their past. It is also quoted that history repeats itself. So, we cannot
say that history plays an important role in setting up the principles of
civics as the past experiences prove to be very useful for future planning.

4-Common Topics: Civics and History have many same topics as they
both discuss the beginning and evolution of the state. Furthermore,
International organizations, international relations and international
cooperation are evaluated in both the fields.

5-Harmonry among Motives: Both the branches of knowledge believe in

the betterment of individuals, nations and humanity all over the world.
Civics seeks help from History for human development, prosperity and
welfare. In the light of past experiences, guidance for the better future is
provided.

6-Ideas and Institutions: In history, we study about the evolution of all

political and economic ideas. History is an amalgam of ideas and these
ideas are the greatest part of civics. How the concepts of promotion,
distribution, individuality and idealism developed and which philosophers
promoted them? All these things come to knowledge through history. In
the formation of ideas and principles of civics, the study of history proves
to be very useful.

7-The Importance of Rights: Human Rights are given much importance in

the field of Civics and it is expected that citizens of all nations have equal
rights. In history, the evolution of rights and struggle for them is
mentioned as to what extent people and nations made sacrifices. The
history of human rights is, in fact, linked with the history of freedom and
democracy.
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8-The Nature of a State: It is necessary for citizens to know about
beginning and evolution of the state and History helps a lot in this regard
as it illustrates the beginning and evolution of the state in a very clear way.

Dissimilarities between Civics and History

1-Continual Study: In history, we study about the incident and events as

they occurred. On the other hand, in civics, we do not follow such
uninterrupted chain of actions. While studying Civics, we choose and
learn about particular events and incidents.

2-The Study of Past: History is only the study of past, it gives lesson to
present and future but it does not cover both of them. On the other hand,
Civics has link with past, present and future simultaneously.

3-Immensity of Topics: The topics in history are immense as it is

associated with wars and past events. Economic, social, political,
religious and other fields are analyzed in history. Whereas, Civics only
talks about human rights and duties, political and civic institutions, and
city life.

4-Standardized Branch of Knowledge: The aim of History is to make

people aware of facts and past convictions. But Civics is not the mixture
of incidents and events only. This branch of knowledge sets about
standards as rules and regulations are designed in this field.

5-The Nature of Study: In civics, different aspects are critically analyzed

while in history, we only look through the happenings where experiments
are not stressed upon.

Civics and Economics

Economics is the study of human needs, economic problems,

production of wealth and its division. Famous economist Marshal has
described Economics as, “the study of wealth and its acquisition”. Civics
and Economics are both associated with each other and often prove to be
helpful.

Similarities between Civics and Economic

1-Political Economics: Civics and Political Science were considered to be

a same discipline in earlier times when a single term “Political Economy”
was being used for Civics, Economics and Political Science. But with the
passage of time, Civics, Economics and Political Science were separated
as different branches of knowledge. However, these subject had and still
have a deep connection with one another.
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2-Identical Topics: The main topic of Civics is individuals and their civic
life. Economics is the study of individuals, their economics needs and
resources. So, the main point (human beings) is same in both the
subjects. The aim of civics is to provide a better life to an individual and
economic aspect is of much value in this regard.

3-Identical Ideas: In Civics and Economics, ideas are learnt with the same
level of interest. The concepts of promotion, distribution, industrial
revolution, laborers’ welfare have same importance in both the disciplines.
Even the philosophers like Karl Marx are recognized as political and civic
expert as well as economist at the same time.

4-Public Welfare: Both the branches of knowledge strive for public

welfare and human development. Just distribution of wealth, the rights of
laborers, proper wages and the concept of welfare state are taken care of
in both the fields equally as they aim at increase of human prosperity and
comfort.

5-Economic Movements and Revolutions: All the great revolutions in the

world were due to political and civic changes but the main cause was
economic condition of people. Karl Marx was of the view that all the
rebellion, wars, events and revolts in the world happened due to economic
reasons.

6-Acquirement of Good Citizenship: With the help of economics, a better

environment with rights of citizenship can be secured. If any society gets
rid of poverty, unemployment, low standard of life and unjust distribution
of wealth, it will basically be the economic steps but they will influence
civic life in a great way. For the good citizenship, the proper distribution of
wealth and fulfillment of needs are very necessary.

7-International Aspect: Economics is important not only on local or

national level, but on international level too. Inflation and economic
deterioration in one state influences the other state to some extent.
Developed countries exploit the undeveloped countries for their political
purposes and enforce their own desire in international affairs.

8-Welfare State: In the second half of the twentieth century, the concept
of establishment of welfare state is very delightful. Adorable state is the
one where natives are satisfied enjoying their basic needs. They may also
have an appealing lifestyle and state must provide them a complete
security.

Dissimilarities between Civics and Economics

1-Vastness: Economics is the study of economic aspect of human life, it

does not have any concern with other topics and aspects. On the other
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hand, Civics has immensity as it is consisted of moral, political, social,
religious, and social topics. Economics has no connection with human
institutions other than economic ones.

2-Detailed Study: Although economic affairs of citizens, production of

wealth and its distribution are examined in Civics but they are not of
much value in this field. Only the field of Economics discusses these
topics in detail. In civics, we go through economic affair only for the
purpose of having knowledge about economic problems and their
solutions.

3-Standardized Knowledge: Civics is the branch of knowledge which sets

about standards. It stresses upon adopting a right way while
differentiating between good and evil. Economics, on the other hand, is
just the mixture of facts and figures having no alliance with standards.

4-Material and Spiritual Aspect: Economics is concerned with material

life only and it does not give importance to spiritual ideas and concepts.
Civics supports the improvement of high moral and spiritual values as
well as it discusses materialism. Furthermore, Civics has links with
culture, religion, education, literature and politics.

Civics and Political Science

The topics of discussion in Civics and Political Science are same to

the extent that both are considered the same discipline and there is no
difference between both of them other than the name itself. The circles of
Civics and Political Science are similar as much that it is Herculean task
to differentiate between two. However, both the branches of knowledge
have their separate identities.

Similarities between Civics and Political Science

1-The Same Disciplines in the Beginning: Civics and Political Science

both developed in ancient Greece and they were considered the same
discipline in the beginning because city states used to exist in ancient
Greece and there was no difference between local and national affairs at
that time. Today, Political Science is recognized as the study of states,
and Civics is the study of problems of cities and citizens. Twenty five
hundred years ago, there was no differentiation among the state or city
therefore, no contrast can be observed among these two subjects. Later,
when larger states came into being, and more citizens were added in a
state, Civics and Political Science set apart.

2-According to the Sense: In English language, we use the terms ‘Civics’

and ‘Political Science’ for both subjects. The word ‘Civics’ is taken from
two Latin words such as “Civis and “Civitas” which mean ‘City’ and
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‘Citizen’ respectively. The word ‘Political Science’ is taken from ‘Polis’
which also means ‘City’. Both have similarity as far as their meaning is
concerned.

3-Common Motives: There is harmony among the motives of Civics and

Political Science. Both of them are conscious of political aspects and
they give importance to human rights and duties on the same level.
Civics and Political Science have same approach towards beginning and
evolution of the state as well as different systems of government. Both
branches of knowledge discuss the importance and duties of political and
civic institutions.

4-Common Problems: The main concern of these two branches is human

being and both of them fall in the category of social studies. Political and
Civic aspects of individuals are linked with one another. The civic
problems are, sometimes, considered political problems and these local
issues are solved by the state. The aim of Civics is to make citizens
prosper, well-mannered and responsible and it demands their rights. This
whole procedure proves to be very helpful for Political Science.

5-Common Sections: In the course of Civics and Political Science, there

are many common chapters. The beginning of the state, its evolution,
present condition, motives, systems of government, basic rights, freedom,
equality, law, political parties, constitutions and many other chapters are
same in both braches of knowledge, however, in Civics, we do not focus
much on these issues.

6-The Impact of Civics on Political Science: The politics in any state is

delineated in the light of environment and problems of people living in its
villages and cities. The individuals have to take care of civic and social
values while forming the principles of state. When the root cause of
political problems is required, then it is necessary to know about civic
problems and Civics has a great impact on Political Science in this way.

Dissimilarities between Civics and Political Science

1-The Main Circle: The circle of Political Science is larger than that of
Civics. Civics is related to local problems and features of civics life
whereas the field of Political Science has vastness. In Civics, we deal with
national and international affairs only. Although there is a discussion
regarding political issues but not in detail. On the other hand, all the
immensity of political aspects is included in the field of Political Science

2-City and State: Civics is basically the study of city while Political
Science talks about the whole state. About twenty four hundred years ago,
both subjects used to converse about citizen and there was no
dissimilarity among city and state. Later, cities got emerged into state, so,
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we can say that Political Science is far superior to Civics.

3-Topics: Although many chapters in both the subjects are identical, but it
does not mean that both have same logic. Some topics of Political
Science are not included in Civics likewise some topics of Civics are not
the part of Political Science. Education, leisure and entertainment, crime
and punishment, culture and civilization, society and human institution are
specific sections only in Civics.

4-Firm Position: The main concern of Civics is the link between ‘human
being and the society’ and of Political Science is the link between ‘human
being and the state’. We know that society existed before emergence of
states, therefore, the study of society (Civics) is considered to be older
than the study of state (Political Science).

5-The Difference between Theory and Practical: Political Science

considers the ideas where practice is given the second position. On the
other hand, in Civics, we discuss about role and practice instead of
theories. The field of Civics strives for the betterment of human character
and morals and encourages the individuals to perform their duties in a
proper way. There is a great difference in both the subjects theoretically
and practically. We can say that Political Science stresses upon
attainment of basic rights while Civics talks about performance of the
duties. And in this regard, the field of Civics is considered to be an art.

6-Cultural Awareness: The study of Civics promotes cultural values and

directs the citizens towards self-determination, mutual co-operation and
support. Whereas Political Science has link with political awareness more
than cultural awareness. It paves the way for basic rights, freedom,
equality, social justice and democracy making people realize their
importance.

7-Intensity of the Subject: It is said that Political Science is far superior to

Civics as far as its vastness is concerned. But it does not have the depth
we can find in civics. In Civics, we examine and scrutinize those issues
which do not come under the heading of Political Science. Some topics
are discussed very meticulously and in detail in the field of Civics.

Civics and Ethics

Civics is the study of human habits, activities, emotions and

institutions. Ethics is concerned with human character and approach. The
base of the society is moral principles and if we respect moral principles,
we help in developing a better civic life. There is a great link between
Civics and Ethics.

Similarities between Civics and Ethics

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1-Ancient Greek Philosophy: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle included moral
and civic life of human beings in one circle. They consider Ethics, an
important part of Civics and to them, both branches of knowledge are
part and parcel. Ethics is always given the rank of foundation while
forming the principles of civic life since Greek era. Plato laid the
foundation of his ideal state on Ethics.

2-Motives: The main motives of both the subjects are same. The aim of
Civics is to make an individual a good citizen and Ethics helps in making
him a good human being. It is clear as day that a good citizen is a good
human being as well as a good human being falls in the category of good
citizens.

3-Principles based on Ethics: Moral values are taken special notice of

while forming the principles of civic life because the opposite rules and
regulations cause chaos in social, political and civic life. People who
believe in high morals face no challenges. Moral values were omnipresent
earlier. So, when the concept of states came into being, the moral
principles were given the name of state laws.

4-Mutual Co-operation: Ethics and Civics prove to be helpful for one

another. People with excellent morals give birth to an excellent society as
a whole. Therefore, the legislative institutions always keep moral aspect
in view while framing the state laws.

5-Standard Branches of Knowledge: Both the disciplines are to set about

the standards. Both are concerned with well-mannered and well-
organized life of individuals. These two subjects also strive for the
encouragement of good and eradication of evil simultaneously. Ethics
makes it easier for Civics when it specifies the principles for the removal
of evil.

Dissimilarities between Civics and Ethics

Civics and Ethics have similarities and both branches of knowledge

support each other but it does not imply that they are two different names
for one subject. A clear difference can be observed in some of their
aspects.

1-Body and Soul: The link of Civics is with the actions of citizens whereas
Ethics is concerned with both body and soul. Ethics actually covers
human approach and actions at the same time. In civics, people are
asked to act nicely.

2-Vastness of Civics: Civics is far better than Ethics. In civics, we talk

about civic, social, religious, economic, cultural and political aspects while
Ethics is all about moral aspect only.
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3-Differnece of Principles: Many rules of Civics cannot be designed on
the base of Ethics. For example, driving a car without license is unlawful
act but this cannot be considered unethical. In the same way, helping the
needy people is moral responsibility but it cannot be recognized as civic
responsibility.

4-knowledge of both the worlds: Ethics prepares people mentally for this
life and here-after whereas Civics focuses more on worldly things.
Spiritual aspect is given significance only in the field of Ethics.

CITIZEN AND CITIZENSHIP

In Civics, all those natives or neutralized members of a state who

owe allegiance to its government and are entitled to its protection are
known as Citizens. They are given proper rights from state and as a result,
they perform duties. In this regard, people living in villages can also be
recognized as citizens because they also have their equal rights.

Aristotle suggests that “a citizen is someone who shares in the

administration of justice and the holding of public office”

The Modern Concept of Citizen: Today, the states have become so vast
as far as their area and population are concerned. Now a days, it is not
possible to gather millions of people and give them the direct opportunity
of performing administrative, political and judicial duties. In modern times,
there is no concept of the category of slaves. Further, women and other
categories are also given the rank of citizens. The concept which was
extinct in Ancient Greek era. An increase in population and establishment
of larger states have changed the situation. Today, no citizen can directly
perform all the duties. Therefore, the concept of indirect democracy has
been introduced in accordance with new trends. Now the citizens perform
those duties through their representatives which they themselves used to
perform in Ancient Greek era.

“Citizen is a person who may be obedient to state, may have

awareness and to whom state provides social, economic and political
rights, who has the passion of following the constitution and serving his
country as well.”

What is meant by Citizenship?

Citizenship is that position of a citizen through which he enjoys full

political rights in a state and in return performs certain duties to the state
so that state may progress. When right of citizenship is given, then the
protection of a citizen becomes the responsibility of state. Therefore, it is
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the duty of every citizen to respect the state laws. Citizenship is such a
right of citizen by which the state adopts him and he himself stays
connected/ linked with the state and works for the progress of state as
well. Given the civic rights, there develops a lawful relationship among an
individual and state. Four conditions are necessary regarding these rights.

1. An Individual should show full obedience.

2. State should protect him.

3. An Individual should perform all the duties given by the state.

4. An Individual should have all basic rights being provided.

Citizen and National: Citizens and nationals both are the natives of a
state who have political rights. A national has the authorization of living in
the state permanently, and taking advantage of economic and social
facilities but such people are deprived of political rights. For example, the
right to vote is restricted only to adults. And in some states, women were
not given the right to vote in the past. Those individuals who are not
capable of giving vote or contesting an election, are called nationals not
the citizens.

Citizenship versus Naturalization: People become citizens by birth by

being born in the state. Such people are given all the rights from state.
Naturalization, on the other hand, is the legal act or process by which a
non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that
country. It may be done by a statute, without any effort on the part of the
individual, or it may involve an application and approval by legal
authorities. There is no difference between both types of people as far as
basic human rights are concerned. Both have all the rights including
political rights. However, in America only the citizens by birth are given
the chance to take part in presidential elections.

Citizens and Foreigners: All natives in a state are not required to be its
citizens. Some people are from outside the community. They go to
another state for getting education, job and for the purpose of exposure.
Now a days, there is great increase in number of such people because
progress of science and technology has decreased the distances. The
people who come to visit, go back to their states after some time.
However, people who come for getting education or job remain in other
states for long time. Such people remain loyal with their own countries
and they can claim the citizenship of their country only.

Foreigners and Residential Foreigners: Foreigners can be further divided

into two types. If the citizen of one state lives in another state for short
time, he may only be recognized as a foreigner but if a citizens lives in
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another state for long time, he can be recognized as residential foreigner.
Residential foreigner has the right to buy property, run the business or
doing any private job in the other state. He is facilitated more than other
foreigners in this regard. Ambassadors are also the foreigner. The state
where they perform their duties provides complete protection to them.

Qualities of a Good Citizen

According to Lord Bryce, a good citizen has the following qualities or

virtues;

(i)- Intelligence (ii)- Self-control (iii)- Conscience

There are so many other qualities in a good citizen which are following:

1-Intelligence: In modern democracy, the citizens have the real authority.

They select the representatives of their government and play an important
role in formation and performance of democratic institutions. If they are
aware of their problems as well as national and international affairs, they
can make the performance of politics quite better. Intelligent and
insightful citizens lay the foundation of government in the right way.

2-Self Control: A good citizen is sober in temperament and exercises self-

control in his public dealings. He pos¬sesses a disciplined character. He
does not indulge in vicious habits. He is self-confident without being vain.
A good citizen also respects the views of other people whole being
patient and does not impose his point of view on others.

3-Conscience: A good citizen is usually honest in his social, economic

and political affairs. He respects the rights of others. He does not get
involved in wrongdoings and corruption. He is also inclined towards
performing his economic, political and social duties leaving behind his
personal interests. He pays all the taxes inflicted by the government.

4-Fear of God: The fear of God makes an individual a good human being.
The cause of many problems, now a days, is non-existence of fear of God.
If we start believing in the Day of Judgment, we can get rid of so many
evils.

5-Self Confidence: A good citizen has confidence in himself and firm

belief in his nation. If there exists no self-confidence, society and state
cannot progress. It is necessary to put an end to inferiority complex
among the citizens. Self Confidence can bring progression in every field.

6-Sense of Responsibility: A good citizen performs his duties sincerely

and faithfully. He co-operates with the state officials in the discharge of
their duties and makes due payment of taxes.
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7-Education: A good citizen is intelligent enough to shift good from bad
and takes a dispassionate view of everything. He is educated. His
education enables him to play his part in the society more successfully
and usefully.

8-Political Awareness: A good citizen is supposed to be honest in the

exercise of his vote. Self-interest or sectional interest of the state, class,
religion or community does not prejudice his judgment. The wrong use of
vote can lead a nation towards destruction and devastation. Therefore, a
good citizen performs his duties after complete understanding of the
situation.

9-Right ordering of loyalties: Good citizenship exists in the right ordering

of loyalties. A citizen is the member of various social groups, i.e., family,
locality, city, state and the world. A citizen must sacrifice his narrower
interest for the sake of wider interests. If there is a conflict between the
interests of the family and the locality, one must sacrifice the interests of
the family for the sake of the locality because the latter represents larger
interests.

10-Sharpness: A sharp and astute citizens is not usually hasty. He

carefully examines all the aspects before taking any decision. He keeps in
mind the expected outcomes and tries to solve the issues after
considerable understanding. Careless people are hurt, in the end, by their
own decisions and they harm the whole society too.

11-Patriotism: Each good citizen is expected to be a true patriot. He is

very much attached to his homeland and, therefore, has unquestionable
integrity for his country. A man lives for his country and dies for his
country if he loves his country.

12-Ethics: A good citizen is governed by ethics and high moral values. He

seeks pleasure in helping others. He is filled with the emotions of
sacrifice, love, tolerance and sympathy. He takes special interest in public
welfare as well.

13-Frugality: It is the duty of every citizen to avoid extravagance and

profligacy in life. Frugality proves to be very useful on individual and
collective levels. The saved money can be spent in the time of difficulty.
The one who is not limited in spending money or using resources does
not prove to be a good citizen.

14-Respecting the Law: A good citizen has special regard for law. He is
fully aware of the importance of law as far as welfare of the country and
peace are concerned. He knows that law is just another name of
restrictions and limitations but he also knows the fact that all laws are
made and implemented for public good. He himself follows the law and
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also makes his companions to.

15-Health: A good citizen takes care of his health. He remains mentally

and physically active. He takes balanced food and avoids intoxicating
products. A healthy citizen develops a healthy environment around him.

The ways of Acquiring Citizenship

1-Natural way: (By Birth) When and where parents or grandparents live, a
child gets citizenship over there by birth. It is very simple and plain way
and has been accepted since ancient Roman and Greek eras. The rule of
citizenship by birth is in practice in Pakistan, India, France, Italy,
Switzerland, Germany, Iraq, Egypt and Sweden. In Pakistani community,
where ever a child of Pakistani parents is born, he automatically has the
citizenship of Pakistan.

2-The Rule of birth place: Some states keep the rule that a child can get
the citizenship of the country where he is born whether his parents are
national or foreigners. In this way, if a child is born where his parents
belongs to, he can get the citizenship and the vice versa. This rule is not
quite popular and is only applicable in Argentina. According to the law of
Argentina, only those children get the citizenship who are born within the
borders of the country. So, a child born in another country, whether his
parents are the citizens of Argentina, cannot be called the real citizen or
by birth citizen of the aforementioned place.

3-Through Getting National Rights: If a citizen of one states wants to

have citizenship of another state for his welfare, he can do so. For this
purpose, he has to submit an application. But he is not recognized as a
citizen by birth. Instead, he is called a “Naturalized Citizen”. The state
puts some conditions on such citizens i.e. he has to take the loyalty oath.

4-Long Residence: If any citizen of one state resides in another state for a
long period, he can submit an application for getting the citizenship. A
person living for five and ten years can be considerable for citizenship in
America & Britain and France respectively. Some countries do not grant
citizenship to foreigners at any price such as the Republic of China. The
following are the conditions for submitting application for getting the
rights of nationality:

●Marrying the foreigner: If any person ties the knot with any foreigner, he
or she can be granted the rights of nationality. For example, if any British
lady marries a Pakistani male, her husband can easily get the British
nationality. This rule is practiced in America, Japan, Germany and Italy.

● Government Job: If the citizen of one state starts doing a government

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job in another state, he can get the citizenship. But we should keep in
mind that joining the Foreign Service and military means that a person
has changed his loyalties.

● Property: If the citizen of one state buys property in another state, it

means that he is soon going to change his loyalties. This happens in
Mexico.

● Referendum: If a state is divided, so also are its natives. Israel

announced to grant it’s citizenship to Arab citizens after conquering their
areas. When Russia sold the area of Alaska to America, all natives of
Alaska became American citizens. Similarly, if Kashmir gets affiliated
with Pakistan, the people of Kashmir will definitely be the citizens of
Pakistan.

● Business and capitalization: If a person starts a business or invest his

money in the foreign country, he is easily given the right of nationality over
there.

● Legal adoption: If any citizen of one state assumes the parenting of a

child of another state, such child can easily get the citizenship of his
parents’ country. For example, if a Pakistani national assumes the
parenting of an Afghan child, that Afghan child will automatically be the
citizen of Pakistan.

Loss of Citizenship

As a person can get the citizenship, he also can lose the

citizenship for some reasons. Following can be the causes in this regard:

1-Citizenship of another state: If any person submits an application for

getting Citizenship of another state, and is granted those rights, his initial
citizenship is terminated.

2-Long Absence: Some states cancel the citizenship of those people who
live abroad for long time. It is the case in France and Germany where if a
person stays away from his state for ten years, he is no more the French
or German citizen. But this rule is not acceptable in Turkey.

3-Investment in foreign country: If any person invests his money in the

other country and changes his economic loyalties, his citizenship can be
cancelled on this bases too.

4-Property in foreign country: If a citizen of one state purchases property

in another state, his loyalties are, somewhat, changed. It is assumed that
now he is affiliated with the other state. So, his citizenship may be
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cancelled.

5-Government Job in foreign country: Government job is usually

considered to be a token of loyalty to a state. If any person gets a
government job in another state without getting permission from his own
state, this can lead to a change in his loyalties.

6-Getting married in foreign country: If any lady gets married with a

foreigner, her citizenship is cancelled. However, she gets the citizenship
of her husband’s country.

7-Escape from the country: Sometimes, the citizens of one state escape
and move to another state. This is illegal and can cause the cancellation
of Citizenship.

8-Getting medals in foreign country: If an individual receives any honor,

medal or price in a foreign country without the permission of his
government, he may step forward to a situation where his citizenship will
be cancelled.

9-Involvement in Serious Crimes: If a person is involved in serious crimes

against his own country i.e. betrayal or treachery, he is strictly punished.
One of the punishments is also the cancellation of his citizenship.

10-Conquest or Referendum: If one state conquers or gets affiliated with

the other state, the citizenship of the first state is automatically
terminated. People are recognized as the citizens of the new state.

Pakistani Nationality: If a person is allowed to have the citizenship of

Pakistan according to the law of nationality rights, presented in 1951, he
is a Pakistani national. Any foreigner can also get the Pakistani
citizenship by giving an application if he fulfills the conditions. The
foreigner ladies can get the citizenship of Pakistan by marrying Pakistani
males as well.

Type of Citizenship
Citizenship refers to the legal status, rights, and responsibilities
individuals have as members of a state or society. Over time, the concept
of citizenship has evolved, with different types emerging to reflect new
social, political, and technological realities. Below is a detailed
explanation of various types of citizenship, including traditional and
modern forms:
1-Active Citizenship: Active citizenship refers to the practice of
individuals participating in the civic, political, and social processes of their
community or country. Active citizens engage in the decision-making
processes, often advocating for change or improvement in their societies.
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This can include voting, volunteering, joining political parties, engaging in
public debates, or organizing community activities. Its main features are
following:
(i)-Participation in democracy: Voting in elections and referendums.
(ii)-Public service and volunteerism: Involvement in charities, NGOs, and
local organizations.
(iii)-Advocacy: Engaging in advocacy for social justice, environmental
protection, or other causes. Examples: Someone who regularly
participates in elections, attends town hall meetings, engages in
community service, and advocates for policy changes is considered an
active citizen.
2-Participatory Citizenship: Participatory citizenship is closely related to
active citizenship but emphasizes deeper and more continuous
engagement in democratic processes and collective decision-making. It
involves citizens not only reacting to political decisions but actively
contributing to the formulation and implementation of policies. Its main
features are following:
(i)-Deliberative involvement: Engaging in public consultations, citizen
assemblies, and participatory budgeting processes.
(ii)-Collaborative problem-solving: Working with governments, NGOs, or
local groups to co-create solutions to societal problems.
(iii)-Democratic governance: Helping shape laws and policies through
collective discussions and input. Examples: Participatory citizenship can
be seen in local governance models where citizens are involved in budget
allocation through participatory budgeting, or in deliberative democracy
forums where citizens debate policy decisions.
3-Digital Citizenship: Digital citizenship refers to the responsible and
ethical use of technology and digital platforms for civic engagement,
communication, and participation in democratic processes. It
encompasses how individuals engage in online communities, access
digital services, and influence public discourse through the internet. Its
main features are following:
(i)-Informed and ethical use of digital platforms: Practicing responsible
behavior in online spaces, respecting privacy, and preventing
cyberbullying or spreading misinformation.
(ii)-Digital activism: Using social media, websites, and other online tools
for advocacy, organizing protests, or raising awareness of social, political,
or environmental issues.
(iii)-E-governance participation: Engaging with government services and
public consultations through digital means, such as online petitions,
virtual town halls, or digital voting. Examples: Engaging in online petitions
through platforms like Change.org, organizing protests via social media
(e.g., during the Arab Spring), or participating in digital consultations with
governments about new policies.
4-Global Citizenship: Global citizenship goes beyond the boundaries of
national citizenship and refers to the sense of belonging and
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responsibility to the global community. It emphasizes the
interconnectedness of people across borders and advocates for global
responsibility, human rights, environmental sustainability, and social
justice. Its main features are following:
(i)-Global responsibility: Recognizing and acting upon global challenges
such as climate change, poverty, and inequality.
(ii)-Human rights and advocacy: Supporting human rights, humanitarian
work, and global justice issues, regardless of national borders.
(iii)-Intercultural awareness: Understanding and respecting diverse
cultures, and promoting tolerance and cooperation between different
societies. Examples: Involvement in international movements like Fridays
for Future (a global climate strike), advocating for global human rights
campaigns (e.g., Amnesty International), or supporting fair trade
initiatives that ensure ethical global production standards.
5-Ecological Citizenship (Green Citizenship): Ecological or green
citizenship centers on the belief that individuals have responsibilities
toward the environment and should engage in activities that promote
environmental sustainability and conservation. It reflects the idea that
one's civic duties extend to the stewardship of the natural world. Its main
features are following:
(i)-Sustainable living: Engaging in behaviors that reduce environmental
impact, such as recycling, reducing carbon footprints, and conserving
resources.
(ii)-Environmental activism: Participating in or supporting environmental
movements, advocacy for climate action, and working towards legislation
that promotes sustainability.
(iii)-Global perspective: Recognizing that environmental issues such as
climate change, deforestation, and pollution are global challenges that
require collective action. Examples: Joining local or global environmental
campaigns like Extinction Rebellion, supporting renewable energy policies,
or engaging in community efforts to preserve natural resources.
6-Economic Citizenship: Economic citizenship refers to the rights,
responsibilities, and participation of individuals in the economic life of
their country or region. It focuses on the role of individuals as
contributors to the economy, whether through work, entrepreneurship, or
consumption, and their entitlement to economic rights such as fair wages,
access to resources, and financial inclusion. Its main features are
following:
(i)-Labor rights and participation: Engaging in the economy through work,
collective bargaining, and supporting labor rights.
(ii)-Entrepreneurship and innovation: Citizens contributing to the economy
by starting businesses, creating jobs, and innovating.
(iii)-Economic advocacy: Participating in or supporting policies that
promote fair trade, living wages, and economic justice. Examples:
Supporting local businesses, advocating for worker's rights, or
participating in community economic development projects aimed at
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increasing financial inclusion.
7-Cultural Citizenship: Cultural citizenship focuses on the right of
individuals to participate in and contribute to the cultural life of their
community and society. It reflects the recognition and protection of
cultural identities, languages, and traditions, and promotes the idea that
civic identity is not limited to legal status but includes cultural belonging.
Its main features are following:
(i)-Cultural participation: Engaging in artistic, linguistic, and heritage
practices within one’s community.
(ii)-Multiculturalism and diversity: Supporting policies and practices that
protect cultural diversity and encourage intercultural dialogue.
(iii)-Cultural preservation: Advocating for the protection of cultural heritage
and promoting policies that safeguard the identities of minority groups.
Examples: Supporting indigenous rights, advocating for the preservation
of minority languages, or participating in cultural festivals that promote
intercultural understanding.
8-Social Citizenship: Social citizenship refers to the right of individuals to
access certain social services and welfare benefits, and to participate in
the social life of the community. It is based on the idea that citizens have
a right to a minimum standard of living and that the state has a
responsibility to provide certain protections and services. Its main
features are following:
(i)-Access to social services: The right to education, healthcare, housing,
and social security.
(ii)-Social equality: Advocating for equal access to services and
opportunities, and fighting against discrimination or social exclusion.
(iii)-Collective welfare: Supporting policies that promote the well-being of
the entire community, such as universal healthcare or public housing
initiatives. Examples: Advocating for universal healthcare, participating in
social welfare programs, or engaging in community actions aimed at
reducing poverty or homelessness.
9-Corporate Citizenship: Corporate citizenship refers to the role of
businesses and corporations in contributing to the well-being of society. It
extends the notion of citizenship to companies, suggesting that they have
responsibilities to the communities and environments in which they
operate, beyond profit-making. Its main features are following:
(i)-Corporate social responsibility (CSR): Engaging in ethical business
practices that benefit society, such as reducing environmental impact, fair
labor practices, and philanthropy.
(ii)-Sustainability: Promoting environmentally and socially sustainable
business practices.
(iii)-Community engagement: Companies participating in local
communities, offering sponsorships, or supporting local initiatives.
Examples: A corporation reducing its carbon footprint, supporting
education initiatives, or engaging in philanthropy through programs like
corporate social responsibility (CSR).
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10-Digital Natives and Networked Citizenship: A subset of digital
citizenship, networked citizenship refers to the highly connected, tech-
savvy younger generation (often called digital natives) who use digital
tools to engage with the world around them in unique ways. Their
citizenship extends beyond traditional boundaries, creating networked
communities that engage in global civic issues. Its main features are
following:
(i)-Tech literacy: Digital natives are adept at using digital technologies to
communicate, organize, and mobilize.
(ii)-Global engagement: They are often engaged in global issues,
transcending local concerns and interacting with like-minded individuals
across borders.
(iii)-Digital-first activism: Using digital platforms to enact change, such as
organizing online protests, fundraising through digital platforms, or
participating in social media-driven advocacy campaigns. Examples: The
use of platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok to organize social
movements like the Black Lives Matter protests or Greta Thunberg's
climate activism.
Conclusion: The concept of citizenship has expanded and diversified over
time, evolving from traditional notions of legal and civic responsibilities
within a state to include various forms of participation in social, economic,
environmental, and digital spheres. Each type of citizenship highlights
different aspects of the rights, duties, and methods of engagement that
define individuals' roles in society, reflecting the complexity and
interconnectedness.
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Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship

The relationship between democracy and citizenship is
fundamental and deeply interconnected, as each concept relies on and
reinforces the other. Democracy is a system of governance in which
power is vested in the people, either directly or through elected
representatives. Citizenship, on the other hand, refers to the legal status,
rights, duties, and responsibilities of individuals within a political
community, often a nation-state. Below is a comprehensive examination
of how democracy and citizenship relate to one another:
1-Democracy as a System of Governance: Democracy is a form of
government where power is vested in the people, exercised either directly
or through elected representatives. In a democracy, the core principle is
popular sovereignty, where the authority of the government is derived
from the people. Elections allow citizens to choose their representatives,
who govern according to the rule of law. These elected officials are held
accountable through mechanisms like regular elections, judicial oversight,
and public scrutiny. Democracy, in essence, thrives on the active
participation and engagement of its citizens.
2-Citizenship as Legal and Social Status: Citizenship involves both the
privileges of belonging to a nation and the obligations that come with it. It
grants individuals legal recognition within a state and the protection of
rights, while also demanding active participation in the community’s well-
being. Citizens contribute to society not only by fulfilling their legal duties
but also by engaging in broader civic activities, such as community
service or public discourse. This balance between rights and
responsibilities underpins the functioning of any democratic society.
3-Democratic Citizenship and Political Participation: Democratic
citizenship emphasizes active involvement in the political life of a
community. Citizens are expected to not only exercise their right to vote
but also to stay informed about public issues and engage in dialogue that
shapes policy. This active participation is what sustains the legitimacy of
democratic institutions and ensures that governance reflects the will of
the people. Political apathy or disengagement, on the other hand,
weakens democracy, as it results in a lack of accountability and
representation.
4-Citizenship and the Protection of Rights in a Democracy: One of the
hallmarks of a democratic system is its commitment to protecting the
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rights of its citizens. These rights allow individuals to express their
opinions, participate in civil society, and challenge unjust laws or policies.
In a democracy, the government is obligated to respect and uphold these
rights, ensuring that all citizens, regardless of their background, are
treated equally. This legal and moral protection fosters trust in the
system and promotes active civic engagement.
5-The Role of Education in Democratic Citizenship: For a democracy to
function effectively, its citizens must be knowledgeable about how
government works, their rights, and their responsibilities. Civic education
plays a crucial role in preparing citizens to actively participate in
governance, ensuring they can make informed decisions at the polls and
contribute to public debates. Without this understanding, citizens may
become vulnerable to misinformation, undermining the democratic
process.
6-The Balance of Rights and Responsibilities in Citizenship: Citizenship
in a democracy is a two-way relationship. While the state provides
citizens with rights that protect their freedom and dignity, citizens must
also contribute to the maintenance of the democratic system by fulfilling
their responsibilities. This mutual relationship ensures that democracy
remains resilient, as it relies on citizens to actively engage in its upkeep
by voting, obeying laws, and respecting the rights of others. A strong
sense of civic responsibility among citizens strengthens democracy and
fosters a sense of shared community.
7-Civic Engagement and Strengthening Democracy: Beyond voting,
democratic citizenship involves a broader engagement with civil society.
Participating in community service, advocacy, and civic groups allows
citizens to contribute to the common good and shape public policy. This
active involvement creates social capital—networks of trust and
cooperation that underpin democratic governance. When citizens
collaborate and participate in civic life, they strengthen the foundations of
democracy, ensuring that it remains responsive to the needs of the
community.
8-Challenges to Democratic Citizenship: Democracy faces significant
challenges when its citizens are not fully engaged. Political apathy, where
individuals feel disconnected from the political process, can erode
democratic accountability. Additionally, economic and social inequalities
often lead to unequal participation, with marginalized groups having less
influence. The forces of globalization further complicate citizenship, as
people increasingly move across borders, creating populations that may
not fully participate in any single nation’s democratic processes.
Addressing these challenges is vital for preserving the integrity and
inclusivity of democratic citizenship.
9-Global Citizenship and Democracy: In the age of globalization, the idea
of global citizenship is emerging, where individuals see themselves as
part of a global community with responsibilities to uphold human rights,
environmental protection, and social justice across borders. While this
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perspective encourages a broader understanding of democratic values, it
also challenges the traditional nation-state model, where citizenship is
tied to a specific country. Migrants, refugees, and global citizens may
struggle with their rights and obligations in different countries, raising
questions about how democracy can adapt to these changes.
Conclusion: The relationship between democracy and citizenship is
essential for the functioning of democratic societies. Citizenship in a
democracy is not just a passive status but an active role that individuals
play in shaping their governance and community. Active, informed, and
engaged citizens are the bedrock of a healthy democracy, ensuring that
government reflects the will of the people and upholds democratic
principles like equality, justice, and the protection of rights.
For democracy to thrive, citizenship must be inclusive, participatory, and
balanced between rights and responsibilities. The evolution of citizenship
in modern democracies continues to adapt to global challenges,
technological advances, and social transformations, but its core function
remains the same: empowering individuals to participate in and shape
their political community.

Importance of Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship

The relationship between democracy and citizenship is
fundamental, as both concepts rely on each other to function effectively.
Here’s a breakdown of why the relationship between democracy and
citizenship is so important:
1-Citizenship Defines the Role of the Individual in a Democracy: In a
democracy, citizenship is more than just legal status—it represents the
rights and responsibilities individuals have in relation to their government
and society. Citizens are the foundation of democracy because they are
the ones who elect leaders, shape policies, and hold institutions
accountable. Without active and informed citizens, democracy cannot
function properly.
2-Democracy Grants Power to Citizens: One of the core principles of
democracy is that power is derived from the people. Through the process
of voting, citizens choose their representatives and make decisions on
key issues. This power is what distinguishes democracy from other forms
of government, where power is often concentrated in the hands of a few.
In this way, citizenship gives individuals the ability to influence how they
are governed, ensuring that the government reflects the will of the people.
3-Citizenship Involves Rights and Responsibilities: In a democracy,
citizenship comes with a set of rights, such as the right to vote, freedom
of speech, and equal protection under the law. However, these rights
come with responsibilities. Citizens are expected to stay informed,
participate in the political process, and respect the rights of others. When
citizens fulfill these responsibilities, it strengthens the democratic system.
On the other hand, when citizens disengage or ignore their duties, it
weakens the effectiveness of democracy.
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4-Active Citizenship Strengthens Democracy: A strong democracy
depends on active, engaged citizens. When citizens participate in civic
activities—such as voting, volunteering, joining civic organizations, or
advocating for change—they help improve the system and ensure it works
for everyone. Active citizenship also creates accountability. Citizens who
are involved can question government actions, demand transparency, and
push for reforms. This prevents the concentration of power and reduces
the risk of corruption.
5-Democracy Protects Citizens’ Rights: One of the key functions of a
democracy is to protect the rights of its citizens. A healthy democracy
ensures that the rights of minorities and vulnerable groups are respected,
and that all citizens are treated equally before the law. Through
democratic institutions like the courts, citizens can challenge injustices
and seek protection of their rights. The ability to participate in this system
is what allows citizens to safeguard their freedoms.
6-Education and Informed Citizenship Are Essential: For democracy to
work well, citizens must be informed about the issues facing their country
and their community. Education plays a crucial role in preparing citizens
for participation in a democracy. An educated and informed citizenry is
better able to critically evaluate political leaders, understand policies, and
make thoughtful decisions. Without informed citizens, democracy risks
becoming ineffective, or worse, controlled by a small group of elites or
special interests.
7-Citizenship Builds a Sense of Belonging and Shared Purpose:
Democracy thrives when citizens feel a connection to their community
and their country. Citizenship creates this sense of belonging, giving
individuals a stake in the well-being of their society. When people feel that
they are part of something larger and that their voices matter, they are
more likely to contribute to the common good. This shared purpose
strengthens democracy by uniting people around common goals and
values.
8-Democracy Evolves Through Citizen Participation: Citizenship is not
static; it evolves with society. As citizens engage in the democratic
process, they help shape the direction of their nation. Over time,
democratic reforms have expanded citizenship to include more people,
such as women, minorities, and marginalized groups. Democracy grows
stronger when citizens push for change, advocate for rights, and work
toward a more inclusive society.
Conclusion: Democracy and Citizenship Are Interdependent. Democracy
relies on citizens to function, and citizenship gains its full meaning within
a democratic system. This relationship creates a cycle where citizens
shape democracy through participation, and democracy, in turn,
empowers citizens by protecting their rights and giving them a voice in
government. When citizens are active, informed, and engaged, democracy
thrives. Conversely, when people disengage or are excluded from the
process, democracy weakens.
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In short, democracy and citizenship are intertwined, with each supporting
and enhancing the other. The health of a democracy is directly linked to
the level of engagement and responsibility shown by its citizens.

..........................

CHAPTER NO. 2

CONCEPTS OF CIVICS & CITIZENSHIP

(Family, Individual & Society, Community, Nation & Nationality)

FAMILY

Family is the most basic unit of human society. This ancient unit
began when the life began on earth and is everlasting. Man cannot live
alone as he is social animal. For this reason, the prophet Adam (the first
human being on earth) demanded a companion to live with. As a result
Mother Eve (the first lady on earth) was produced and they gave birth to
the first family on this planet. We all know that the members of family
have blood relations. When the family increased, it processed the
community, further fabricating the tribes which initiated the political
system of different tribes.

The Creator of this Universe said in the Holy Book: “O mankind, we have
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created you from male and female and made you people and tribes that
you may know one another.”

There is no restriction on the size of a family as it depends on the

couple. This institute is the most basic group of relatives where they live
and fulfill their needs together. A male and a female commence a family
after they tie the knot which is further developed by the birth of children.

Definitions

“Family is such a group of people which consists of parents and one

or more than one children.” (Thomas
Bogardus)

“Family is a relation which is specified by a physical relation of a

male and female and is made strong with the birth and training of
children.”

(MacIver)

“Family is a natural unit which was emerged on the base of human

needs’’.

(Aristotle)

Aristotle was convinced that family is the very unit, which makes
ultimately the state; from man to family, families to village, from villages
to the state that is how the natural growth of the state takes place.
Aristotle wrote in his “A Treatise on Government”; “Besides, the notion of
a city naturally precedes that of a family or an individual, for the whole
must necessarily be prior to the parts, for if you take away the whole
man, you cannot say a foot or a hand remains, unless by equivocation,
as supposing a hand of stone to be made, but that would only be a dead
one; but everything is understood to be this or that by its energetic
qualities and powers, so that when these no longer remain, neither can
that be said to be the same, but something of the same name. That a
city then precedes an individual is plain, for if an individual is not in
himself sufficient to compose a perfect government, he is to a city as
other parts are to a whole; but he that is incapable of society, or so
complete in himself as not to want it, makes no part of a city, as a beast
or a god.” (Aristotle)

KINDS OF FAMILY

Professor MacIver wrote, when the human beings started living a

social life, no such group existed where there was no family. Many
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oppose his views, as to them, there was no concept of family and
marriages in earlier societies. Physical relations were developed for a
short time period and resulting children were considered to be common
children of the human group. They are, in fact, of the view that the
concept of a male and female being specified and married developed
later.

1-Patriarchal Family: A family where fathers is considered to be the

supervisor of the house and where family and the whole generation is
linked with the male is called patriarchal family. In such type of families,
ancestry usually belongs to the fathers who also are recognized as payers
to the beneficiaries/inheritors. Such families are common even today.

2-Matriarchal Family: Some researchers are of the view that the concept
of patriarchal family developed quite late. In the earlier families, women
were the head where ancestry belonged to the mothers. Fathers and
children were inferior to the mothers whose property was inherited to the
daughters only. It is said that this concept of families exist in Khasa (a
tribe) of Province Assam of India. Otherwise, the concept of matriarchal
family is almost extinct in the world today.

3-Democratic Family: Patriarchal family has been in trend since centuries

and is still omnipresent in all societies, countries and continents of the
world but gradually the concept of a lady being inferior is getting inactive.
The cultural progress and educational development made women equal
to men. In the modern world, the man does not hold that place in family
which he possessed earlier where he could subordinate his family without
any share. Today, women have shared the responsibility of household by
getting education. A lady is no more helpless and dependent.

4-Joint Family: In this type of family, many relatives live together.

Grandfather, grandmother, father, mother, uncle, aunt, nephews, nieces,
sons and daughters all live under one roof where the income of all earning
hands is in one hand who looks after the whole family. The concept of
joint family is very common in rural areas of Pakistan.

5-Separate Family: In modern times, the concept of a separate family is

preferred. A person when reaching young age and getting his job, starts
living with his wife in a separate home away from his parents. Such
families are usually consisted of husband, wife and their children.
Children after being young also develop their own separate families. In
western countries, the concept of separate families is common where old
parents do not live with their children.

6-Conservative Family: Such types of families stay stick with customs

and traditions and cultural principles and have special inclination towards
orthodoxies. They do not like new trends and fashions. These families are
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usually against female education and only consider customary education
enough for girls. In such families, covering themselves is recognized as a
code of Ethics.

7-Liberal Family: These families are weary of customs and traditions and
they adopt new trends. They accept the freedom and rights of women.
They don’t consider covering themselves (Purdah) code of their ethics.
These types of families encourage the acquirement of modern education
considering it compulsory for both men and women equally. They accept
the western code of conduct and avoid the conservative notions. In such
families, there is no restrictions in mixed gatherings and they don’t have
any problems in making marital relation out of their caste as they don’t
believe in caste system.

8-Monogamous Family: In such families, a male marries only one woman

and does not consider polygamy good for him. If husband and wife have
some kind of controversy, they end up in getting divorced. In such
circumstances, they have the freedom of choosing a new life partner for
them. In western countries, the idea of monogamous family is in vogue.
In Christianity, only this type of family is allowed to live with. In a
monogamous family, there is a slight harmony and co-operation
prevailing as there exist always the feelings of loyalty among parents and
children.

9-Polygamous Family: This kind of family is consisted of one husband

and two or more than two wives. This trend is subsisted in many areas of
the world. This practice is most common in Africa and Arab Countries. A
man can have more than one wife at the same time i.e. some Muslim
leaders have hundreds of wives.

10-Polyandric Family: Here, a woman can be married to more than one

husband at the same time. Such societies exist even today where women
are allowed to have marital relation with more than one husband. Some
philosophers are of the view that in the very beginning of social life,
Polyandric families were established, where women were the head,
having the right to marry more than one male and women themselves
were the central character of the family at that time.

11-Intra-caste Family: When there is a custom of marrying a male/female

into his own family/caste and not outside it, this system is the other
name of intra-caste family.

12-Inter-caste Family: In such type of families, there exists the practice of

marrying outside the family too. In our society, there was the trend of intra
-caste family system which is now getting lost gradually. And people, now
a days, are getting married in other families too due to education and
awareness. So, we can say that inter-caste family system is becoming
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famous day by day.

Importance & Duty of Family

Family is the basic and most important unit in the society. Because
of its importance and significance, family is superior to all others human
institutions. It is, in fact, the first unit which played role in construction of
the complete structure of the society.

1-First Institute for a Child: It is a universal saying;

“A Mother’s lap is a child’s primary school.”

When a new-born baby opens his eyes for the first time, he sees only
his family members around. The best way to create interest in children is
through the mother who can teach children through various activities. If
father is the fountain of protection, the roses of affection are easily
available in the lap of mother. Mother is the name of that peerless training
institution where both saintly as well as ill habits are nurtured.

A Hadith Says; “Everyone is born on the nature of Islam, but their

parents make him a Jew, Christian, or an irreligious.”

Family is, for sure, an institute which trains to an individual to lead his
childhood and young age in a proper way.

2-Family, A small State: Family plays an important role in social and

emotional development of children. Only a family can make a child learn
obedience and other values as well as about right and wrong. If we
minutely observe, a family may look like a small state in which father is
the president, mother is advisor and finance minister, and children act
upon the rules and regulations designed by parents like common citizens.
When children grow up, they also take part in family decisions and in this
way, democratic practices develop from the basic unit of the society, that
is, family.

3-Awareness of High Morals: A good human being is required to be

honest, truthful, sympathetic, loyal and responsible. He has the qualities
of scarifies and co-operating with others. A family encourages all these
good traits. In a family, all members, love and show loyalty and gratitude
towards each other. When a person is made aware of these high morals
in his family, he tends to act nicely with other people in the society.

4-Habits and Manners: Every individual follows his family members.

Whenever we meet a sober, decent and well-mannered person, we don’t
hesitate in saying that he belongs to a nice family. On the other hand, an
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ill-mannered person illustrates the ill nature of his family. The children of
pious parents often prove to be pious. They avoid corruption in daily life,
hurting others, and have the fear of God.

5-Survival of Human Generation: For every human being, family is the

first social environment to step into, and this significantly influences their
further existence. A unit based on parents gives birth to children, and this
develops the concepts of whole human generation. This unit (family) is a
place where a child lives and feels secure, a place with a unique
atmosphere. It is said that every new child is born with a hope that the
creator is not dispirited of human beings on the whole.

6-Unity and Harmony: In a family, a man realizes the fact that he is

dependent on other members of the family as well as other people need
his support in different affairs. Social life and the system of depending
upon one another is basically taught in the family. Where a man leans that
he can be facilitated only by harmony, loyalty and co-operation with other
people. The sense to find out the personal interest in common interests is
also bestowed upon a man by his family.

7-Nurturing and Training of a Child: Nature has developed passion for the
care of infants in the hearts of their parents to the extent that they don’t
care for their lives in this regard. When a child is born, he does not know
about advantages or disadvantages, cannot recognize loyalty among
friends or foes. He cannot save himself from animals, fire, flow of water,
and severity of weather. A child is usually helpless and the family protects
him. The nurturing of a child becomes very difficult, at times. A child is
dependent upon his family members from his birth to the stage of
staggering and even after that. So, the members of the family have to
take special care of the child.

8-Economic Aspect: Until a person is not financially stable, his family

fulfills his basic needs. His family provides him food, clothes to wear,
education and fulfills other basic needs. A family either makes a man
capable of good job by embellishing him with the jewel of education or
links him with any profession i.e. trade, industry by making him learn the
business rules. A man learns from his family as to how he can fulfill his
needs.

9-Social Relation: A man usually interacts with other people and social
units with the help of his family, thus, becoming the member of the
society, he performs his duties and asks for his rights. Being the member
of a caste, tribe, village, city and other such units, he enjoys the social
advantages and voluntarily gets connected with educational, professional,
religious, welfare and political institutions.

10-Literary, Cultural and Educational Progress: With the help of a unit like
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family, literature, culture and knowledge flourish. If the head of a family is
poet, scholar, writer, artist or a sportsman, he teaches his sons, the real
techniques in the concerned field. A doctor inherits his knowledge to his
family members. A player of a national level definitely wants to enlighten
his children with sports skill. So, knowledge and art, culture and literature
and sports stay alive in this way. Many contemporary players of cricket,
hockey and squash are the descendants of earlier players as well as
many singers and musicians follow suit their parents in their particular
fields.

11-Family, A Basic Unit: Family is an economic, social and administrative

unit. Family fulfills the basic needs of its members i.e. protects them, and
trains them on administrative bases. Family is basically a small form of
state.

12-Love for Life: Nature has developed love for life in the heart of every
man and a family makes it stronger. An individual may have lots of
friends or relatives or office mates. They will definitely be with him in his
happy times or any successful achievements. But, his parents, sisters,
and brothers are the only ones who will stay with him in his hard and
difficult times. In very rare situation, friends or relatives stand with us in
our hard times. But our family members will always stand with us.

13-From Beginning to the End: A family gives birth to an individual, guard

him, and takes care of him until he is young. In his young age, family
arranges his wedding and provides him resources to start his career.
When a man gets old, his family attends to him. If he is sick, the
responsibility of his treatment is upon the shoulders of his people. Lastly,
when a man gets expired, his family members give him a funeral.

Concept of Modern Society

Society means to live together. The word, ‘society’ is taken from

Latin ‘Socius’ which means ‘Companion’. The word ‘Samaaj’ is being
used for the society in Sanskrit language. It is the human nature that he
tends to live with others.

Aristotle said that “Man is a social animal”. He is the one who lives
happy in the company of other human beings. He even said; “Whosoever
is happy alone, he is either God or beast but not a human being.”

Man is the crown of creature and is produced for living a purposeful life.
This purpose can be gained only through living with other human beings.
Imam Ghazali was of the view that; “Four things help an individual to live
his life; food, clothes, home and social relations.”

For fulfilling these needs, human beings live together. If a man

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wishes to live away from the people, he can do so but it is against his
nature. Therefore, ‘Solitary Confinement’ is considered to be worst of
punishments.

Society is the mixture of human beings who are bound to social

roles and customs and traditions. Society is established for an important
purpose as it is a platform for all human relations i.e. social, moral,
spiritual, cultural and political relations. Human beings establish
institutions with the help of other people. And the collection of these
institutions give birth to a society.

Definitions

A.W.Green: “Society is the largest group in which individual have

relationships.”

Ibn Khaldun: “Society is an organic body and it has its own personality”

A.H. Giddings: “Society is a collection of individuals united by certain

modes of behavior which mark them off from others and who struggle
for their common purposes.”

Ralph Linton: “Any group of people who have lived and worked together
long: enough to get themselves organized and to think of themselves as
a social unit with well-defined limits is called society”.

Gray and Groves: “Society is the collection of people who are united for a
certain common interest.”

Characteristics of Modern Society and Citizenship

1-A Group of People: The basic requirement for forming a society is the
proper number of people. Although, this number cannot be fixed, but it is
necessary to have population where human beings can fulfill each other’s
needs. Society is actually a very organized group. Families and castes are
the part of a society.

2-Harmony in Thought: It is necessary that all members of the society

may have similar approach towards common interests. Harmonized line
of thinking is required for sharing common ideas. And this harmony can
be observed only through living with one another for a long time period.

3-Stability: Society is never the result of some timely need or affection. It

is a stable and ever-lasting organization and is inherited from one
generation to another. Society is not the name of mixing people which
was formed temporarily.
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4-Membership: The membership of an individual in a society is optional.
However, a person becomes the member of a society soon after his birth.
But it is not necessary to stay as the member. If a person wishes to be
separated from his society, he can do so.

5-Permanent Aims: Society is established for achievements of common

aims. For this purpose, people struggle collectively. Different targets are
set one after another but the social structure remains the same. The
mixture of people for a temporary purpose cannot be considered a
society. Permanent and continuous aims are necessary for it.

6-An Organization: Society is a well-organized organization which works

under specific rules and regulations. Following these rules is the duty of
all the members of a society. Every society has its own culture and
traditions.

7-Common Values: People in a society usually have common culture,

language, ideas, and moral values. If these values are not same, then it
causes chaos in the society. Common aims and activities can be changed
with the passage of time. This change gives birth to new social
institutions and the process of change in social relations continue. We
can also say that every society, to some extent, gets influenced by its
surrounding societies.

8-Universal Relations: Society is an assemblage of human relations,

these relations are either dependent or independent. Society is an
amalgam of human emotions i.e. love, hatred, sympathy, vindication, open
heartedness and malice. Human relation must have link with most of the
aspects of life. Many institutions in the society are connected with one
another. And the grouping of these institution give birth to a universal
society. Society is either limited or limitless as it has universality.

9-Independent: A society is consisted of people belonging to different

professions. Workload is divided in a way that society becomes
independent and fulfills all the basic needs of its members. If a society is
not capable of fulfilling such needs, it gets diminished because in this
process of struggle, only a strong and active society can survive.

10-Controversies: It is not possible that people in a society have good

relations every time. Controversies rise which further result in collision.
Actually the society is the collection of different people, institutions,
classes, generations and different religions. When there is a difference in
their interests, it causes bump in the society.

11-Mutual Co-operation and Competition: Different classes and different

people co-operate with one another and this joint effort brings social
development. There is also the aspect of competition alongside the co-
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operation which brings differences in a society.

12-Geographical Relation: Some societies exist in the whole world i.e.

Islamic society, Christian society, and Jewish society. Some societies are
categorized on the base of state system i.e. civic society and rural society.

Aims & Objectives of Society

This verse of Muhammad Iqbal, the poet of East is based on the

beauty of relation between an individual and his society. Individuals and
society are part and parcel of each other. No society can exist without
people whereas society is also very important for individuals. Society is
like a body and individuals are its parts. A man can live without society
but such life would be insecure and unnatural.

The relation between and individual and society and the importance
of society can be analyzed in the following points;

1-Aristotle is recognized as the first mentor in the field of Civics. He says,

“Man is a Social Animal” and “Whosoever is happy alone, he is either
God or beast but not a human being.”

Man has civic nature therefore, a great philosopher like Aristotle has
highlighted the importance of the society for an individual.

2-Imam Ghazali considered the existence of a society compulsory for a

man. Man cannot live alone, he has to live with other human beings for
the fulfillment of his needs. He helps others and others help him. While
describing the importance of society, this great philosopher wrote that it
is the society which furthers human generation because a man and
woman after making a family live in the society.

3-Solitary Confinement: Living together is the human nature. If a person

is captivated away from his fellow beings, this would be the greatest
punishment for him. Very professional culprits even get irritated in lock
ups. There is a sense of a strange brutality in loneliness. Human beings
want to see and interact with others. Feelings for social interaction are
natural. Therefore, Islam has prohibited segregation and refrained
Muslims from being cut off from the society.

4-From Birth to Death: Man is dependent on the society from his birth to
death. Society is responsible for his birth, nurturing, education, food,
clothes, protection and other basic needs. When a man dies while
performing his duties throughout his life, it is the society which gives him
a funeral. Man is not fully independent in any stage of life. He always
strives for the help and support of the society.
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5-Breeding: Society causes the human breeding. Family is the basic and
most common social unit. A man and a woman get married they give
birth to children. If people prefer not to live together, it can end up the
human breeding. Family and society, in fact, increases the human
generation which gives life to the world.

6-Training of a Child: A human child is not capable of having food and his
protection on his own. His life is protected by the society. Parents and
other relatives save him from animals, severe weathers and illness. Child
is not even aware of the fact that fire can hurt him or jumping from high
building can kill him. The family guards him. Providing a child milk to drink,
medical treatment in case he is sick, wearing him clothes and keeping
him neat are the tasks being performed by the members of a society.

7-Protection of Life: Society is always active for the protection of human

life. If there is no society, human life will be short and full of dangers. A
man is weak alone but he feels himself very strong in the company of his
fellow beings. It is often said that one plus one makes eleven. Single man
cannot fight with animals. To compete with heavenly penances like
illness, disease and floods, the help and support of society is always
required.

8-Economic Needs: In daily life, man has many needs which he cannot
fulfill alone. Food, clothes, home and medicines cannot be acquired
without the help of society. Apart from these, man has many other
countless basic economic needs. Before the beginning of a proper social
life, people used to live in jungles and mountains. They used to have food
by hunting animals (in shape of their meat) and use the leaves of trees as
their dresses. Caves were their homes. That uncultured life was neither
safe nor satisfactory. In those times, when people fell ill, they had no cure
instead of getting expired as a result. If we compare the earlier human life
with the modern one, we can say that the division of workload in modern
social life has made life quite easier.

9-The Progress of Culture and Civilization: All the progress of culture and
civilization is due to the society. Individually, a man has many skills, but
he can make use of them only when the society provides him basic
facilities. Poetry, the art of screwing, painting, literature, philosophy and
art are all the result of common struggle. The development of Fine Arts is
possible only in a society. Today, the civilization we are aware of, is the
outcome of people living together.

10-Modern Facilities: Man has been facilitated a lot in his daily life due to
society. The number of these facilities has been surprisingly increased in
modern times. Comfortable residences, transportation, electric products,
tools for entertainment and many such facilities are easily accessible
today. The journey of thousand miles is covered in minutes and hours.
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Modern techniques in the field of medicine have helped a lot in prevention
of so many diseases. The system of post, wire and telephone has been in
trend. Apart from this, man has stepped into space now and trying to
access other planets. Radio, television, air-conditioner, computer and
many other inventions have revolutionized the human life.

11-Lesiure Time: Leisure plays an important role in making human life

pleasant. If there is no society, man may always stay busy. Society not
only gives space due to the division of workload but also provides means
to spend free time in a pleasant way. In daily life, society gives relief and
sources of entertainment to a tired man. The sports fields, libraries,
cinemas, theatres, clubs, and gardens are very beneficial for enjoying the
free time. With it, man gets refresh and passionate for working more
diligently because he knows that “Hard Works pays off”.

12-Protection of Legacy: People live together in a society. A generation

ends up after completing its tenure in this world inheriting the jewel of
customs, traditions, social practices and cultural progress. Every
generation increases the amount of the jewel as this is inherited to one
generation after another as a legacy.

13-Formation of a Character: Man is the crown of creature and is far

superior to other living beings due to his goodness and virtue. Man has
the characteristic of differentiating between right and wrong. He learns
the lesson of love, co-operation, sympathy, sacrifice and unity from the
society. Society not only fulfills the basic human needs but also
enlightens him with high moral values. Society is the, in fact, the reason
behind encouragement of patience, justice, and friendly attitude among
human beings.

14-Social Organizations: Cultural, welfare, political, professional and

religious organizations are included in many of man-made organizations.
All these organization serve human beings and they exist due to the
society. The collection of these organization is called society. Their non-
existence can devoid man of so many facilities. These social
organizations also play an important role in making human life easier,
pleasant, beautiful and organized.

15-Individual and Collective Progress: Society helps a man to progress. A

man alone cannot have those benefits which he gets from the society.
The purpose of the society is to provide high position and better
circumstances to an individual. Individual as well as the collective
progress of people depend upon society. Individuals take advantage of
others’ help on both individual and joint levels.

16-Pursuit of Truth: An anxious soul of human being has always been in

pursuit of truth. What is right? It is impossible to know without the help of
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a society. In a society, people live together and find solutions with mutual
co-operation. They prove to be helpful in achievement of high spiritual
aims using their previous experiences and thus lead other people towards
a right direction.

Foundations of Modern Society

Modern society is built on several important foundations that
shape how people live and interact. These foundations help create
systems of governance, economy, and social structures that affect
everyone’s lives.
1-Democracy: Democracy is one of the key foundations of modern
society. It is a system of government where people have the right to vote
for their leaders and influence decisions that affect their lives. In a
democracy, citizens can express their opinions, participate in elections,
and hold their leaders accountable. This involvement promotes fairness
and ensures that the government reflects the will of the people.
2-Rule of Law: The rule of law is another critical foundation. This principle
means that everyone, including government officials, must follow the law.
It ensures that laws are applied equally to all individuals, protecting
citizens from abuse of power. When the rule of law is respected, it
creates a sense of justice and security, allowing people to live freely
without fear of arbitrary decisions.
3-Human Rights: Human rights are basic freedoms and protections that
every person should have, such as the right to life, freedom of speech,
and equality before the law. These rights are essential for maintaining
dignity and respect for all individuals. In modern society, protecting
human rights is crucial because it fosters an environment where everyone
can thrive and contribute positively to their communities.
4-Economic Systems: Economic systems play a significant role in
shaping modern society. These systems, such as capitalism and
socialism, determine how resources are produced, distributed, and
consumed. A strong economy creates jobs and opportunities for
individuals, improving their quality of life. The way wealth is shared within
a society affects social stability and overall happiness.
5-Education: Education is fundamental for personal and societal growth.
It provides individuals with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed
in life. An educated population is essential for innovation and progress.
Education empowers people to make informed decisions, participate in
the economy, and contribute to their communities.
6-Technology and Innovation: Technology and innovation are crucial in
modern society. Advances in technology improve communication,
transportation, healthcare, and many other aspects of daily life. These
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innovations can make tasks easier and open up new possibilities for work
and leisure. Embracing technology helps society grow and adapt to
changing needs.
7-Social Institutions: Social institutions, such as families, schools, and
religious organizations, provide support and structure to society. They
help shape values, beliefs, and behaviors, contributing to a sense of
community. These institutions play a vital role in teaching social norms
and fostering relationships among individuals.
8-Cultural Diversity: Cultural diversity enriches modern society by bringing
together people from various backgrounds, traditions, and perspectives.
This diversity encourages creativity and innovation and helps foster
understanding and cooperation among different groups. Embracing
cultural differences leads to a more inclusive and harmonious society.
9-Globalization: Globalization connects countries and cultures through
trade, communication, and travel. This interconnectedness has
transformed how societies interact and share ideas. Globalization can
provide economic opportunities, but it also presents challenges, such as
cultural homogenization and inequality. Understanding and navigating
these complexities is vital for a successful modern society.
10-Environmental Awareness: In recent years, environmental awareness
has become a crucial foundation of modern society. People are
increasingly recognizing the importance of protecting the environment
and sustainable practices. This awareness leads to actions that aim to
preserve natural resources and promote a healthier planet for future
generations.

COMMUNITY

The term ‘Community’ is used in our society in various ways.

Sometimes, it is called ‘society’. Sometimes, a group of people related to
a particular profession is called ‘community’ i.e. community of teachers
or lawyers. The word ‘community’ is also used for a nation i.e. Pakistani
community or Iranian community. The terns ‘Civics community’ and
‘Rural community’ are also in use by dividing the whole population in two
categories. This word is used on religious bases two, i.e. Muslim
community or Christian community. But the term ‘Community’ can be
more appropriately attributed to the division on the base of area. A group
of people living in a particular area are called ‘community’. An area
where there are common values and people are culturally connected with
one another. When some families have same emotions, interests, values
and they have been living in a place unitedly, such group of people is
called ‘community’.

Definitions
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“Wherever the members of any group… small or large … live
together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest,
but the basic conditions of life, we call that group a community.”
(MacIver)

“The whole population living in a particular area who has common

principles of life.” (Ginsburg)

“Community is the collection of people who live in one

geographical area, have same interests and activities and collectively
take part in routine activities of daily life.”
(Osborne)

Characteristics of a Community

● Community is consisted of people. Their number cannot be specified

however, it is less than a society.

● Common language is spoken which proves to be very helpful for mutual

co-operation.

● Aims and interests are the same.

●There is harmony among lifestyle and customs and traditions.

● Community is consisted of people belonging to a particular area.

● Collective struggle is their identity.

●There exist common emotions, feelings and values.

● People are emotionally linked with one another.

Kinds of Community

●On the base of religion i.e. Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Sikh.

●On the base of sects i.e. Sunni, Wahabi, Shia.

●On the base of caste i.e. Jaat, Arain, Syed or Rajpoot etc.

●On the base of gender i.e. male or female.

●On the base of area/region/province i.e. Punjabi, Balouchi, Sindhi or

Pathan.
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Some of other communities include international communities such as
western European countries, Latin American countries or Third world
countries.

Rural Community: Rural community is a group of people who have been

living in a small area since centuries. Rural people are simple, loyal,
honest, and trust worthy. They have a deep inclination towards customs
and traditions and are the real interiors of moral values. People living in
villages, that is, an open place, also has openness when it comes to their
approach towards life. Such community is filled with the emotions of
brotherhood, sacrifice, sympathy and comradeship.

Civic Community: There is a great number of people in civic community.

People have less connections and the emotions of brotherhood and
loyalty are not in plenty. Civic community is consisted of busy and all the
time active people. Most of the people are linked with trade or jobs. The
life standard of citizens is far better than the villagers. Civilized people are
more smart and intelligent and their lifestyle is very different from rural
community.

Professional Community: People linked with one profession are

considered one community i.e. farmers, laborers, industrialists, traders
and employees etc.

Sectarian Community: A religious group has its own separate identity i.e.
Christian community, Hindu community, Parsi community, Ahmadi
community. Muslims were given the right of separate elections in 1909
only because of being a separate community.

Nation & Nationality

The terms 'Nation' and 'Nationality ' are usually considered same.
But in the field of civics, both terms have a significant difference however,
they both are taken from the Latin word 'Natio' which means birth or
generation.

Nationality: When a particular group of people has common interests, and

emotional relation, its members get together and feel themselves
separated from other human beings. They also have same spiritual
approach. Such group is given the name of 'Nationality'. People, linked
with this group, have same approach and motives. The main identity of
Nationality is emotion of unity which is flourished by common generation,
common language, common culture and civilization, common religions,
common customs and traditions and common history. All these elements
give birth to nationality.

Definitions
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“A portion of mankind may be said to constitute a Nationality if they are
united among themselves by common sympathies which do not exist
between them and any others which make them co-operate with each
other more willingly than with other people.
(J. S. Mill)

It is “nothing but material or mechanical, but a subjective psychological

feeling in living people.” (Arnold J.
Toynbee)

“What constitutes a nation, is not speaking the same tongue or

belonging to the same ethnic group, but having accomplished great
things in common in the past, and the wish to accomplish them in the
future.” (Ernest Renan)

“Nationality is such a unity of hearts which cannot be put an end to, once
made.” (J. H. Rose)

“Nationality may be defined as 'a spiritual sentiment or principle arising

among a number of people usually of the same race, residents on the
same territory, sharing a common language, the same religion, similar
history or traditions, common interests with common political
associations and common ideals of political unity”.
(Gilchrist)

Nation

The term ‘nation’ is derived from the Latin words ‘Natio’ and
‘Natus’ which mean ‘born’ and ‘generation’. Nation, therefore, in its
deriva¬tive sense means a group of people belonging to the same racial
stock. The term was used in this sense by the German philosophers.

In Civics, the word ‘nation’ is being used on political grounds. It

means a group of people which is free or has the will to be free. Nation
has a great link with struggle for freedom. When nationality decides to
make people free of their cruel leaders, it takes the form of a nation. So,
we can say that nation is a form of nationality which is either independent
or striving for independence.

Definitions

"A body of people united by common descent and a common language."

(Leacock)

“When nationality gets unity and total freedom, it becomes a nation.”

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(Hays)

“Nation is a culturally homogeneous social group which is at once

conscious of its unity”
(Garner)

“The mixture of state and nationality is called ‘nation’”.

(Gilchrist)

“Nation is a union of men having racial or ethnographic significance. A

group which is free and have the will of freedom.”
(Lord Bryce)

This definition of Lord Bryce is most clear and comprehensive.

Difference between Nation and Nationality

1-Nationality is the name of an emotion, because of it, the member of a

group feels alienated. Nation can clearly be seen as it is exposed to us in
the form of reality. Nationality, on the other hand, connects people.

2-We can consider nationality ‘a foundation’ on which the building of a

nation is based. No group can take the form of nation without nationality.
The existence of nationality is very necessary for a nation. And this
nationality also takes the form of a nation when its members struggle for
freedom.

3-Nation is a body which is visible, whereas nationality is the soul

(invisible).

4-When there is a passion for freedom in nationality, it gives birth to

nation. Nationality is the production of common feelings. And nation
emerges as a result of common passion for freedom.

Elements of Nationality

1-Common Race: Racial harmony plays an important role in emergence

of nationality. People belonging to one race have deep connections with
one another. A clear example of nationality on racial bases is Jews who
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have been living life in different countries for centuries but the ideology of
nationality never faded among them. Only because of this strength, they
became able to get their separate homeland, that is, Israel. Blood relation
is very strong and considered far superior than other elements of
nationality. But it does not mean that any nationality cannot exist without
racial unity.

2-Common Language:

Ramsay Muir, a British Historian and Political thinker (1872-1941)

considers the linguistic relation very important recognizing it as a basic
element for the sensation of nationality. Common language paves the
way for relations bringing them together. Through language, people
express their motives, poetry and literature is promoted and ideas are
flourished. In Arab countries, language is the main source of unity.

3-Common Culture: Fine Arts such as poetry, painting, art of screwing,

architecture and common dress code brings unification of thought in a
group of people. Common cultural inheritance unites them and they are
given the form of nationality. But only common culture does not play the
complete role in emergence of nationality. This element along with the
other ones gives birth to oneness. Johan Stuart Mill considered common
culture very necessary for promotion of the sense of nationality.

4-Common Residence: When one group of people has been living in any
particular area since centuries, this develops the sense of nationality.
They have same joys and sorrows. They struggle together against
dangers. So, only living together can promote this sense, i.e. people living
in America and Australia. When these regions were discovered, many
natives of European countries shifted to America like Spanish, French,
Portuguese, English, Dutch and Belgian etc. They made new country their
homeland, and they all were connected by sense of nationality in the span
of few years. The element of common residence does not cause
nationality in every country and region i.e. people living in sub-continent,
that is, Hindus and Muslims, could not take the form of one nationality
despite living together for centuries. Both the groups lived as a separate
identity and they maintained their separate values.

5-Common Religion: Religious beliefs play the most significant role in

uniting human beings and directing them towards one nationality.
Religion was created alongside human beings. The first human being was
also the first prophet who guided his community towards the way of Allah.
A large number of persons introduced different religions in the world.
Religion comes in the form of a complete code of life and provides social,
economic, religious, political, and personal guidance to its believers.
Religion also becomes the base of nationality among its followers. When
Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) spread the message of Islam, racially united
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people of Quresh were divided into two groups. People following the
leadership of Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) developed a new sensation and they
took the form of a separate nationality.

6-Common Political Aims: When a group of people is united for the

achievement of political goals, it takes the form of nationality. People
shifting to America got united and consolidated in spite of cultural, racial,
regional and religious differences as they had an aim of getting freedom
from British Empire. This aim gave birth to their nationality. They
challenged the British colonialism in spite of their differences and kicked
it out of their country.

7-Common Interests: If there is an element of common interests among

one or more groups of people, and they can attain a suitable position due
to unity, this sentiment also leads towards emergence of nationality. In
1808, People of England and Scotland preferred to be the part of British
Nationality because it equally benefited both the nations. Their political,
economic and social interests were same. The people of Syria and Egypt
also saw a dream of a greater unity and took the form of a same nation
and nationality by deciding to be the part of common nationality but this
unity was not continued for a longer period of time. Gilchrist considered
the existence of common interests compulsory for a nationality.

8-Common Customs and Traditions: Traditions connect a group of

people with their past, enhance the interest in recent times and help in
future planning. Common customs and traditions give birth to emotional
attachment and relations among human beings. It also causes harmony
in thought and philosophy while bringing people together and thus,
promoting the sense of nationality. But it is not always possible because
common customs and traditions, sometimes, ignore people and only give
importance to other values.

All the above mentioned elements give birth to the sense of nationality.
Professor MacDougal is of the opinion that if any of these elements is not
found in a group, it still can take the form of nationality. Professor
Zamran said; “If people only think that they have same nationality, they
are a nation.”

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT
Civic: Civic refers to anything related to a city, community, or citizenship.
It involves the responsibilities, rights, and activities associated with being
a member of a society. This term often emphasizes participation in the
public life of a community, such as voting, volunteering, or staying
informed about public affairs.
"Civic" refers to matters concerning a city or community,
especially those tied to citizenship and public life. It encompasses the
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duties and responsibilities individuals have within their society, like
participating in democratic processes, abiding by laws, and contributing
to the collective well-being. Civic engagement ensures that individuals
actively contribute to the functioning and improvement of their
communities, thereby fostering a healthy and cooperative social
environment.
Citizenship: Citizenship is the legal and social status that defines an
individual's membership in a political community, typically a nation-state.
It encompasses a set of rights, such as the right to vote, the right to free
speech, and access to public services, as well as responsibilities,
including obeying laws, paying taxes, and participating in civic life.
Citizenship is both a legal designation and a reflection of one's
commitment to the values and norms of the society in which they live. It
involves an active engagement with one's community and government,
fostering a sense of belonging and identity. In a globalized world, the
concept of citizenship has evolved to include the idea of global
citizenship, emphasizing the interconnectedness of individuals and their
responsibilities to address global challenges.
Concept of Civic Engagement: Civic engagement refers to the active
participation of individuals in the life of their community and the political
process. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including voting,
volunteering, participating in public discussions, and advocating for social
change. Civic engagement is vital for a healthy democracy, as it
encourages citizens to contribute to decision-making processes and hold
their government accountable. It fosters a sense of responsibility and
collective action, allowing individuals to influence policies that affect their
lives and communities. By promoting civic engagement, societies can
build stronger, more inclusive communities where citizen’s work together
to address shared challenges and enhance the well-being of all members.
Definitions
While "civic engagement" as a specific term has become more
prominent in modern times, several philosophers and thinkers throughout
history have discussed the ideas that form its foundation. Here are
definitions and perspectives related to civic engagement from eminent
philosophers:
1-Aristotle: Aristotle believed that human beings are inherently political
animals and that active participation in public life is essential for a
virtuous and fulfilled life. For him, civic engagement was part of living in
accordance with virtue and achieving the good life. “Man is by nature a
political animal.”
2-John Stuart Mill: Mill emphasized the importance of individual freedom
and collective decision-making. For him, civic engagement was not only a
duty but a way to safeguard liberty and enhance social progress“A person
may cause evil to others not only by his actions but by his inaction, and
in either case he is justly accountable to them for the injury.”
3-Rousseau: Rousseau argued for the idea of the "general will," where
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civic engagement was central to forming a social contract. He believed
that individuals must actively participate in shaping the laws and policies
that govern them. “The general will is always right, but the judgment
which guides it is not always enlightened.”
4-De-Tocqueville: De-Tocqueville saw civic engagement as essential for
maintaining democracy. He believed that the strength of American
democracy lay in its citizens' active participation in local governments
and community associations. “The health of a democratic society may
be measured by the quality of functions performed by private citizens.”
Connection Among Civic, Citizenship and Civic Engagement
Civic, citizenship, and civic engagement are closely connected and
support each other in important ways. First, civics teaches people about
how government works and what rights and responsibilities they have as
citizens. This knowledge helps individuals understand their role in society
and encourages them to participate in democracy.
Next, citizenship provides individuals with rights, such as the
ability to vote and express their opinions, as well as responsibilities like
obeying laws. Feeling a sense of belonging as a citizen motivates people
to engage in their communities and take action for positive change.
Finally, civic engagement is about taking part in community
activities, such as voting, volunteering, and advocating for important
issues. When people engage actively, they make their voices heard and
contribute to decision-making processes, which strengthens their
community.
Together, these three concepts create a strong framework for democracy.
Civics provides the knowledge, citizenship offers rights and
responsibilities, and civic engagement encourages action. This
combination helps build informed and responsible citizens who work
together to improve their communities and support democratic values.
Here’s how these concepts interconnect and reinforce one another:
1-Foundation of Knowledge (Civics): Civics provides the essential
knowledge and understanding of governmental structures, laws, and the
rights and responsibilities associated with being a citizen. It equips
individuals with the tools to comprehend how their government operates
and the role they play within it. By learning about civics, citizens become
aware of their rights, such as voting and free speech, as well as their
responsibilities, like obeying laws and participating in civic duties. This
foundational knowledge is crucial for informed participation in democracy.
2-Identity and Rights (Citizenship): Citizenship is the legal status that
grants individuals specific rights and responsibilities within a political
community. It forms the basis of belonging and identity, as citizens
recognize their connection to their nation and its values. Citizenship goes
beyond mere legal recognition; it embodies a commitment to the
principles of democracy, such as equality, justice, and collective welfare.
The rights that come with citizenship empower individuals to engage
meaningfully in their communities, reinforcing their sense of agency and
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responsibility.
3-Active Participation (Civic Engagement): Civic engagement
encompasses the various ways individuals participate in the political and
social life of their communities. This can include voting in elections,
volunteering for local organizations, attending town hall meetings, and
advocating for policy changes. Civic engagement transforms the
knowledge gained from civics education and the identity tied to
citizenship into action. Engaged citizens actively contribute to decision-
making processes, advocate for their communities, and work towards
social change.
4. Reinforcing the Cycle
* Education to Engagement: Civics education inspires individuals to
become engaged citizens by highlighting the importance of their
participation in governance and community affairs. An informed citizenry
is more likely to engage in civic activities.
* Rights to Responsibilities: Citizenship not only provides rights but also
emphasizes the responsibilities that come with those rights.
Understanding these responsibilities motivates citizens to engage in
activities that benefit society, such as voting and community service.
* Engagement to Empowerment: Civic engagement empowers individuals
to take ownership of their communities and advocate for their needs and
interests. When citizens actively participate, they influence policies and
drive change, reinforcing the idea that their voices matter in a democratic
society.
5-Building Strong Communities: The interplay of civics, citizenship, and
civic engagement fosters strong, resilient communities. When citizens
are educated about their rights and responsibilities and are engaged in
civic life, they build networks of collaboration, trust, and mutual support.
This collective action leads to a more vibrant democracy, where diverse
voices are heard, and common goals are pursued.
Conclusion: Together, civics, citizenship, and civic engagement create a
comprehensive ecosystem that promotes active participation in
democratic processes. This synergy ensures that individuals are not only
aware of their rights and responsibilities but also empowered to act on
them, contributing to the overall health and sustainability of democratic
society. Through this collaborative framework, communities can thrive,
and democratic principles can be upheld and strengthened.
Process of Civic Engagement
The process of civic engagement involves various stages where
individuals and groups actively participate in public life to improve their
community, influence decision-making, and foster social change. This
process typically includes several steps, from awareness to action, and
can take many forms depending on the type of involvement. Below is a
detailed breakdown of the process:
1-Awareness and Education: The first step in civic engagement is
understanding the issues and needs of the community or society. This
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involves becoming informed about local, national, or global issues that
matter to you. Citizens educate themselves about topics like politics,
social justice, healthcare, education, environmental problems, or human
rights. Information can come from news outlets, community meetings,
social media, discussions with others, or formal education. It’s important
to assess the credibility of information, analyze various perspectives, and
think critically about the best ways to address these issues.
2-Identifying Interests and Priorities: Once informed, individuals must
determine which issues they care about the most and which align with
their personal values and the needs of their community.
* Personal priorities: This could be improving public education, reducing
crime in the neighborhood, protecting the environment, or advocating for
social justice.
* Community priorities: Individuals often look at the immediate needs of
their community to decide where their involvement will have the most
impact. Identifying common problems shared by others helps in setting
goals for civic engagement.
3-Connecting with Others: Civic engagement is often more powerful
when done collectively. This step involves reaching out and connecting
with others who share the same concerns or interests.
* Joining organizations: People often connect with local groups, non-
profits, or social movements that address their causes. These groups can
provide resources, support, and a platform for action.
* Networking: Networking with other like-minded individuals strengthens
the chances of making a larger impact. This could be through community
forums, online groups, or volunteering networks.
* Building coalitions: Sometimes, individuals and smaller organizations
come together to form coalitions that work toward a common goal,
pooling their resources and influence.
4-Engagement and Participation: This is the core step in the civic
engagement process where individuals take action. There are several
ways to participate:
* Voting and Political Participation: Voting in local, state, and national
elections is one of the most direct ways of participating. It ensures that
the voices of the community are represented in decision-making
processes. Political participation can also include working for a campaign,
running for office, or attending political rallies.
* Volunteering: Volunteering is a hands-on way to engage civically.
Individuals may volunteer at non-profits, local schools, environmental
cleanup projects, or with political advocacy groups to contribute their
time and skills to causes they believe in.
* Community Service: Engaging in community service projects, such as
neighborhood improvement efforts, organizing food drives, or mentoring
youth, provides immediate help to local issues. It also fosters a sense of
community connection.
* Public Advocacy: Public advocacy includes activities like participating in
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protests, writing letters to representatives, starting or signing petitions, or
using social media to raise awareness about issues. It can also involve
lobbying for policy changes by meeting with public officials or speaking at
town halls.
* Attending Public Meetings: In local governments, public meetings are
held to discuss issues like budgeting, planning, and policy changes.
Attending these meetings allows citizens to share their concerns, suggest
ideas, and influence decisions that directly affect their community.
* Serving on Local Boards or Committees: Citizens can serve on advisory
boards, committees, or task forces that influence local government
decisions. This involvement offers a direct way to shape policy and
community initiatives.
5-Advocacy and Dialogue: Beyond participating in activities, civic
engagement often involves advocating for change through dialogue and
communication with leaders and institutions.
* Dialogue with policymakers: Engaged citizens can write letters, meet
with elected representatives, or speak during public forums to advocate
for specific causes. Communicating with decision-makers is essential for
influencing laws and policies.
* Campaigning for awareness: This could involve starting awareness
campaigns to educate the broader public on a certain issue through
social media, public speeches, or organizing events. Engaging in the
media is also a way to bring attention to a cause.
6-Monitoring and Accountability: After participating or advocating for
change, civic engagement includes monitoring the progress of actions
and holding leaders accountable for their promises.
* Follow-up on actions: It’s important to keep track of the decisions and
policies made by local or national governments and ensure they are
implemented effectively.
* Public accountability: Citizens can use the media, public forums, and
other platforms to hold officials accountable when promises aren’t met or
policies fail to produce desired results.
7-Reflecting and Adapting: Civic engagement is an ongoing process that
involves learning from each action or project. Reflecting on the outcomes
and the effectiveness of the efforts helps improve future engagement.
* Evaluating impact: After engaging, individuals or groups assess how
successful their actions were. This might include looking at how a policy
change affected the community or how well a volunteer project
addressed a local issue.
* Adapting strategies: If initial efforts did not bring about the desired
changes, individuals or groups can adjust their strategies. This might
mean shifting focus, trying new methods of engagement, or collaborating
with different partners.
8-Sustaining Engagement: Long-term civic engagement requires
sustained effort. It’s not just about participating once but continuing to be
involved over time to make meaningful and lasting change.
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* Staying informed: Civic-minded individuals keep themselves updated on
changes in their community, legislation, and broader societal issues to
stay engaged and responsive to new developments.
* Building lasting relationships: Building relationships with other engaged
citizens, leaders, and organizations helps to sustain engagement. These
networks can offer continued support, collaboration opportunities, and
motivation to remain active in civic life.
* Encouraging others to engage: Sustaining engagement also involves
encouraging others to get involved. This may mean educating or
mentoring the next generation of civic leaders and community activists.
9-Creating a Culture of Engagement: The final step in the civic
engagement process is contributing to a culture of continuous civic
participation.
* Fostering civic education: Promoting civic education in schools,
workplaces, and communities ensures that future generations understand
the importance of active citizenship.
* Creating inclusive spaces: Encouraging diverse voices and perspectives
ensures that civic engagement is representative of the whole community,
not just specific groups. This involves making civic processes more
accessible and inclusive for marginalized or underrepresented groups.
* Building civic institutions: Creating or strengthening institutions like non-
profits, advocacy groups, and local associations that facilitate ongoing
civic involvement helps to institutionalize civic engagement, ensuring it
becomes a permanent feature of society.
Conclusion: Civic engagement is an evolving and participatory process. It
begins with being informed and identifying issues, followed by taking
action through voting, volunteering, and advocacy. This process
continues with efforts to hold leaders accountable, reflect on progress,
and sustain involvement. The ultimate goal is to create a society where
everyone is empowered to participate in shaping their communities and
the world around them, making a positive and lasting difference.
Kinds of Civic Engagement
Civic engagement takes many forms, ranging from direct political
involvement like voting and lobbying to more community-focused
activities such as volunteering and participating in local events. Whether
it's through advocacy, community service, or digital activism, civic
engagement allows individuals to contribute to the improvement of
society and the strengthening of democracy. Each type of engagement
serves a unique role in creating change, and many people engage in
multiple forms throughout their lives.
1-Electoral Participation: Electoral participation involves engaging with
the political system through voting, running for office, or working in
campaigns. Voting in elections, at local, state, or national levels, is a
direct way for citizens to influence governance and policymaking.
Additionally, organizing or volunteering in voter registration drives,
attending political rallies, or working at polling stations are important
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activities in this category.
2-Advocacy and Activism: Advocacy and activism involve speaking up
and taking action to support or oppose causes. People can engage by
joining protests, signing petitions, participating in demonstrations, or
lobbying decision-makers. This type of civic engagement can be focused
on a range of issues, from social justice and human rights to
environmental sustainability, and is aimed at creating change through
collective action.
3-Volunteering and Community Service: Volunteering includes donating
time and skills to improve communities without expecting financial
compensation. Examples include working with non-profits, participating in
local clean-up drives, helping at shelters, or tutoring students. Community
service not only helps solve local problems but also fosters a sense of
responsibility and connection to others.
4-Community Building: Community building focuses on fostering
relationships and strengthening the social fabric of local areas. This can
involve organizing or attending local events, creating neighborhood watch
programs, or participating in community improvement projects. Such
activities help build trust, collaboration, and a shared sense of purpose
among residents.
5-Public Consultation and Participatory Governance: In this form of
engagement, individuals take part in shaping policies by interacting with
government institutions. This includes attending public meetings, town
halls, or participating in advisory committees. Citizens provide feedback,
share concerns, and influence decision-making processes at the local or
national level, ensuring their voices are heard in governance.
6-Political Consumerism: Political consumerism involves making
purchasing decisions based on ethical or political values. Individuals may
choose to buy from companies that align with their principles, such as fair
trade or environmentally friendly products, or they may boycott
businesses that engage in harmful practices. By doing so, they use
economic power to support social or political change.
7-Social Entrepreneurship: Social entrepreneurship combines business
practices with social impact. Entrepreneurs create businesses that
address societal problems while being economically sustainable. These
ventures can range from companies focused on environmental protection
to businesses that provide education or healthcare to underserved
communities.
8-Civic Journalism and Media Engagement: Civic journalism involves
using media to highlight important social or political issues. This could be
done through blogging, podcasting, or independent reporting. Media
engagement also includes participating in campaigns that promote
awareness and encourage others to act on pressing concerns, making
media a powerful tool for civic engagement.
9-Civic Education and Advocacy: This type focuses on educating people
about their rights, responsibilities, and the importance of civic
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participation. Programs aimed at teaching civics to young people, or
workshops that inform communities about specific issues, are examples
of how civic education helps people become more engaged and informed
citizens.
10-Online Engagement and Digital Activism: Digital platforms have
become a crucial tool for civic engagement. Social media campaigns,
online petitions, and crowdfunding are ways people can engage with
issues without needing to be physically present. Digital activism allows
individuals to reach large audiences, raise awareness, and mobilize
support for causes quickly and effectively.
Each type of civic engagement allows individuals to participate in
their communities and society in different ways, contributing to the
common good, promoting change, and building stronger democratic
systems.
Hurdles & Challenges of Civic Participation
Civic participation, while essential for democracy and community
development, faces several challenges that can hinder people's
involvement. Here are some of the key challenges:
1-Lack of Awareness and Education: Many people are unaware of their
civic rights and responsibilities or lack knowledge about how to engage
with political and social systems. Limited understanding of issues,
processes, or avenues for participation can prevent people from getting
involved.
2-Apathy and Disengagement: Political apathy is a significant challenge.
Some individuals feel that their participation won’t make a difference,
leading to disengagement from civic activities such as voting or
community organizing. This can stem from frustration with government
inefficiency or a belief that their voices won’t be heard.
3-Time Constraints: Civic participation often requires a time commitment
that many people, especially those with demanding jobs, families, or
multiple responsibilities, may not have. Finding time to attend meetings,
volunteer, or stay informed about issues can be difficult.
4-Social and Economic Barriers: Individuals from marginalized
communities may face economic or social barriers to participation.
Limited access to resources, transportation, or technology can hinder
involvement. For example, those in low-income communities may lack the
financial stability to engage in civic activities.
5-Distrust in Government and Institutions: In some cases, a lack of trust
in government, political institutions, or elected officials can discourage
people from participating. If people believe that the system is corrupt or
unresponsive, they may feel disillusioned and avoid engagement.
6-Complexity of Political Systems: Political systems can be complex and
difficult to navigate. Understanding how government works, how to
engage in policy-making, and knowing the processes for civic
engagement can be overwhelming, especially for first-time participants or
those without political experience.
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7-Polarization and Divisiveness: Increasing political polarization can
deter people from civic engagement. Fear of conflict or being criticized
for their views can prevent individuals from participating in discussions or
debates on important issues.
8-Access to Information: In some cases, citizens lack access to accurate
and timely information, making it difficult to stay informed.
Misinformation, limited media coverage, or lack of digital access in rural
or underserved areas can prevent people from being active participants in
civic life.
9-Limited Representation and Inclusion: Certain groups, such as ethnic
minorities, people with disabilities, or immigrants, may feel excluded from
traditional civic processes. This lack of representation and inclusivity can
discourage their participation in civic activities.
10-Fear of Repercussions: In some regions or under certain governments,
civic participation can lead to legal or social repercussions. People may
fear retaliation, legal consequences, or social ostracism for engaging in
protests, speaking out, or organizing around controversial issues.
11-Ineffective Engagement Channels: In some cases, available channels
for participation may be ineffective or inaccessible. Public forums, town
hall meetings, or online platforms may not be well-publicized, well-
organized, or designed to encourage meaningful participation.
12-Burnout: Activists and engaged citizens may experience burnout from
continuous participation in civic activities. Sustained involvement in
demanding causes can lead to exhaustion, frustration, or a feeling of
helplessness, especially when results are slow or non-existent.
Conclusion: The challenges to civic participation range from personal
obstacles like lack of time and knowledge to broader issues like political
distrust, systemic exclusion, and societal polarization. Addressing these
challenges requires improving access to education, fostering more
inclusive environments, enhancing communication, and making civic
processes more accessible and transparent.
Steps for the Encouragement of Civic Participation
Increasing civic participation is vital for strengthening democracy,
improving communities, and addressing societal issues. There are
several strategies to encourage more people to get involved. Here are
some ways civic participation can be increased:
1. Civic Education
2. Improving Access to Information
3. Making Voting Easier
4. Encouraging Volunteerism
5. Strengthening Community Connections
6. Increasing Inclusivity and Representation
7. Addressing Political Apathy
8. Using Social Media and Digital Tools
9. Enhancing Public Trust
10. Making Civic Participation Fun and Social
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11. Support for Grassroots Movements
12. Making Civic Participation More Accessible
13. Civic Leadership Programs

Historical Evolution of Civic Participation

The historical evolution of civic participation is a complex journey
that reflects the changing relationship between individuals, communities,
and governing institutions. As societies have evolved, people became
more engaged in the governance of their societies. This evolution has
been shaped by cultural, economic, technological, and philosophical
changes across time. Here's a detailed account of its development:
1-Ancient Civilizations and Origins of Civic Engagement
(i)-Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt: In the earliest civilizations, such as
Mesopotamia 3500 BCE and Egypt, political participation was almost
nonexistent for the general public. Governance was highly centralized,
dominated by kings or pharaohs, who were often seen as divine or semi-
divine rulers. However, councils of elders or priests sometimes advised
these rulers, a rudimentary form of civic engagement for elites.
(ii)-Ancient Greece: Civic participation as a formal concept originated in
ancient Greece, particularly in Athens 5th, century BCE, where democracy
was developed. Athenian democracy allowed male citizens (excluding
women, slaves, and foreigners) to participate directly in decision-making
processes through the Ekklesia (assembly). Citizens voted on laws,
military decisions, and other public policies. Civic responsibility included
military service, holding public office, and jury duty. This was an early
model of direct democracy, where citizens were directly involved in
legislative and executive matters.
(iii)-Ancient Rome: The Roman Republic (509–27 BCE) further developed
the concept of civic participation, though it was more hierarchical and
representative than Athenian democracy. Roman citizens voted for
elected officials such as senators, consuls, and tribunes. However, power
was divided among different classes, with patricians (nobles) having
more influence than plebeians (commoners). The establishment of legal
and political institutions such as the Senate, Assemblies, and the Twelve
Tables (Rome's early legal code) laid the foundation for representative
government, where civic participation was increasingly structured and
mediated through formal roles.
2-The Middle Ages and Decline of Civic Participation
(i)-Feudalism (5th,-15th, centuries): After the fall of the Roman Empire,
Europe entered the feudal period, characterized by a decentralized
political structure where power was based on land ownership and
hierarchies of nobility. Civic participation declined as monarchs and
feudal lords controlled the political and legal systems. The majority of the
population, mostly peasants and serfs, had little to no voice in
governance.
(ii)-Church and Civic Life: During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church
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played a significant role in governance. Religious councils and church
synods offered some form of participation, though this was largely
limited to clergy and aristocrats. In cities and towns, guilds and merchant
councils began to offer limited civic engagement to their members, laying
the groundwork for urban self-governance later.
(iii)-Magna Carta (1215): In England, the Magna Carta was a landmark
document that limited the absolute power of the king by requiring
consultation with a council of barons before certain taxes could be levied.
Though the rights granted by the Magna Carta were largely for the nobility,
it represented a shift toward the concept that rulers should be
accountable to the governed, a key principle in civic participation.
3-Renaissance & Early Modern Period and Reawakening of Civic
Engagement
th th
(i)-Renaissance (14 ,–17 , centuries): The Renaissance brought a
renewed interest in classical ideas of civic life. Thinkers like Machiavelli
and Leonardo Bruni emphasized the importance of active citizenship and
participation in public affairs. The concept of republicanism gained
traction, where civic virtue and participation in governance were seen as
essential to the health of the state.
(ii)-Protestant Reformation (16th, century): The Reformation introduced
ideas of individual conscience and decentralized religious authority, which
had implications for civic participation. In Protestant regions, religious
leaders often had a role in local governance, and individual communities
had greater autonomy in managing local affairs.
(iii)-The Dutch Republic and Italian City-States: In places like the Dutch
Republic and the Italian city-states (e.g., Venice and Florence), merchant
elites played a significant role in governance, blending aristocratic,
oligarchic, and civic traditions. Though not democratic by modern
standards, these systems allowed for broader participation from a
wealthy, educated citizenry.
4-The Enlightenment and the Age of Revolutions and Expanding
Participation
th th
(i)-Enlightenment (17 ,–18 , centuries): The Enlightenment was a period
of intellectual ferment that laid the groundwork for modern democratic
thought. Philosophers like John Locke, Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau advanced ideas of natural rights, the social contract, and the
separation of powers. Locke, in particular, argued that government
authority is derived from the consent of the governed, while Rousseau
advocated for popular sovereignty through direct or representative
participation.
(ii)-American Revolution (1775–1783): The American Revolution was a
turning point in the evolution of civic participation. The Founding Fathers,
influenced by Enlightenment ideas, established a system of
representative democracy where citizens could elect their leaders. The
Constitution and Bill of Rights enshrined civil liberties and a system of
checks and balances, though initially, participation was limited to white,
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property-owning men.
(iii)-French Revolution (1789–1799): The French Revolution further
expanded civic participation by abolishing the feudal system and
establishing the principles of liberty, equality, fraternity. Though the
Revolution led to periods of violence and instability, it resulted in broader
participation in governance, including the establishment of elected
assemblies and the promotion of universal male suffrage during the First
Republic.
5-19th, Century and Struggles for Inclusion and Representation
(i)-Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution brought significant
social and economic changes, which fueled demands for greater political
participation. Workers, facing poor conditions, began to organize in labor
unions and other groups to advocate for rights such as fair wages, safer
working conditions, and the right to vote. The growth of urban
populations led to new forms of civic organization and advocacy.
th
(ii)-Liberal Reforms and Expansion of Suffrage: The 19 , century saw
significant liberal reforms across Europe and North America. In Britain,
the Reform Acts (1832, 1867, 1884) gradually expanded the franchise to
include more men, reducing property qualifications. Similar movements
occurred in other countries, reflecting a shift from elite to mass
participation in politics.
(iii)-Abolitionism and Women’s Rights Movements: Civic participation also
expanded through social movements, including abolitionism (fighting to
end slavery) and early feminism. Women’s suffrage movements, such as
those led by activists like Susan B. Anthony and Emmeline Pankhurst,
fought to extend political participation to women, leading to early
victories in countries like New Zealand (1893) and later in the U.S. (1920)
and Britain (1918, full in 1928).
6-20th, Century: Global Democratization and Civil Rights
(i)-World Wars and Democratic Movements: The world wars had a
profound impact on civic participation. The rise of totalitarian regimes like
Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia led to a suppression of civic freedoms,
but the wars also spurred a global push for democracy in the post-war
period. The establishment of the United Nations and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948) enshrined the idea that civic
participation and political freedom were universal rights.
th
(ii)-Civil Rights Movements: The 20 , century saw mass movements for
civil rights, particularly in the U.S., where leaders like Martin Luther King Jr.
and organizations like the NAACP fought for racial equality and the
expansion of voting rights for African Americans. The Civil Rights Act of
1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 significantly expanded civic
participation by outlawing racial discrimination and removing barriers to
voting.
(iii)-Decolonization: After World War II, many African, Asian, and Caribbean
countries gained independence from European colonial powers. These
newly independent states often established democratic governments,
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expanding civic participation to populations that had been previously
disenfranchised under colonial rule.
7-Late 20th, & 21st, Century and New Forms of Civic Engagement
th
(i)-Social Movements: The late 20 , century saw an explosion of social
movements advocating for a wide range of rights, from environmental
protections to rights. Grassroots organizing, protests, and direct action
became key tools of civic engagement.
st
(ii)-Digital Revolution: The rise of the internet and social media in the 21 ,
century revolutionized civic participation. Digital platforms allowed for
instant communication, organization, and mobilization, enabling global
movements like the Arab Spring (2010s) and various social justice
campaigns. Online petitions, social media activism, and digital voting
platforms have broadened the scope of participation, though they also
bring challenges such as misinformation and political polarization.
8-Contemporary Issues and Challenges and Opportunities
(i)-Populism and Polarization: In recent years, rising political polarization,
populist movements, and the spread of misinformation have complicated
civic participation. While technology has made it easier for people to
engage in politics, it has also led to new challenges in maintaining
informed and meaningful civic discourse.
(ii)-Global Civic Engagement: Despite these challenges, civic participation
continues to evolve globally. Issues such as climate change, economic
inequality, and human rights have sparked new forms of transnational
activism, demonstrating the continued importance of civic participation in
shaping both local and global governance.
Conclusion: In summary, the evolution of civic participation has been
marked by the gradual expansion of rights and access to governance.
From the limited participation of elites in ancient civilizations to the broad,
digitally-enhanced forms of engagement seen today, civic participation
has continuously evolved, reflecting the changing needs, values, and
technologies of society.
Civic Participation Present Era & Its Importance
Civic participation is more important than ever in today’s world. As
societies grow more complex and interconnected, individuals need to be
involved in shaping the communities they live in. Here are some key
reasons why civic participation is vital in the present era:
1-Strengthening Democracy: Active civic participation helps keep
democracy strong and functioning. Voting in elections, participating in
public discussions, and holding leaders accountable ensures that
governments remain responsive to the needs of the people. When
citizens engage, it creates a government that reflects the interests and
values of its people, preventing power from being concentrated in the
hands of a few.
2-Addressing Local and Global Challenges: We are facing unprecedented
global challenges like climate change, economic inequality, and public
health crises. These problems require collective action, and civic
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participation allows individuals to have a say in how these issues are
tackled. At the local level, involvement in community initiatives, public
forums, or environmental campaigns ensures that solutions are shaped
by the people who are most affected.
3-Promoting Social Justice and Equality: Civic participation is crucial for
advancing social justice and equality. Movements for civil rights, gender
equality, and justice for marginalized groups rely on active
participation—whether through protests, advocacy, or voting. It ensures
that every voice, especially those from underrepresented communities, is
heard and included in decision-making processes.
4-Encouraging Accountability and Transparency: Governments and
institutions are more likely to act fairly and transparently when citizens
are engaged and informed. Civic participation—whether through voting,
public oversight, or engaging with elected representatives—serves as a
check on power, reducing the likelihood of corruption, abuse, or
inefficiency.
5-Building Stronger Communities: When people participate in their
community, whether by volunteering, joining local boards, or attending
town meetings, it fosters a sense of belonging and collective
responsibility. Civic engagement builds trust among neighbors,
strengthens social bonds, and helps communities work together to solve
local problems. In times of crisis, strong community ties built through
civic participation can make a significant difference in resilience and
recovery.
6-Educating and Empowering Citizens: Civic participation helps
individuals learn about their rights, their government, and how decisions
are made. An informed and engaged citizenry is empowered to make
meaningful contributions to society. Participation fosters critical thinking,
collaboration, and understanding of diverse perspectives, which are
essential in a healthy democracy.
7-Adapting to the Digital Age: In today’s digital age, civic participation has
taken on new forms through social media, online petitions, and digital
advocacy. These tools allow people to quickly organize, spread
awareness, and mobilize action. However, this also makes it crucial for
individuals to participate responsibly, countering misinformation and
engaging in productive, informed discourse.
8-Securing Future Generations: By participating in civic life, people help
shape policies that will impact future generations. Decisions made today
regarding the environment, education, healthcare, and social welfare will
affect children and generations to come. Civic participation ensures that
these decisions consider long-term effects and reflect the values of a
broad spectrum of society.
Conclusion: Civic participation in the present era is vital to fostering
inclusive, fair, and sustainable societies. It empowers individuals,
strengthens communities, and ensures that governments remain
accountable to the people they serve.
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…………………………………..

CHAPTER NO. 3
STATE, GOVERNMENT & CIVIL SOCIETY
State
The basic concept of a state was initiated in Ancient Greece. Where
every city was given the rank of a state. These were called ‘Polis States’.
In the era of Romans, even larger states came into being. ‘‘The small
independent organizations which came into being at the end of fifth
century BC are called "States".
In middle ages, states consisted of rural areas as well as civic areas.
In modern times, state is formed on national bases. The people of a state
call them a whole nation and such state is called “national state”.
State is a name of the region where a permanent number of people
live, which is free from external pressure, which has its own government
whose principles are followed by natives.
Nation and state are often recognized as similar terms. State and
nation are two different organizations. Nation is such a group of people
who had some common values i.e. race, religion, language and culture
and this group struggles collectively for freedom. The people of Kashmir
are a nation because they have common religious, cultural, linguistics and
regional values. Further, they have been struggling for freedom for many
years. They are a nation but cannot be recognized as a state.
Definitions
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Aristotle: “The state is a union of families and villages and having for its
ends a perfect and self-sufficing life by which we mean a happy and
honorable life.”
This definition by Aristotle does not cover the whole circle of
modern state. He only talks about persons and regions and does not
consider government, the main element of a state. He considers state, an
independent unit, however, no state can claim so in modern times. Even
the largest states need the support of other states.
Laski: “State is a territorial society divided into government and subjects
claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other
institutions.”
Burgees: “State is such a group of human beings which can be called ‘an
organized unit”.
Bluntschli: “State is apolitically organized people of a definite territory.”
The definitions by Bluntschli and Burgess don’t have the
mentioning of authority in a government.
Woodrow Wilson: “People organized for law within a definite territory.”
Gettel: ‘State is the name of an organized group of people who live in a
particular area, are free from external pressure and have their own
government.”
Oppenheim: “The state exists when people are settled in a-country under
its own sovereign government.”
Holland: “State is a group of people which occupies a particular area,
has the organization where public opinion is regarded.”
Gamer: “The state is a community of persons, more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent (or
nearly so) of external control and possessing an organized government
to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”
Among all above mentioned definitions, the definition by Professor
Gamer is the most comprehensive one which has mentioned the four
elements (Population, territory, government and sovereignty) of a state.
Essential Elements of State
The four basic elements of a state are; Population, Territory,
Government and Sovereignty.
1-Population: The main element of a state is population because the
state is established for the public development. An area where there is no
population, cannot be called ‘state’.
A state is not consisted of trees, animals, or rivers but of human
beings. The population of a state is divided into two parts. Frist category
is consisted of people who are benefited by political rights. And second
category is of the people who are not the regular citizens of a state i.e.
foreign traders, students, visitors or ambassadors. Foreigners are not
given political rights in any state whether there exists population or not.
However, this point of the number of population has always raised and
has been the main topic in discussion of many philosophers since
centuries.
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● Greek philosopher Plato tells the number of its population five thousand
and forty (5040). This number was perhaps acceptable for the ancient
Greek state but not acceptable for the modern states.
● Another Greek philosopher Aristotle was of the view that population
should neither be low that it cannot fulfil the needs of a state nor that
much soaring that there may be difficulties in controlling the system of
state.
● French philosopher Rousseau proposed the number of 10,000 people
for the population of an ideal state.
● Famous Muslim scholar of subcontinent, Shah Wali Ullah wrote that a
proper population is one which includes people of all professions so that
it may establish an independent political society.
The demands of every state are different in accordance with the
population. Now a days, the rise in the population in China India,
Bangladesh, Indonesia and Pakistan is causing many problems. The
governments of these states are stressing upon birth control. On the
other hand, states like Russia, Canada and Australia need to increase
their population. In Russia, the mother of many children is called "Heroin
Mother". In the first half of twentieth century, parents were rewarded for
an increase in birth of children in Germany and Italy.
2-Territory: The second most important element of a state is territory. A
vagabond tribe is independent, follows its leader, and lives life under
proper rules and regulations but only because of the fact that it does not
have any permanent territory, we cannot call it a state.
The importance of territory can be observed in the case of Jews who
had been a strong and well-organized group since 1948 and influenced
the politics of so many states but they did not have their own territory
therefore, they could not be given the rank of a state. Only when Israel
was bestowed upon Jews, then the Jewish state came into being for the
first time.
The question of vastness of an area for the population is also
raised many a times. De-Tocqueville, Ibn Khaldun, and Montesquieu
supported the idea of small areas. Small area was considered necessary
for the democratic development so that the public may directly take
interest in state affairs. Rousseau also considers small state beneficial
for achievements of democratic goals. Aristotle suggested such a small
area for the state where a man at one corner can easily look at the man
standing at another corner of the state.
The proportion in population, territory and resources of the state is
very necessary. Territory should be large enough to provide basic
resources to the public. A state of small territory was also considered
standard on administrative bases but after the establishment and
development of United States of America, the larger states were given
much importance. The German thinker Trashky considers a large territory
necessary for a state and says; “It is a sin for the state to be of small
size.” So, the basic point is that there must be proportion in population,
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territory and resources of a state.
3-Government: The system which is established to form laws and to act
upon them, is called ‘Government’. It is formed to provide basic facilities
to the public for leading an organized life as well as for the purpose of
their protection. There develops anarchy and chaos in a state if there is
no government. A state can make people act upon its laws through a
government as it plays the role of a weapon for a state. The government
can be observed in whole world in different forms. The Kingdom,
Dictatorship, Nobility, Democracy are the types of government.
The Government performs three major duties and for this purpose,
there are three different institutions in a democratic system.
(i)-Legislature: It is a Law-making assembly and its members are selected
through the votes of Public. The legislative body of a state makes law
keeping in view the circumstances and present condition of the country.
(ii)-Executive: This institution controls the discipline of the state and
implements the laws made by legislature. The establishment of peace,
protection of public, international relations and the border defense are
among the important duties of this unit of a state.
(iii)-Judiciary: The Judiciary is the branch of authority in a country which is
concerned with law, legal system and administration of justice. In a
democratic system of Government, the judiciary plays the most
significant role as it provides justice to people.
4-Sovereignty: Sovereignty is such an authority of the state through which
the state is fully free from outside pressure and has the full control of
people and institutions within the state. Until people living in a specific
territory and their government is not free from external pressure, it cannot
be given the rank of state. If territory is considered the body of a state,
sovereignty is the soul.
Jean Bodin (1530-96), a French Jurist and political philosopher, defined
sovereignty (which he called in Latin, ‘Suverenitas’) in the following words;
“Maiestie or Soveraigntie is the most high, absolute, and perpetual
power over the citizens and subjects in a Commonweale: which the
Latins cal Maiestatem, the Greeks akra exousia, kurion arche, and kurion
politeuma; the Italians Segnoria, and the Hebrewes tomech shévet, that
is to say, The greatest power to command.
● Internal Sovereignty: It is the high authority within the circle of a state
which is superior to all the citizens and their institutions and it's each
decision is supposed to be a final one.
● External Sovereignty: When an area and people living in are free from
outside pressure and they can make their own decisions, it is called the
external sovereignty of a state.
Salient Features of the State
The state is a political entity that governs a specific territory and
population. Its salient features include:
1-Sovereignty: The state has supreme authority to make laws, govern,
and enforce decisions without external interference, both within its
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borders (internal sovereignty) and in relation to other states (external
sovereignty).
2-Territory: The state has a defined geographic area where its authority is
exercised. This includes land, airspace, and sometimes territorial waters.
3-Population: A state must have people living within its territory, forming
the citizenry governed by its laws and policies.
4-Government: The state operates through a system of governance,
which can be democratic, authoritarian, or any other form. It includes
institutions like the executive, legislature, judiciary, and bureaucracy.
5-Law: A state creates and enforces laws that regulate the behavior of its
population, maintaining order and justice.
6-Recognition: For international legitimacy, a state must be recognized by
other states and international organizations.
7-Permanence: Unlike governments, which may change over time, the
state is a permanent institution.
These features together define a state and distinguish it from
other forms of social or political organizations.
Functions of Modern State
1-Law and Order: Enforcing laws and maintaining peace through the
police, courts, and judicial systems.
2-National Defense: Protecting the country from external threats through
the military and intelligence services.
3-Economic Regulation: Managing and regulating the economy, including
controlling inflation, unemployment, and trade policies.
4-Taxation: Collecting taxes to fund public services, infrastructure, and
government operations.
5-Public Services: Providing essential services like healthcare, education,
water, and electricity.
6-Social Welfare: Ensuring the well-being of citizens by offering social
security, unemployment benefits, and poverty relief programs.
7-Infrastructure Development: Building and maintaining roads, bridges,
airports, public transportation, and communication systems.
8-Environmental Protection: Regulating activities to preserve natural
resources, reduce pollution, and promote sustainability.
9-Foreign Policy: Managing relations with other states, including
diplomacy, trade agreements, and international cooperation.
10-Justice Administration: Ensuring a fair and impartial judicial system to
resolve disputes and uphold the rule of law.
11-Public Health: Managing healthcare systems and promoting public
health initiatives, including vaccination and disease control.
12-Education: Providing and regulating access to education from primary
to higher levels to promote literacy and skills development.
13-Employment Promotion: Encouraging job creation and supporting
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labor rights to ensure economic stability and growth.
14-Security and Crime Prevention: Combating crime, terrorism, and
ensuring internal security through law enforcement agencies.
15-Financial Stability: Managing monetary policies, banking regulations,
and fiscal policies to maintain economic stability.
16-Disaster Management: Coordinating responses to natural disasters
and emergencies to protect citizens and infrastructure.
17-Cultural Preservation: Promoting and preserving national culture,
heritage, and arts through funding and regulation.
18-Public Transportation: Managing and developing public transportation
systems to ensure mobility and connectivity for citizens.
19-Promotion of Equality: Implementing policies that promote gender,
racial, and social equality, and prevent discrimination.
20-Public Participation: Encouraging citizen participation in decision-
making through elections, referenda, and civic engagement.
The Historical Evolution of State
Different theories were presented regarding the beginning of state.
Some philosophers considered it a creation of God, while others took it as
a result of power. Some intellectual thinkers considered state a larger
form of Family and Tribe. A group of philosophers called state, a result of
the social pact among public. These ideas can be partly accepted but it is
not appropriate to consider any of them wholly correct.
The most accurate and acceptable theory about beginning of a state
is called Evolutionary or Historical Theory. It is also called “The Theory of
Evolution of State”. This concept rejected all earlier concepts and now
only this concept is accepted worldwide. So many elements gave birth to
the system of states. It basically initiated on the base of Family which
further developed in Castes and Tribes, religious principles urged people
to be together, the use of power and wars advanced toward
establishment of state and lastly an increase in political awareness
completed the process of completion of state.
Doctor Stephen Leacock (1869-1944), a Canadian political
scientist and author wrote while explaining the historical concept; “The
word state, used in its widest sense, rests on the fundamental idea of
control and obedience; it implies authority and a submission to that
authority. It thus calls before our minds a phenomenon which may be
considered almost coextensive with human society as it at present
exists, and which reaches back into the past almost as far as the history
of human society itself.
Professor Garner (1871-1938) wrote; “State is neither the creation
of God nor the result of physical strength. It is neither the outcome of
any pact nor the developed form of Family.”
The process of creation of state resembles to the growth of a tree. A
tree does not flourish in one day. The process of growth continues for
months and years, only then a plant takes the form of tree. Elements like
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seeds, water, air, mud, fertilizers and weather play an important role in
growing a tree. Likewise, many elements together pushed towards the
modern shape of the tree of state.
John Burgess (1844-1931) defined the state as; “A particular portion of
mankind viewed as an organized unit which initiated in a bad way.”

Factors Played Vital Role in the Formulation of State

In formation and growth of state, the following elements played their
role:
1-Relatives/Blood Relations: Aristotle considered state, the combination
of families. Famous German philosopher Jean Bodin considered state, a
developed form of Family. Muslim Scholar Ibn Khaldun specially
mentioned the importance of blood relations in his works. He is of the
view that blood relations not only helped in the beginning of state system
but also played an important role in its rise and fall. The vulnerability of
blood relations has weakened the state. If it becomes stable, it can be
very helpful in durability of state. Sir Henry Maine even considered blood
relations, the only element in the beginning of state.
MacIver writes; “Blood relations created the society and society
finally formed the state.” “Family is inclusive of all the limitations which
later embellish the system of government.”
With the passage of time, people of different castes & Tribes through
of living a joint life and established a civil society while co-operating with
one another. It was a cardinal step towards the system of states.
Elements other than blood relations were added later and thus the
process of formation of states continued.
2-Relgion: Religion has been of great importance in each epoch of human
life. The Holy Book is a proof that first human being was a prophet. Allah
(S.W.T) sent one lac and twenty four thousands prophets and made
people learn the right way to live. Every religion brought rules and
regulations and became the reason behind unity, sovereignty and co-
operation among its followers. Religious harmony gave birth to larger
human groups. There lies a great power in religion. People got
achievements while giving importance to religious affiliations.
In past, whenever a tribe adopted any religion, its leader was also
made the religious leader of the people. The combination of religion and
blood relations made groups of human beings strong. The sentiments of
obedience and mutual co-operation were also developed due to religion
as well as it united people of different tribes, territories and generations.
Gettle has considered the role of religion in growth of state very essential.
Religion united people and they advanced towards the establishment of
state.
3-Magic: In ancient times, the magicians and enchanters used to force
people to obey them. These magicians, at that time used to enforce their
wills after getting control of a specific group, which used to take form of
an organization like state. Likewise, the use of magic and illusion united
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and organized people and urged them to follow the laws. In the era of
Moses, the political and social significance of magicians and
necromancers is specifically mentioned in religious books.
As magicians used to attract people by their exceptional tricks,
people had a feeling that if they would not obey the magician, he could
easily destroy them. Therefore, they used to obey the magicians.
Whenever a large number of people came under the control of a magician,
he would have announced his leadership. So, the magicians used to rule
the people because of their magic and brilliance.
4-Power and War: When the groups of people formed on the basis of
castes or religion, there developed collision because of property, animals
and different other resources. Different tribes which were well-organized,
fought with one another. The process of integration was introduced
among the triumphant and disintegrated tribes. Their separate identity
was faded with the passage of time and they were merged into a larger
organization. The leader of the triumphant tribe became the political
leader of different tribes living in a territory and the concept of the state
came into being. Blood relations, religion and illusion/beliefs organized
human groups and war united them. Oppenheim considers power and
war the most important element in formation of state.
5-Economic Needs: In the beginning of human life, males and females
were unaware of culture and civilization. They used to live together but
not in a well manner. Each individual used to fulfill his needs on his own.
The self-sown fruits, the river water, and the meat of wild animals was
their food and they used to cover themselves with the leaves of trees.
With the passage of time, they were cultured and their lifestyle was
revolutionized. They became civilized by learning the art of agriculture.
The development of crops’ production and care of cattle gave birth to the
problems among human beings. They felt themselves dependent for
economic needs. Each one of them was struggling for his personal
interests. At that time, they felt the need to establish such institution
which may be helpful in solving the problems, making the laws and
implementing them. The same desideratum also granted the approach to
people to form themselves politically.
6-Property: Until the element of property was not raised, people were
living a simple and satisfactory life. With the passage of time, there was
an increase in population, the resources decrease and this developed the
concept of property. Any person would mark a piece of land claiming that
it was his place, thus the worst period of conflicts began. The different
belonging of people raised disputes and caused assassination. When
there developed dissatisfaction and frustration, human beings thought of
adopting rules and regulations for the solution of problems related to
property and felt the need of proper machinery to implement those
principles.
7-Sentiment of Nationality: People living in one territory had some
common elements i.e. language, interests, residence, culture and
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civilization, religion and caste etc. These elements gave birth to the
groups and they were further given the shape of nationality. Common
aims, common interests and dangers united people, the sentiment of
nationality developed & the journey towards state began.
8-Political Awareness: Man is naturally conscious of good and evil. He
always strives for the best. Different changes in human life, social
institutions, progress of culture and civilization, new inventions and
evolution in routine behaviors are the proof that man has been advancing
in almost every field. Human beings living in jungles and caves used to
live in groups, but they were unaware of defensive skills for their own
protection. Gradually, they learned the use of weapons and discovered the
ways to counter attack the wild animals and other groups of human
beings. They also learned agriculture, advanced towards the use of metal
and finally perceived that it’s better to be well-organized. With the
passage of time, human beings also preferred to live under the leadership
of a leader. They lived as wanderers for a long time until they thought of
permanent residence and the concept of state finally came into being.

GOVERNMENT
Government is the system or group of people that governs an
organized community, typically a state or nation. It is responsible for
making and enforcing laws, maintaining order, and providing public
services that ensure the well-being of its citizens. Governments operate
at various levels, from local municipalities to national bodies, each tasked
with overseeing specific regions and functions.
The primary role of a government is to create a stable society
through the establishment and enforcement of laws that protect
individuals' rights and promote the common good. Governments also
manage resources, administer public services like education, healthcare,
and infrastructure, and work to protect national security. In democratic
systems, governments are elected by the people and are accountable to
them, ensuring that citizens have a voice in how they are governed.
Different types of government include democracies, where power
lies with the people; authoritarian regimes, where power is concentrated
in a single ruler or small group; and monarchies, where leadership is often
hereditary. The structure and function of a government can significantly
influence the economic, social, and cultural aspects of a country.
A government plays a pivotal role in shaping the lives of its
citizens. It provides the framework within which a society operates,
ensuring peace, security, and justice. Without a functioning government,
societies would struggle to maintain order and provide the necessary
services for the collective well-being of the people.

Structure and Functions of Government of Pakistan

The political process in Pakistan has gone through many changes

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since the country's inception in 1947. Pakistan is a federal parliamentary
democratic republic where the President is the head of state and the
Prime Minister is the head of government.
Pakistan's political process has been marked by periods of
military rule, political instability, and violence. The country has had several
coups since its independence, with military leaders taking over the
government and suspending the constitution.
In 1971, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) seceded from West
Pakistan, leading to a major change in the country's political landscape.
The country adopted a new constitution in 1973, which established a
parliamentary system of government with a bicameral legislature.

Functioning of the Organs of the Government

(i). Legislature
Parliament is formed which consists of the president and two
Houses. The upper house is known as ‘Senate’ while the lower house is
known as ‘National Assembly.’ Like India and Britain, the legislative
assembly of Pakistan is also known as parliament. There was unicameral
legislature as per the first two constitutions of Pakistan. But the third
constitution adopted the formula of bicameral legislature. Now, all the
provinces have equal representation in the Senate and they have
representation according to their population in National Assembly. After
the 8th, amendment, the parliament is known as ‘Majlis e Shura.’ And the
president is also added for legislation along with both Houses.
Senate
Under the 17th, amendment, the number of the members of Senate
has been increased to 100 which are further increased to 104 through
18th, amendment. The detail is given below:
Seats from each province 56
14 14×4
Tribal Areas 8 8
Females from each province 4 4×4 16
Technocrats from each 4 4×4 16
province
Minority from each province 1 4
1×4

Total
104
Senate is a permanent institution. All members of National
Assembly are selected for five years but the assembly can be dissolved
anytime by the president on the suggestions of prime minister. The
Senate, on the other hand, is formed on permanent basis. According to 3rd,
clause of article 59 of the constitution, the Senate cannot be dissolved.
However, each member is selected for 6 years. There are total 104
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members. If a member dies or resigns, the new member will have
membership for remaining period of that member.
Chairman and Deputy Chairman: The chairman presides the Senate. After
every 3 years, half of the seats are vacant. The new members are
selected for the vacant seats and they select their chairman and deputy
chairman.
The chairman and deputy chairman take oath after winning the
elections. The oath statement is written in the constitution. If the
chairman is unable to perform his duties due to any reason, deputy
chairman performs his duties. The chairman can send his resignation to
the president. And the Senate can dismiss chairman and deputy chairman
from their post.
National Assembly
The lower house of the parliament is known as ‘National
Assembly.’ The members of National Assembly are selected through
public votes. Under the third clause of article 51 of the constitution of
Pakistan, here is the detail:
General Seats Total
Females Seats
Punjab 35 183
148
Sindh 61 14 75
KPK 35 8 43
Balouchista 14 3 17
n
Tribal 12 - 12
Areas
Capital 12  12
Minorities - - 10
Total 272 60 342
Seats
According to the third constitution, the National Assembly is
formed for five years. After completion of five years, the assembly would
get dissolved and new elections would be conducted. The president can
dissolve the assembly on the suggestions of prime ministers even before
completion of its tenure. Five years is the maximum period and it cannot
be extended. The fixed term helps the members realize that they have to
face the public after fixed time. They perform well so that may win the
next elections.
The Speaker
The post of the speaker is created to preside the sessions of
National Assembly. Under the article 53 of the constitution, the members
of National Assembly, soon after taking oath, select their speaker and
deputy speaker. The former speaker chairs the first session of new
assembly. The new speaker takes oath according to the oath statement
written in the constitution.
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Powers and Functions of Parliament
The parliament is the real source of power in parliamentary
system of government. In Great Britain, the parliament is the real
sovereign and it is said that parliament can do anything other than
making man a woman or woman a man. In Pakistan, the rules of British
parliamentary system are adopted. Parliament is an institution which
makes law, makes amendments in the constitution, selects the prime
minister and ministers, dismisses them, selects the president of country
and can dismiss him through impeachment. The whole system of finance
is run in the supervision of parliament. In Britain, the supremacy of
parliament is accepted whereas the supremacy of the constitution is
accepted in Pakistan. Parliament works according to the constitution.
The powers of the parliament are written below:
1-Legislation: (i). First List of Federal Legislative Affairs
(ii). Second List of Federal Legislative Affairs
Only the parliament can make laws about the first and second list.
The provincial assemblies cannot intervene in this regard. As far as
concurrent affairs are concerned, both central and provincial assemblies
can make laws about them.
According to the constitution of 1973, all affairs of the first list
were first presented in National Assembly and then in Senate. The Senate
had limited powers with regard to these affairs. It had to return the bill
within 90 days. If the Senate would not take decision within 90 days, the
bill was supposed to be passed on its own. The amendment of 1985 has
given equal status to both the Houses. Now a bill can be first presented in
any of the Houses.
The affairs of the second list can be presented in any House. If
one House passes the bill, it is sent to the second House. And then the
president approves the bill. If there develops any conflict between both
Houses, a committee consisting of 16 members is formed whose
decision is respected by both Houses. If the president does not reply to
the bill within 30 days, the bill becomes law on its own. The president can
send his suggestions about a bill being discussed in the parliament. It is
necessary for the parliament to keep in view those suggestions. The
legislative powers of parliament makes it more effective. The parliament
makes law for the areas which are beyond the provincial boundaries such
as capital.
With regard to legislation, the parliament has the right to enforce
governor rule if the president announces the emergency situation. The
emergency situation continues for maximum six months.
2-Declaration of Emergency: If the central administration feels that there
are crisis and turmoil in the country, it declares the emergency. After
declaration of emergency, the president calls the common session of
parliament. This session is arranged within 30 days of declaration.
During emergency, the parliament can make laws of
compensation for public suffering. The article 237 of the constitution
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allows the parliament to make such laws. Thus, the parliament plays
important role for the protection of common people as well as
government officials.
3-Financial Powers: The parliament has full control over national finances.
Under the article 73 of the constitution, the financial powers of both the
Houses are explained. The taxes are approved by the parliament.
According to democratic demands and conventions, all financial affairs
are discussed in National Assembly. The National Assembly is the
representative of common people and it makes financial decisions while
understanding the public problems.
According to the constitution, all financial affairs are first
discussed in National Assembly and then sent to the Senate. The
approval of the Senate is not necessary. Then the financial bill is sent for
the presidential approval. It is necessary for the president to take decision
within 7 days. Otherwise, the bill becomes law on its own. The Senate has
no power as far as financial bills are concerned. Even the president
cannot create hurdle in this regard. Only the National Assembly has the
power to decide financial matters.
The speaker decides whether a bill is financial or not.
The bills of following types are known as financial bills:
(i). Implementation of taxes (ii). Supervision of collective defense
funds
(iii). Loans of central government which are granted by common people
(iii). Supervision of collective defense funds
(iv). Audit of the accounts of federal or provincial government
4-Amendment in the Constitution: The constitution of Pakistan is
inflexible. For making amendment in the constitution, a bill is presented in
parliament. The constitution cannot be easily amended. First, the National
Assembly analyses the bill. If 2/3rd, majority approves it, it is sent to the
Senate. And if 2/3rd, majority of the Senate approves it, it is further sent
for the approval of the president. It is necessary for the president to sign
the Bill within 7 days. If any amendment is required for the province, the
parliament cannot make law without permission of the concerned
provincial assembly.
5-Electoral Powers: The parliament appoints people on different posts.
The president of the country is selected for five years in the joint session
of both Houses and all the four provincial assemblies. The prime minister
and ministers are selected by National Assembly. The parliament also
has the power to dismiss the president, prime minister and ministers. The
2/3rd, majority is required for impeachment of the president. And for
impeachment of the prime minister, the simple majority is more than
enough.
6-Eradication of Public Grievances: The members of parliament are
public representatives. They reach parliament through public votes.
Therefore, they try to resolve the issues of their constituencies. The
members of parliament work as a connection between administration and
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common people. They help the administration in completing the tasks of
public welfare.
7-Administrative Powers: With regard to administration, the parliament
has so many powers.
(i)-Selection of Prime Minister and Cabinet: The National Assembly
selects the prime minister and finalizes the list of ministers. The cabinet
is also the product of parliament.
(ii)-Vote of No Confidence: The National Assembly chooses the cabinet.
It also has the power to dissolve it through motion of no confidence. Even
the prime minister cannot ask the president to dissolve the assembly, if
motion of no confidence has been presented against him.
(iii)-Questions: The members of National Assembly have the right to ask
questions from any of the ministers with regards to the performance of
his department. Through questions, the mistakes of government officials
are highlighted and people are made aware of wrong policies of
administration. The questions make administration work properly.
(iv)-Adjournment Motion: Any member of parliament can request the
speaker to start discussion about any important matter and adjourn the
present proceeding. If the speaker feels necessary, he allows
adjournment.
(v)-Resolution: The legislative assembly passes resolution about national
affairs for the guidance of administration. The resolution are usually
about public welfare. Although it is not the constitutional obligation for
the administration to act upon the resolution, but the importance of
resolution cannot be ignored. Through resolutions, the government is
made aware of the public problems. The speaker is given advance notice
if there feels any need to present a resolution.
(vi)-Judicial and Accountability Powers: According to the constitution,
the parliament can hold the president accountable. If the president is
involved in corruption or any other severe crime, the parliament can
dismiss the president. The parliament fixes the number of the judges of
Supreme Court and can bring great changes while using its powers in this
regard.
Provincial Assembly
The members of each provincial assembly are selected through
public votes. Under the 3rd, clause of article 5 of the constitution of
Pakistan, the provincial seats are reserved on the base of population. The
general elections were held in October 2002. Under the General Election
Order (2002), the Government of Pakistan once again determined the
seats. Here is detail:
Province General Non- Female Total
Seats Muslims s Seats
Punjab 297 8 371
66
Sindh 130 9 168
29
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KPK 99 3 124
22
Balouchista 51 3 65
n 11

The Speaker
The speaker is the selected member of provincial assembly and the
majority of selected members elect him.
Powers and Functions of Provincial Assembly
The powers and functions of the provincial assembly are given below:
1-Legislation: The provincial assembly can make laws about those affairs
which are placed in the list of concurrent affairs. The provincial assembly
can make laws about all affairs except those affairs which are part of the
first and second list of federal affairs. If both the assemblies make laws,
the central law is considered to be supreme. The bill approved in the
provincial assembly is sent to the governor for final approval. He has to
take decision within 30 days. After 30 days, the bills becomes law on its
own.
2-Approval of the Ordinance: The governor has the power to implement
ordinance in the province. Ordinance is a law made by administration. It is
implemented on temporary basis. Usually an ordinance is enforced for
three months. The governor can extend the period. After implementation
of the ordinance, whenever the session of provincial assembly is held, the
ordinance is presented for approval. If majority gives vote in favor of the
ordinance, it becomes law. Usually the ordinance is approved because the
chief minister is the leader of the winning party.
3-Financial Powers: All financial bills are presented by the government.
They are related to loans, financial aids, and provincial consolidated funds.
Further, the yearly budget is presented by finance minister. The assembly
members analyze the bill in detail. They express their views about the
budget. After the approval of assembly, the budget is sent to the governor
for final approval.
4-Eradication of Public Grievances: The members of provincial assembly
are usually aware of the problems of their concerned areas. They get
votes from public. That is why, they try to satisfy their voters.
5-Electoral Powers: After the 8th, amendment, all four provincial
assemblies got the power to select president of the country along with
Senate and National Assembly.
6-Administrative Powers: The administrative powers are
(i). Selection of chief minister (ii). Motion of no confidence
(iii). Questions (iv). Adjournment Motion
(ii). EXECUTIVE
The President of Pakistan
The President of Pakistan is the ceremonial head of state and
represents the unity of the country. While the role is largely symbolic, the
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President holds certain key constitutional powers, such as the ability to
dissolve the National Assembly under specific circumstances, usually on
the advice of the Prime Minister. The President is elected by an electoral
college comprising the members of the national and provincial
legislatures for a five-year term. In Pakistan's parliamentary system,
executive powers are primarily vested in the Prime Minister, but the
President has important functions such as signing bills into law,
representing the nation in diplomatic matters, and being the supreme
commander of the armed forces, though these powers are typically
exercised in consultation with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The
office of the President also plays a role in upholding the Constitution,
ensuring smooth transitions of power, and maintaining the country's
federal structure. The President may also grant pardons and commute
sentences. Though not involved in day-to-day governance, the President
serves as a stabilizing figure in the political system, balancing the
executive's authority and ensuring that governance adheres to
constitutional principles.
The Prime Minister
The third constitution of Pakistan was parliamentary in nature.
And the prime minister was made the centre of administrative machinery
just like British Prime Minister. This post was considered to be most
important while the post of the president was nominal. But the 8th,
constitutional amendment has tried to maintain balance between the
powers of the president and prime minister which decreased the
authorities of the prime minister, to some extent. The 13th, amendment
once again gave significance to the prime minister but the presidential
order of 2002 helped in maintaining the supremacy of the president in
altogether new manner. The 17th, amendment continued 58(2) B. In 2010,
the 18th, amendment gave more powers to the prime minister and 58(2) B
was taken back. Now the prime minister enjoys those powers which were
granted to him back in 1973.
The philosophers call the British Prime Minister a “shinning moon
among stars.” They have titled him as “important stone of the alcove of
British Cabinet.’’
Thus, the British Prime Minister is at the centre of the whole
system. After the amendment of 1997, the Prime Minister of Pakistan
also has the same powers. The British Queen is only the constitutional
head. The real powers lie with the prime minister. In Pakistan, the
president of Pakistan does not have limited powers just like British Queen
and he is not bound to all suggestions of the prime minister as well. The
all increasing powers of the president helped giving less importance to
the powers of prime minister. But the 18th, amendment has once again
regained the real parliamentary form of government where the prime
minister is all powerful.
The Governor
Pakistan is consisted of four provinces. The head of each
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province is known as governor. He is appointed by the president. The
governor shows unity in the province. The governor is the representative
of federal government in the province.
The Chief Minister
Pakistan is a federation. The internal administration of all the four
provinces is run by provincial administration. The so called head of
provincial administration is governor while the real head is chief minister.
The chief minister runs the system of provincial government with the help
of his cabinet. According to the constitution, the chief minister and
ministers are responsible to run the system of government in the name of
governor.

(iii). JUDICIARY
The judiciary is one of the three most important departments of
the government. For establishment of a just and welfare society, the
existence of judiciary is quite necessary. The judicial system proves to be
helpful in providing a fair life to human beings. It protects the basic rights
of the citizens and helps in developing high moral values. The judiciary
has important role in democracy.
In Pakistan, the judiciary is formed in a way that it is the protector
of high social values. The constitution has given importance to Supreme
Court and all other courts. A federal state is usually in dire need of fair
and impartial judiciary. Pakistan is a federation where the powers are
divided between the centre and the provinces. The division of powers may
develop conflicts and thus the explanation of the constitution is
necessary. The judiciary resolves the federal problems, it explains the
powers of the center and the provinces and decides the international
affairs. In Pakistan, the constitution has given significant position to
judiciary.
Supreme Court
Supreme Court is the highest court of Pakistan located in
Islamabad. Along with fulfilling the federal needs, the Supreme Court
protects the public rights as well as provides justice. Supreme Court
consists of a chief justice and some judges. The president is given the
right to appoint judges. For the post of chief justice, the PM gives
suggestions while for the posts of other judges, the suggestions of chief
justice are kept in view. After the presidential order of 2002, the president
is not bound to the suggestions of prime minister.
The permanent office of Supreme Court is in Islamabad. The
permanent benches are in Lahore and Karachi. The Chief Justice has the
power to call the session of Supreme Court anytime.
High Court
The highest court of the province is known as High Court. There
are five High Courts in Pakistan. Along with the four provinces, there is a
separate high court for Islamabad. Each High Court consists of a chief
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justice and some judges. The number of the judges is fixed.
Federal Shariat Court
Pakistan is a Muslim county. People of Pakistan always demand
an establishment of Islamic courts so that Islamic laws may be
implemented. For this purpose, Shariat benches are formed in every
province. According to the presidential order of May, 1980, the Federal
Shariat Courts were established all over the country which were later
replaced by Shariat benches. The Federal Shariat Courts have so many
powers.

PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM

Parliamentary system is also known as ministerial form of

government. It is often called a responsible government. This system
exists in many countries other than Britain, India, Canada and Australia.
There is semi parliamentary system in France and Sri Lanka. In
parliamentary system of government, the parliament holds the supreme
power. The members of parliament are selected by public as there is a
proper electoral system for this purpose. One member or the leader of the
winning party is offered the prime minister ship. Then the prime minister
selects ministers from the selected members of his party. If any
government does not have the required majority, two or more than two
parties form mixed government.

Both the prime minister and the cabinet consisted of ministers are
answerable to the legislature. The legislature can terminate the cabinet
any time if needed. In parliamentary system of government, president has
no powers. Real authorities are granted to prime minister and federal and
provincial ministers. They take their charge on the will of legislature and
the legislature can terminate them at any time.

Features of Parliamentary System

1-Head of the State: In parliamentary system of government, president

has no authorities. Real powers are given to the prime minister, his
cabinet and parliament. In Britain, once the king was all powerful and
sovereign. But then there were changes due to public desires and the
powers were shifted to the parliament. When the parliamentary system of
government was introduced in other countries, president was also
selected for the purpose of formality. The position of the president in
India is just like that of a king in Britain.

2-Prime Minister and his Cabinet: Elections in parliament are usually held
on the base of political parties. Each political party selects a member
before elections. It gives tickets to the candidates for elections and runs
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an electoral campaign.

The leader of the winning party is selected as the Prime Minister.

President of the country asks him to form a government. The prime
minister selects his ministers. Usually it is necessary for the ministers to
be the members of parliament. However, if the prime minister wants to
give ministry to someone who is not the Member of Parliament, he can do
so for six months only. If any political party does not have required
majority, then two or more than two parties form mixed government. In
parliamentary system of government, prime minister is called a ‘key
stone’. With the time, he is given the rank of most important and efficient
officer. If he resigns, the whole assembly is broken. In British system, the
prime minister is recognized as ‘moon in the stars’

2-Relationship between Prime Minister and Parliament: Prime minister is

the leader of the house. He gives the advice of calling the procession of
legislature as well as its cancellation. The whole process of legislation is
performed under an agenda designed by the prime minister. More bills
are presented by prime minister and his ministers and are called official
bills. No bill is accepted in the house without the support of prime
minister. If this happens, it is considered the failure of prime minister.

3-Harmony: In parliamentary system of government, there is a great

harmony among the administration and legislation. If there is any conflict,
one has to loose. In this way, the legislature terminates the cabinet or the
prime minister advices the president to break the assembly.

4-Common Responsibility: In parliamentary system of government, both

the prime minister and parliament are equally responsible. The minister
together swim and together are drowned. The whole cabinet works as a
team. And cabinet is answerable to the legislature.

5-Oneness of though and Action: Harmony and oneness of thought are

very common among all ministers of the cabinet. They can disagree with
one another while discussing different problems in the house. But when
the cabinet reaches any conclusion, the decision is not only taken keeping
in view the view point of ministers of the winning party.

6-Difference between Concept and Reality: In parliamentary system of

government, the constitutional position of the president and parliament
are quite different as compared to the one in reality. Formally, the
president makes all decisions and no bill is accepted without his approval
but this is actually not the case. His contribution is just a formality. The
main role in this regard is played by the prime minister and other
ministers.

7-Effective Opposition: Opposition plays an important role in

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parliamentary system of government. Because it is recognized as a
substitute to the government. Whenever the winning party loses in
parliament, the leader of the opposition is allowed to form the
government.

Merits of Parliamentary System

1-Harmony: In Parliamentary system, there is complete harmony among

the administration and legislation. Both the units perform national affairs
with mutual cooperation. Prime Minister and other ministers are the part
of the legislature, and the legislature select only those people whom it
considers eligible.

In presidential system, harmony among the administration and

legislation is not a compulsion. Legislature neither selects the president
nor can terminate him easily. President is selected directly by the public.
Therefore, both the units remain stable. And if there is any conflict among
two, it causes distress on national level.

2-Risk of Dictatorship: In parliamentary system, there is no risk of

dictatorship because parliament is all the time busy in the accountability.
The members of parliament continue creating hurdles for the prime
minister through questions, privilege movement, adjournment motions
and issues of reliability. He cannot dismiss the hopes of whole nation.
Whenever a prime minister tries to take over the control, legislature
checks him.

In presidential system, legislature can neither check the president

nor terminate him. The president is free and independent in his affairs
therefore, he can become dictator.

3-Guidance in Legislation: In parliamentary system, Prime Minister and

other ministers attend the meeting of legislation. They themselves
present the bills. The make the stand of government clear. They also
counter the objections of opposition. This promotes the environment of
apprehension and discernment.

In presidential system, the president does neither have the

opportunity to express his views, nor, his ministers take part in sessions
of the house. And legislation becomes quite difficult in this way.

4-Changing an Ineligible Government: In parliamentary system of

government, if any ineligible person becomes the Prime Minister, the
members of legislature can force him to resign. While in presidential
system, the president enjoys his position for complete four years, and any
institution cannot terminate him. If the President proves to be ineligible,
people still have to bear him.
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5-Responsible Government: Parliamentary form of government is a
responsible government. It is answerable to the public and
representatives of the public. Prime minister and other ministers are
called in legislative council for giving the report of their performance.

On the other hand, presidential system of government is not usually

responsible. Once the president is selected, his tenure has to be
completed. He continues his authority whether the public or their
representatives are satisfied or not. He does not consider it necessary to
satisfy the public and their representatives. He can make decisions on his
own.

6-Political training of People: The political process continues in

parliamentary system. Political parties seem to be active even after
elections. They continue to make people aware of their political,
economic and social problems. They also guide the citizens on local,
national and international levels. While in presidential system, political
parties curtail their activities after the electoral process. The opposite
parties know the fact that they cannot terminate the president before
completion of his tenure. Therefore, they avoid unproductive efforts.

7-Role of Opposition: If the role of opposition is effective, it proves to be

very beneficial in democracy. In parliamentary system, opposition is
properly formed and is called a substitute to the government. But in
presidential system, the concept of Opposition does not exist if it exists, it
is not an effective one. Opposition plays role only in the days of elections.

8-Better Leadership: In Parliamentary system, political parties always

remain active. Every political party, whether it wins or loses the elections,
maintains its organization. The meetings of parties are held time and
again and the politicians get the chance to share their viewpoints. The
whole process polishes the individuals and prepares them for leadership.

While in presidential system, the political parties select their

candidates near elections. Sometimes, the tickets are granted to those
people who are not fully eligible. Because in this form of government, the
political party does not have time to check his candidate.

9-An Experienced Leadership: In parliamentary system, usually the prime

ministers are quite older and experienced politician. They have much
experience of politics.

De-merits of Parliamentary System

Parliamentary and presidential systems of government are

opposite to each other. Though, both the systems are democratic but the
characteristics of one system cannot be observed in the other system.
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Therefore, the qualities of one system can be considered the drawbacks
of the other system.

1-Stability: Presidential System causes the establishment of a stable

government because the president is selected for limited time. He cannot
be terminated therefore, he performs his duties whole heartedly. He has
no fear that legislature or any other institution can terminate him,
therefore, he works for the establishment of stable government.
Parliamentary system of government is unstable. Legislature can
terminate the prime minister and his government at any time.

2-Eligibility of Ministers: In presidential system, ministers are eligible and

able. President grants the membership of his cabinet only to those people
whom he considers eligible. He selects few ministers among the
population of millions and grants each department to the concerned
minister. Due to proper discussion and best advices, the working of
government becomes more effective.

In parliamentary system of government, the prime minister has very

limited options. It is necessary for him to choose ministers from the
members of the legislature as well as to choose ministers from his own
party or any supportive party. In this way, political limitations are kept in
view rather than eligibility and capability.

3-Relationship with the Public: In presidential system, the public itself

selects the president. Therefore, he can claim to be the representative of
the whole nation. He is the portrayal of hopes and unity of the nation. On
the other hand, the Prime Minister and his cabinet ministers consider
themselves only the representatives of the legislature. They cannot claim
the public representation wholly as the president does in presidential
system of government.

4-Distribution of Responsibilities: In presidential system, responsibilities

are divided between the president and the legislature. The president
performs administrative responsibilities only. He and his ministers neither
attend the summit of the legislature nor provide any guidance in
legislation. In parliamentary system of government, the Prime Minister
has number of responsibilities. He performs administrative and legislative
responsibilities at the same time. He also has to make decisions about
approval of the sessions of legislature as well as its cancellation.

5-Fast Decisions: In presidential system, all administrative decisions are

taken by the president himself. He only takes advices from his ministers
and is not bound to their will. Therefore, whenever he reaches any
conclusion, he announces his decision. This situation causes prompt
implementation of the orders. In emergency situations, especially the
president does not have any fear of delay in decision making. On the
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other hand, in parliamentary system, the prime minister alone cannot
make the decisions. He has to cooperate with the majority of his cabinet
and legislature. And this process takes much time.

6-Completion of Projects: In presidential system, the period for the

completion of Projects is fixed in accordance with the tenure of the
president. It is observed that whether this project will be completed in the
tenure of the president or not. In parliamentary system, there is
continuous risk of change of the government. Prime Minister does not
know about his tenure. He begins different projects. The projects are
usually in the process when there comes the end of his government. And
in this way, the projects are left incomplete and fragmentary.

7-Opposition for Opposition: There is no opposition in presidential

system of government. After losing the presidential elections, the
opposition limitizes its activities. Because it knows that a president
cannot be terminated before fulfilling the tenure of his government. In
parliamentary system, opposition tries to take the control of government
all the time and continues to defame the winning party by hook and by
crook. For this purpose, there is great propaganda and criticism for
criticism. Even the good projects of the government are criticized. These
things cause chaos and disappointments in public.

8-Party Discipline: In presidential system, the members of the legislature

are free to express their viewpoints. There is neither any restriction on
them by their political party nor they are forced to agree with the
leadership. On the contrary, party discipline is very necessary in
parliamentary system of government. It is expected from each member of
the parliament to adopt the views in accordance with the party line. It is
possible that whatever a member says in parliament, his speech is only a
party stand and not his personal opinion.

9-Determining the Responsibility: In presidential system of government,

all duties are granted to the president. He discusses with the leaders of
his party, members of cabinet and other advisors and then announces the
final decision. However, the decision is solely his own and he cannot
avoid the responsibility.

In parliamentary system of government, the prime minister has to

value the advices of his ministers. He respects the opinions of members
of parliament and cabinet. He even sometimes has an approach which he
personally does not like. This situation gets worst in a mixed government.

10-Party Affiliation: In presidential system of government, political parties

are not so much active other than elections. After the elections, the
activities are very limited. All the Political parties know the fact that it is
not possible to terminate the president before the completion of his
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tenure. Therefore, they cooperate for national stability and integration
leaving enmity and clashes behind. In parliamentary system of
government, political parties are always active. The losing party plays the
role of opposition and continues a propaganda against winning party
which results in division of public in different groups.

11-Political Bribery: In presidential system, the members of legislature

cannot terminate the president. Therefore, not any individual or party tries
to bribe them. In parliamentary system, political bribe is very common.
Opposition parties pay off to weaken the winning party and continues to
change their affiliations. This whole process is cheap and quite immoral
from National point of view.

DEMOCRACY AND CIVIL SOCIETY

The relationship between democracy and civil society is integral
and mutually reinforcing. Democracy, as a system of government, is built
on the principles of citizen participation, accountability, and the protection
of individual rights and freedoms. Civil society, on the other hand, refers
to the realm of organized groups and institutions that operate
independently of the state. These include non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), community groups, religious institutions,
professional associations, and other voluntary organizations that work to
address social, economic, and political issues.
In a democracy, civil society plays a crucial role in fostering citizen
participation. It provides a platform for people to engage with issues
affecting their communities and participate in decision-making processes
outside of formal political structures like elections. Civil society
organizations (CSOs) mobilize citizens to express their views, advocate
for their rights, and engage in public debates. This engagement is vital for
a healthy democracy because it ensures that governance is not limited to
periodic voting but involves continuous interaction between the
government and the governed.
Accountability is another key area where civil society enhances
democracy. In a democratic system, it is essential that leaders and
institutions remain accountable to the people. Civil society organizations
often serve as watchdogs, monitoring the actions of the government and
exposing corruption, inefficiency, or human rights abuses. By holding the
government to account, civil society helps ensure that democratic
institutions function effectively and remain responsive to the needs of the
citizens.
Civil society also plays an important role in protecting human
rights and freedoms, which are central to democracy. NGOs and advocacy
groups work tirelessly to promote and defend civil liberties, ensuring that
all individuals, regardless of their background, are treated fairly and justly.
These groups often lead campaigns against discrimination, promote
equality, and safeguard marginalized populations, contributing to a more
inclusive democratic society.
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Further more, civil society promotes public debate and political
engagement, key aspects of a functioning democracy. By organizing
forums, workshops, and campaigns, civil society creates spaces where
citizens can discuss political and social issues, share ideas, and
challenge governmental policies. This fosters a more informed and
engaged citizenry, which is crucial for the vitality of democratic life.
In essence, democracy provides the framework within which civil
society operates, while civil society ensures that democracy remains
vibrant, inclusive, and accountable. Together, they create a dynamic
system that promotes freedom, equality, and participation, ensuring that
the voice of the people is always present in governance.
Relationship between Democracy and Civil Society in the Context of
Pakistan
In Pakistan, the relationship between democracy and civil society
is both complex and evolving. As a nation with a turbulent political history
marked by military interventions, fragile democratic institutions, and
periods of authoritarian rule, civil society has played an important role in
shaping Pakistan’s democratic trajectory. Over the years, civil society
organizations (CSOs) have become key actors in advocating for
democratic governance, human rights, and accountability, while also
facing challenges due to political instability and government restrictions.
* Role of Civil Society in Strengthening Democracy: Civil society in
Pakistan has consistently been a champion of democracy, particularly
during times of military rule or authoritarian governance. During the late
1980s and early 2000s, civil society, including lawyers, journalists, and
human rights activists, were instrumental in advocating for the
restoration of democratic rule. The Lawyers' Movement (2007–2009) is a
significant example, where civil society mobilized massive public support
to challenge General Pervez Musharraf’s suspension of the judiciary and
call for the restoration of Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry. This movement
reflected how civil society could rally citizens in defense of democratic
values and the rule of law, eventually leading to Musharraf's resignation
and the return of democratic governance.
* Promoting Accountability and Transparency: In Pakistan, civil society
plays a critical role in promoting accountability and transparency, which
are essential elements of a functioning democracy. NGOs, media outlets,
and human rights organizations often act as watchdogs, exposing
government corruption, inefficiency, and violations of human rights.
Organizations such as the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP)
and Transparency International Pakistan have been active in advocating
for better governance and exposing malpractice within both the
government and state institutions.
Civil society has also been involved in election monitoring to
ensure free and fair elections, which is vital for a democratic system. For
example, the Free and Fair Election Network (FAFEN) has been active in
observing elections in Pakistan, identifying irregularities and calling for
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electoral reforms to improve the democratic process.
* Defending Human Rights and Social Justice: A core function of civil
society in Pakistan is defending human rights and promoting social justice.
Pakistan has a history of political repression, minority marginalization,
and gender inequality, and civil society groups have often been at the
forefront of addressing these issues. For example, organizations
advocating for women's rights, such as Aurat Foundation, have worked
tirelessly to bring attention to issues like domestic violence, child
marriage, and unequal political representation. Similarly, groups
advocating for the rights of religious minorities and marginalized
communities have played a significant role in pushing for more inclusive
policies within Pakistan's democratic framework.
* Challenges Faced by Civil Society: Despite its crucial role, civil society in
Pakistan faces significant challenges. The operating space for civil
society organizations has frequently been constrained by government
regulations, harassment, and censorship, especially when they criticize
the state or the military. Laws regulating NGOs, such as restrictions on
foreign funding and registration requirements, have often been used to
suppress dissenting voices. Moreover, civil society organizations working
on sensitive issues, such as human rights, press freedom, or minority
rights, sometimes face intimidation or violence.
Additionally, political instability and frequent changes in
government make it difficult for civil society to engage in long-term
advocacy and policy reform. In some cases, civil society organizations
have been co-opted by political elites, reducing their effectiveness in
promoting democratic principles and serving as independent voices for
accountability.
* Civil Society’s Role in the Future of Democracy: For Pakistan's
democracy to flourish, the relationship between civil society and the state
must be one of mutual respect and cooperation. An empowered civil
society can help strengthen democratic institutions, advocate for
transparency, and hold the government accountable. It can also play a
pivotal role in promoting political participation at the grassroots level,
educating citizens about their rights, and encouraging youth involvement
in the political process.
As Pakistan continues to grapple with issues like poverty,
inequality, and regional instability, civil society remains a critical player in
pushing for reforms and addressing the needs of the most vulnerable.
Moreover, in the face of growing authoritarian tendencies and censorship,
a vibrant civil society is essential for preserving the democratic space and
ensuring that citizens’ voices are heard.
Conclusion: In Pakistan, the relationship between democracy and civil
society has been marked by both collaboration and tension. Civil society
has played a key role in advocating for democratic principles, human
rights, and transparency, even in the face of challenges such as
government restrictions and political instability. For Pakistan’s democracy
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to strengthen, civil society must be allowed to function freely, as it is vital
to holding power accountable and ensuring that the democratic process
reflects the will and rights of the people.
Importance of the Relationship between Democracy &
Civil Society in the Context of Pakistan
The relationship between democracy and civil society is crucial
for Pakistan's political stability, development, and governance. As a
country that has experienced frequent disruptions to democratic rule, the
interaction between these two entities is essential for building a resilient
and inclusive democratic system. Here’s why this relationship is
particularly important for Pakistan:
1-Safeguarding Democracy: In Pakistan, civil society plays a pivotal role
in safeguarding democracy during periods of political upheaval or
authoritarian rule. Throughout its history, Pakistan has seen multiple
instances of military interventions and the suspension of democratic
processes. Civil society has often been the leading force advocating for
the return of democracy. For example, during General Musharraf's regime,
the Lawyers' Movement was instrumental in restoring judicial
independence and pushing for democratic elections. This highlights how
civil society can act as a guardian of democratic values and resist
autocratic tendencies.
2-Promoting Accountability and Transparency: The role of civil society in
promoting accountability and transparency is critical in Pakistan, where
corruption and mismanagement have historically weakened democratic
institutions. Civil society organizations (CSOs) such as Transparency
International Pakistan and the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan
regularly expose corruption and human rights violations, keeping the
government accountable. By doing so, civil society strengthens
democratic institutions and ensures that the government remains
answerable to the people.
In a country where governance can sometimes lack transparency,
the ability of civil society to act as a watchdog is essential for the
effective functioning of democracy. Civil society helps ensure that elected
officials fulfill their mandates and that public resources are used
responsibly.
3-Strengthening Electoral Processes: Free and fair elections are the
foundation of any democracy. In Pakistan, civil society has been active in
monitoring elections, ensuring the transparency of the electoral process,
and advocating for electoral reforms. Organizations such as the Free and
Fair Election Network (FAFEN) have been involved in observing elections
and reporting irregularities. Their work helps build public trust in the
democratic process, ensuring that elections reflect the true will of the
people.
In a country where electoral fraud and manipulation have been
recurring issues, civil society’s involvement in monitoring and advocating
for fair electoral practices is crucial for legitimizing democratic
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governance.
4-Advocating for Human Rights and Social Justice: Pakistan’s
democratic system can only be considered complete when it ensures the
protection of human rights and the promotion of social justice. Civil
society plays an indispensable role in advocating for the rights of
marginalized groups, such as women, minorities, and underrepresented
communities. Organizations like Aurat Foundation have worked
extensively on women’s rights, while others focus on the rights of
religious minorities and the marginalized.
In a diverse society like Pakistan, where inequality and social
injustice can lead to political and social unrest, civil society’s advocacy for
inclusivity ensures that democracy serves all citizens, not just the
privileged few. This inclusive approach helps reduce tensions and fosters
social cohesion, both of which are essential for the long-term stability of
democracy.
5-Encouraging Political Participation: Civil society in Pakistan also
encourages grassroots political participation, educating citizens about
their rights and responsibilities. By organizing forums, workshops, and
awareness campaigns, civil society empowers ordinary citizens to engage
in political discourse and participate in elections. In a country where
political participation can sometimes be limited to elites, civil society
creates a bridge for underrepresented groups to have their voices heard.
By fostering political awareness and engagement, civil society
strengthens the democratic fabric of Pakistan, ensuring that democracy is
participatory and representative.
6-Promoting Pluralism and Dialogue: Civil society promotes pluralism by
fostering dialogue among different ethnic, religious, and social groups.
Pakistan is a diverse country with significant cultural, linguistic, and
religious differences. Civil society organizations encourage dialogue and
understanding between these groups, helping to mitigate conflict and
promote national unity.
In a democracy, where the peaceful coexistence of different
communities is essential, civil society’s role in promoting pluralism
ensures that diverse voices are heard and respected, thus enhancing
social harmony and reducing political polarization.
7-Countering Extremism and Promoting Peace: Pakistan has been
battling the challenge of extremism and terrorism for decades. Civil
society plays a vital role in countering extremist ideologies by promoting
tolerance, education, and peaceful coexistence. By offering alternative
narratives and engaging with youth, civil society helps in building a
democratic culture that rejects violence and embraces peaceful solutions
to conflict.
This aspect of civil society's work is particularly important for the
stability of Pakistan’s democracy, as extremism poses a direct threat to
democratic governance and social order.
Conclusion: The relationship between democracy and civil society in
Pakistan is vital for the country’s political development, governance, and
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social cohesion. Civil society acts as a protector of democratic principles,
an advocate for human rights, a promoter of political participation, and a
watchdog for transparency and accountability. In a nation with a complex
political history and diverse population, the harmony between democracy
and civil society ensures that Pakistan moves toward a more inclusive,
just, and stable democratic system.
For democracy to fully flourish in Pakistan, the space for civil
society must be preserved and respected. This partnership is essential for
building a vibrant, resilient democracy that serves the interests of all its
citizens, especially in a country facing both internal and external
challenges.

Right to Vote, Importance of Political Participation

& Representation
The right to vote and political participation are fundamental
elements of any democratic society, providing citizens with the power to
influence their government and its policies. The right to vote, also known
as suffrage, is a universal right that allows individuals to elect their
representatives through free and fair elections. This right ensures that
governments are formed based on the will of the people, making voting
the most direct and vital form of political participation. Voting empowers
citizens to have a say in the political direction of their country, and it
serves as a tool for the public to choose leaders who will represent their
interests. A high voter turnout reflects a healthy democracy, where people
actively engage in the political process. Without equal access to voting,
segments of the population may be excluded from decision-making,
which weakens the representativeness and fairness of governance.
Beyond voting, political participation includes a broader range of
activities that allow citizens to engage with and influence the political
system. This includes standing for election, joining political parties,
participating in campaigns, attending rallies, signing petitions, and
engaging in public discourse through debates, protests, or social media.
Political participation extends to informal activities as well, such as
grassroots movements, advocacy, and community organizing. These
forms of engagement are crucial for the functioning of democracy
because they provide continuous oversight and input, ensuring that
elected officials remain accountable to the people between elections.
Active political participation also fosters a more inclusive democracy,
ensuring that the voices of marginalized groups, such as women,
minorities, and the economically disadvantaged, are heard and
considered in policy-making.
In addition to strengthening democracy, political participation
enhances civic education. It encourages individuals to be informed about
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political processes, government policies, and their own rights and
responsibilities as citizens. This, in turn, leads to more engaged and
aware voters who can make informed choices. Furthermore, political
participation serves as a mechanism for social change, allowing citizens
to advocate for reforms, challenge injustices, and shape the laws and
policies that govern their lives. In conclusion, the right to vote and broader
political participation are essential for ensuring that a democracy remains
vibrant, inclusive, and responsive to the needs and aspirations of its
citizens.
Importance of Political Participation and Representation
Political participation and representation are crucial elements in
any democratic society. They ensure that individuals and groups within a
society have a say in decision-making processes, hold leaders
accountable, and influence the laws and policies that govern their lives.
Without active participation and fair representation, democracy becomes
hollow, as it no longer reflects the true will and diversity of its citizens.
Here’s a detailed explanation of why these concepts are important:
1-Empowerment of Citizens: Political participation gives citizens the
power to influence government decisions directly or indirectly. This
involvement can be through voting, running for office, engaging in public
debates, or joining political movements and organizations. When people
participate in politics, they feel more empowered and connected to their
government. It transforms them from passive observers to active
participants in shaping their society, ensuring that governance is
responsive to their needs and aspirations. Participation reinforces the
idea that the government is "by the people, for the people," as every
citizen has the opportunity to have their voice heard.
2-Accountability and Transparency: Active political participation holds
elected officials and institutions accountable. When citizens are engaged
in the political process, whether through voting or other means, they can
monitor the actions of their representatives and ensure that they fulfill
their campaign promises and act in the public interest. Citizens can
demand transparency, investigate corruption, and press for reforms. This
continuous oversight from the public helps prevent abuses of power and
encourages good governance. Without participation, governments are
more likely to act without accountability, leading to inefficiency,
corruption, and unresponsiveness to the needs of the population.
3-Representation of Diverse Interests: Political participation ensures that
different groups within society are represented in decision-making. In a
pluralistic society, people come from diverse backgrounds, whether
based on ethnicity, gender, class, or religion, and they often have varying
needs and priorities. For democracy to be fair, all these groups must have
the opportunity to be heard and included in governance. Representation
guarantees that no single group dominates the political process, and
decisions reflect the interests of a broader section of society. When
marginalized groups are represented, policies become more inclusive,
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addressing issues like poverty, inequality, and discrimination. This leads
to a more just and balanced society where everyone has a stake in the
political system.
4-Social Cohesion and Stability: Political participation fosters social
cohesion by creating a sense of ownership and responsibility among
citizens. When people are actively involved in politics, they feel connected
to the community and the larger political system. This sense of
involvement can reduce feelings of alienation or disenfranchisement,
which are often sources of social unrest. Political participation can also
provide peaceful outlets for expressing grievances, reducing the
likelihood of conflict. When citizens know that their voices matter, they
are more likely to work within the political system to achieve their goals
rather than turning to protests or violent means.
5-Improvement of Public Policy: Political participation leads to better
public policy by ensuring that it is informed by the lived experiences of the
population. When citizens engage with their representatives and provide
input on issues such as education, healthcare, or the economy, the
policies that emerge are more likely to meet the actual needs of the
people. Civic engagement through community organizations, advocacy
groups, and direct communication with political leaders ensures that
policies are grounded in the realities of everyday life. Without
participation, governments may implement policies that are disconnected
from or even harmful to the population, as they lack the necessary
feedback from those they are meant to serve.
6-Legitimacy of the Political System: A political system gains legitimacy
when it is seen as inclusive and representative. High levels of
participation in elections and political processes indicate a healthy
democracy, where citizens believe in the system and its capacity to
address their needs. On the other hand, low political participation or lack
of representation can lead to public disillusionment with the political
system. If people feel excluded or see their government as
unrepresentative, they may lose trust in the institutions of democracy,
leading to political instability or even authoritarianism. By ensuring that
political participation is widespread and that all groups are represented,
governments can maintain public trust and the legitimacy of the
democratic process.
7-Encouraging Civic Responsibility: Political participation instills a sense
of civic responsibility in citizens. When individuals engage with politics,
they learn about their rights and duties, the functioning of government,
and how policies affect their communities. This civic education promotes
responsible citizenship, encouraging people to contribute to the well-
being of society through actions such as voting, volunteering, or running
for office. It also teaches citizens the importance of compromise, debate,
and understanding different perspectives, all of which are crucial for the
functioning of democracy.
8-Strengthening Democracy: Ultimately, the importance of political
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participation and representation lies in their ability to strengthen
democracy. A robust democracy depends on the active engagement of its
citizens and the fair representation of all segments of society. When
people participate, they not only exercise their rights but also contribute
to the overall health of the political system. Political representation
ensures that democracy is not limited to the elite or majority groups but is
an inclusive system where everyone has a stake. As citizens participate
and engage, democratic values such as freedom, equality, and justice are
reinforced, and the political system becomes more resilient to challenges
such as corruption, authoritarianism, or populism.
Conclusion: Political participation and representation are critical for the
effective functioning of democracy. They empower citizens, hold leaders
accountable, ensure that diverse interests are represented, and improve
public policies. Moreover, they foster social cohesion and stability,
enhance the legitimacy of political systems, and promote civic
responsibility. A democracy without broad political participation and
inclusive representation risks becoming disconnected from the needs
and interests of its people. In contrast, a system where all citizens are
engaged and represented leads to a healthier, more responsive, and
resilient democratic society.

………………………………..

CHAPTER NO. 4

RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Civic Responsibility & Duties

Meaning and Nature of Rights: Man is far superior to other creatures
because of his social and political life. He lives with other human beings
and fulfills his needs in this way. The facilities which are granted to an
individual in society and state are known as the Rights. Without basic
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rights, a man neither gets a chance to polish his skills nor can protect his
life. Rights are another name of freedom and are linked with both the
society and state. We all know that state and society are developed by
people. If people are facilitated, it means they have freedom. The rights
are not only linked with the state instead they are an individual’s demands
from other individuals. The condition is that state should fulfill these
demands. And if a citizen cannot get his demands fulfilled, he can seek
help from the state. Aristotle said that “A state is formed to live a better
life, and it continues to work for providing better life.” It is very much
possible to have mutual conflicts among people living in a society. To
resolve these issues, a society sets some rules and regulations. If a
person violates laws, the society can force him to restrain from doing so.
Thus, state cannot usurp the rights of any citizen. State is for public,
public is not for state. Therefore, it provides the opportunities for
development to the citizens to polish their skills.
In west, the written form of peace appeared in 1215 by the name
of ‘Magna Carta’ originally issued by king John of England (1199-1216).
Later, it was included in the constitution of Great Britain. Same was the
case in France after French Revolution. Now a days, basic rights are given
special place in constitution of each country. And the government takes
the responsibility of protecting people by accepting their basic rights.
There are happening great changes in human societies and public
demands are increasing day by day. Whatever is the new demand of
citizens, it becomes their right when the state accepts it. So, we can say
that rights are getting increased day by day.
Definitions
Aristotle: “Rights are the base of political institutions and justice lies in
provision of rights.”
Bob House: “Rights are what we expect from others and what others
expect from us.”
Laski: “The basic conditions for collective life are known as rights so
that people may express their talent.”
T.H.Green: “The Rights complete human life and personality.
Features of Rights
1-Rights are given in a society. Without society, no one can get his rights.
2- The government accepts and protects the rights.
3- Rights are given to all citizens on equal bases.
4-Rights and duties are part and parcel for each other. The citizens have
to perform their duties to get their rights. An individual’s right is the duty
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for another person.
5-Rights are the conditions necessary for public welfare. The individual
demands cannot be viewed as rights.
6- Rights guarantee a better lifestyle.
7-It is necessary to demand. If people are not aware of their rights, they
may harm themselves in some way.
8-Rights are specified, however, they grow with the passage of time.
Kinds of Rights
Rights are basically divided into three kinds.
1-Natural Rights: Faith in natural rights is strongly expressed by several
scholars. They hold that people inherit several rights from nature. Before
they came to live in society and state, they used to live in a state of nature.
In it, they enjoyed certain natural rights, like the right to life, right to liberty
and right to property. Natural rights are parts of human nature and reason.
Jean Bodin, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau and Cicero were the advocates of
natural rights.
2-Moral Rights: Moral Rights are those rights which are based on human
consciousness. They are backed by moral force of human mind. These
are based on human sense of goodness and justice. These are not
backed by the force of law. Sense of goodness and public opinion are the
sanctions behind moral rights. If any person violates any moral right, no
legal action can be taken against him. The state does not enforce these
rights. Its courts do not recognize these rights. Moral Rights include rules
of good conduct, courtesy and of moral behavior. These stand for moral
perfection of the people.
3-Legal Rights: Legal rights are those rights which are accepted and
enforced by the state. Any defilement of any legal right is punished by law.
Law courts of the state enforce legal rights. These rights can be enforced
against individuals and also against the government. In this way, legal
rights are different from moral rights. Legal rights are equally available to
all the citizens. All citizens follow legal rights without any discrimination.
They can go to the courts for getting their legal rights enforced.
Legal Rights are of Four kinds
(i)-Civil Rights
Civil rights are those rights which provide opportunity to each
person to lead a civilized social life. These fulfil basic needs of human life
in society. Right to life, liberty and equality are civil rights. Civil rights are
protected by the state. The detail is given below:
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1-Right to Live: This means that nobody, including the Government, can
try to end human life. It also means the Government should take
appropriate measures to safeguard life by making laws to protect people
and, in some circumstances, by taking steps to protect if their life is at
risk. Public authorities should also consider the right to life when making
decisions that might put citizens in danger or that affect their life
expectancy. If a member of our family dies in circumstances that involve
the state, we may have the right to an investigation. The state is also
required to investigate suspicious deaths and deaths in custody. The
courts have decided that the right to life does not include a right to die.
2-Individual Right: It is not enough to provide the right to live to an
individual. It is also necessary to give him opportunities to make his life
safe and happy. He may live according to his will. He should not be forced
to live like a slave. It is the civil right of an individual that he is free, has no
restrictions on moving from one place to another, may not be imprisoned
or detained. If the citizens are afraid of other citizens or administrative
machinery, they can seek help from judiciary in this regard.
3-Right of Property: In democratic countries, every citizen has the right to
acquire, hold and dispose of property in any part of the country, subject to
the Constitution and any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the
public interest. Further, no person can be deprived of his property.
4-Right of Family: The right to family life is the right of all individuals to
have their established family life respected and to have and maintain
family relationships. This right is recognized in a variety of international
human rights instruments. A state makes law regarding issues like
marriage, divorce, inheritance and other such matters. Thus, it tries to
provide opportunities for better life.
5-Right to Self-Expression: It is a principle that supports the freedom of
an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without
fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The term ‘freedom of
expression’ also includes any act of seeking, receiving, and imparting
information or ideas, regardless of the medium used.
Freedom of expression is recognized as a human right under
article 19th of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which
states that “everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without
interference” and “everyone shall have the right to freedom of
expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in
writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his
choice”
6-Right of Organization and Meetings: Every citizen has the right to form
or be a member of a political party, subject to any reasonable restrictions
imposed by law in the interest of the sovereignty or integrity of state. A
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society may have political, religious, economic, welfare, professional and
cultural organizations. These organization work for their rights. Some
intellectuals even view state as an organization.
Each party or organization has its own formula. It needs to hold
sessions and meeting so that it may spread its motto among common
people. The citizens have right to hold political meetings and processions.
But if there is any anti-state talk, or discussion which may lead to
differences among people, those who arrange these meetings are
punished.
7-Right of Education: Education as a human right means the right to
education is legally guaranteed for all without any discrimination. The
state has the obligation to protect, respect, and fulfil the right to
education. And there are ways to hold states accountable for violations or
deprivations of the right to education.
8-Right of Movement: In democratic states, no one can impose
restrictions on movement of people. They can live where they want to live
and it is legal right of every citizen. Further, no one can be imprisoned or
detained without information. If a person is imprisoned, his family can
seek help from court. This right is known as Habeas Corpus in British
constitution. Now it is part of the constitutions of all democratic countries.
9-Right of Pacts: People make pacts for trade and economic
development. The state grants the right to make pacts. If a person
violates the rules of pact, the state can intervene and resolve the issue by
punishing the one who breaks laws. The rights of making pacts are very
limited. If people sign on any agreement which is against the sovereignty
and integrity of the state, the state inflict a penalty on both parties. The
pacts opposing public and anti-government pacts cannot be made.
10-Right of Language and Culture: There is no doubt that language is a
key aspect in the development of an individual. It is clear that language,
as a fundamental element of the human condition, allows us to
acknowledge ethnicities and groups. An individual cannot have access or
enjoy his rights without the use of language. It is also an important
cognitive component of cultural identification. It is the duty of state to
protect the language and culture of its citizens. Many languages are
spoken in Pakistan and each region has its own culture. According to the
second constitution of Pakistan, people of every region had the right to
speak their language and live in accordance with their culture. It was
made compulsory for government to provide opportunities for regional
development.
11-Right of Equality and Law: One measure of equality suggested by the
British sociologist T.H. Marshall is “citizenship” - the “basic human
equality associated with full membership of a community.” Democracy
stresses the equality of all individuals and insists that all men are created
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equal. Democracy does not persist on an equality of condition for all
people or argue that all persons have a right to an equal share of worldly
goods. Rather, its concept of equality insists that all are entitled to
equality of opportunity and equality before the law.
12-Right of Self-Respect: Self-respect is the positive side of continuum
between the extremes of high and low, or ambivalent, self-esteem. As
every person is assumed to have self-esteem, whether positive or
negative, other people are assumed to esteem his self-respect favorably
and unfavorably. Islam has also stressed upon giving respect to others.
13-Right of Communication: Communication is a fundamental feature of
humanity. The ability to communicate to receive, process, store and
produce messages is central to human interaction and participation. To
understand and to be understood not only enables expression of basic
needs and wants; but also enables interaction and participation at a
family, community, national and global level. All humans, regardless of
their age or capacity, send and receive communicative messages.
Everyone has the right to freedom of expression; this right includes
freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and
impart information and ideas through any medium.
(ii)-Religious Rights
Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom of an
individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief
in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the
freedom to change one’s religion or beliefs.
Freedom of religion is considered by many people and most of the
nations to be a fundamental human right. In a country with a state religion,
having religious rights means that the government permits religious
practices of other sects besides the state religion, and does not
persecute believers in other faiths.
(iii)-Economic Rights
1-Fixation of Labor Hours: A laborer works for fixed time. The fixation of
working time is one of the oldest concerns of the labor legislation.
According to international law, a laborer has to work for 8 hours a day. As
they also have the right to enjoy their life and leisure time.
2-Safeguard from Compulsory Labor: It is not permitted to get you work
done without payment. A person who does so can be summoned by court.
3-Reasonable Pay: A person should have a reasonable pay. Every laborer
has this right and the government protects it. Now a days, the minimum
wage is fixed in almost all democratic countries.
The advocates of communism give more importance to economic
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rights than civil and political rights. The government is responsible to
fulfill the daily needs of the individuals as well as provide them
opportunities for employment. A person has the right to go for profession
of his choice. Labor laws are developed in other countries as well where
now the laborers are facilitated and paid properly.
4-Right of Union: In democratic countries, the laborers have the right to
make union in order to protect their rights. People have the right to form
religious, cultural, economic, literary, scientific and trade organization as
well as political parties.
5-Social Insurance: A democratic state also provides social protection to
its citizens. Laborers are supported through social security scheme. The
government helps people in case of emergency, sickness or death. The
government officers are rewarded through group insurance scheme. With
the passage of time, there is an increasing trend of providing resources to
people. The developed countries have taken so many steps to provide
social and economic protection. The developing countries are also taking
steps in this regard.
(iv)-Political Rights
Political rights are those rights by virtue of which inhabitants get a
share in the political process. These allow them to take an active part in
the political process. These rights include right to vote, right to get
elected, right to hold public office and right to criticize and oppose the
government. Political rights are really available to the people in a
democratic state.
1-Right to Vote: In a democratic state, every adult citizen is given the right
to vote. By the use of this right, citizens elect the government of their
choice. This right is given only to the adults i.e. persons above a particular
age 18 years or 21 years.
2-Right of Representation: In a democratic state every citizen is also
given the right to get elected to any public office. He can get elected to a
legislature, or municipal corporation / municipal committee and work as
its member. Some qualifications are however fixed for seeking election.
The citizens also have the right to hold public offices after getting elected
as representatives of the people. While fixing qualifications, no
discrimination is made and proper care is taken that only competent
persons may get elected.
3-Right of Government Job: In democratic countries, anyone can get the
government job if they are qualified. Every individual has equal right of
getting job in public sector. There is no discrimination of caste, color or
creed in this regard. Usually, there are Public Service Commissions and
Selection Boards for the appointment of government officers. Able people
get selected. In Pakistan, there are Federal and Provincial Public Service
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Commissions which select the candidates after conducting the
competition exams.
4-Right of Criticism over Government: In a democratic state, the citizens
also enjoy the right to criticize the policies of government. It is through
the exercise of this right that the government is made responsible. If
people may not have this right, the government can take wrong decisions.
The criticism should be constructive to offer well-reasoned opinions
about the performance of government. Laski gives much importance to it
because mutual talk can resolve any issue. John Stuart Mill and Abraham
Lincoln also consider the right of criticism necessary for evolution of
democracy.
The citizens have the right of criticism over government only in
democracy. They cannot express their views in kingship or dictatorship. If
a person does so, the dictator threatens him and forces him to restrain
from doing so. There should be constructive criticism even in democracy.
5-Right of protection in Abroad: The state is responsible for protection of
life and property of a person living in his country or abroad. If a person
lives in abroad, the government of the other country will protect him like
its own citizens. Each state gives protection to foreigners. If a person
wants to get the citizenship of another country, he needs to take
permission from the country.
6-Right of Protest: The Citizens of a democratic state have the right to
oppose the government when it may fail to protect their interests.
However such a resistance has to be peaceful and by constitutional
means. All these civil, economic and political rights are granted and
guaranteed by the state, in fact by a democratic state, to all its citizens
without any discrimination.
7-Right of Formulation of Political Party: In every democratic state,
people have the right to form their political parties and to participate in
the political process through these. As they play an important role in
formation of government and opposition as well as political training of
people. Political parties are often consisted of people with same
mentality who are elected through votes and make government. Along
with political parties, one can also develop pressure groups for limited
purposes.
8-Right of Conducting General Elections: People have the right to
conduct election after some time. General Elections are held after five
years in Pakistan, India, Britain and some other countries. In America, the
president is selected for four years. It is necessary to hold free, just and
impartial elections. For this purpose, there is an institution in Pakistan
named as Election Commission. The commission announces the
electoral program and conducts the whole process.
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CIVIC DUTIES

Meaning: Man in far superior to other creatures because of his social and
political life. He lives with other human beings and fulfills his needs in this
way. The facilities which are granted to an individual in society and state
are known as the Rights. People living together perform some duties and
in return, the society and state give them some ease. The responsibilities
of citizens are known as Duties and resulting facilities are known as the
Rights. Without basic rights, a man neither gets a chance to polish his
skills nor can protect his life. Rights are another name of freedom and are
linked with both the society and state.

In west, the written form of peace appeared in 1215 by the name of

‘Magna Carta’ originally issued by King John of England (1199- 1216).
Later, it was included in the constitution of Great Britain. Same was the
case in France after French Revolution. Now a days, basic rights are given
special place in constitution of each country and government takes the
responsibility of protecting people by accepting their basic rights. There
are happening great changes in human societies and public demands are
increasing day by day. Whatever is the new demand of citizens, it
becomes their right when the state accepts it. So, we can say that rights
are getting increased day by day.

Types of Duties

There are two types of duties: 1-Moral Duties 2-Legal Duties

1-Moral Duties: Islam has always stood for communities living in

harmony and for Muslims to exemplify the highest standards of care and
concern toward others. It includes the duties such as respecting the
women and old people, taking care of sick, loving the younger ones,
respecting the parents and teachers, helping the needy people. One of the
most emphasized of all the Prophet’s teachings was being good to
people. “A person is not a believer who fills his stomach while his
neighbor is hungry.”

Quran also teaches us in this regard; “And help one another to do what
is right and good; do not help one another toward sin and aggression.”

2-Legal Duties: These are duties which are inflicted upon men by the
state government. A man has to perform these duties. If someone does
not do so, the state can force him to. Further, he may be punished in this
regard. In the following lines, we will discuss legal duties.

☆ Personal Duties: It is the duty of an individual to get settled with legal

and social principles. He should be aware of his basic rights, should take
care of himself as to polish his skills. He should also avoid intoxicating
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products and adopt healthy activities in accordance with a proper time
table to live a healthy life.

☆ Duties towards others: A man should take care of rights, needs and
comforts of other people also. He must know the fact that his rights are
supposed to be the duties for other people and vice versa. If a person
realizes that others also have equal rights in society and state, then he
cannot usurp their rights. Thus he can be useful not only for himself but
for the whole society by adopting a universal approach.

Duties towards State

1-Loyalties towards State: “Surely Allah commands justice and the doing
of good (to others), and giving to the kindred, and He forbids indecency
and evil and rebellion. He admonishes you that you may be mindful. And
fulfill the covenant of Allah, when you have made a covenant, and break
not your oaths after confirming them; and you have indeed made Allah
your surety. Surely Allah knows what you do.”
(Holy Quran)
These verses certainly train a Muslim in the best behavior, and order
them to form a strong Islamic society. They also order justice among the
people. A man is weak individually but the state makes him strong secure.
Therefore, it is the duty of every citizen to be loyal to the state either at
the price of his life or wealth.
2-The Right use of vote: To vote is a sacred right as well as an important
duty. It the duty of citizens to vote for the selection of government in a
democratic state. They must keep in mind the welfare of state, leaving
behind their personal interests. Because the wrong use of vote can lead a
nation to complete destruction and devastation.
3-Payment of taxes: The state inflicts taxes on the citizens. The money
collected in this way is used for welfare projects. The states makes
developmental projects. It provides educational and health facilities to the
citizens. It takes many steps for social welfare, sources of transportation,
progress of industry, agriculture and other fields. It is the strength of unity
that individual money when collected is spent for projects of common
interests.
4-Following the Law: Law is another name of restrictions for organizing
collective life of people. It provides us an organized system. Therefore, it
is the duty of every citizen to follow the laws of state. Laws are designed
for public welfare and their violation causes problems for the citizens. If
every citizen follows the laws completely, it can put an end to all social
evils.
5-Co-operation with government officials: In a democratic state, few
selected people run the system of government. The system of state
cannot be possible without government machinery. But the members of
government are very few, they alone cannot compete with the enemies of
state. Therefore, they need the support of public in this regard. It is the
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duty of citizens to cooperate with the government for good administrative
performance. As military cannot begin a war alone and police cannot put
an end to crimes alone.
6-Self Control: It is the duty of every citizen to ignore his personal or
family interests for common interests of state and society. The one who
ignores common interests for his personal interests does not prove to be
a good citizen. People are to give first priority to the state so that an
organized political and social structure may be built.
7-Seeking Halal earning: The citizens should not go for haram earning.
Theft, smuggling, adulteration, and corruption are prohibited in an Islamic
state. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the citizens to seek halal
earning.
8-Education: It is the duty of every citizen to get education and play his
role as an active member of the society and state. Education plays vital
role in letting people perform their duties. Further, with knowledge, there
comes ease in daily life. Therefore it is right as well as duty of all the
citizens to get education. As it is the education which helps the citizens to
understand the relationship of rights and duties.
Civic Duties
1-Obey Laws 2-Pay Taxes 3-Vote 4-Serve on a Jury
5-Respect Rights 6-Engage in Civic Activities 7-Stay Informed
8-Respect Public Property 9-Report Crimes
10-Support National Defense 11-Comply with Legal Obligations
12-Participate in Political Processes 13-Act Ethically
14-Follow Public Health Regulations 15-Respect Institutions
16-Support and respect government institutions and officials acting
within legal bounds. 17-Participate in
National Events
18-Be a Responsible Consumer 19-Promote Inclusivity
20-Support Environmental Stewardship 21-Advocate for Social
Justice
22-Fulfill Education Requirements 23-Respect Cultural Norms
24-Engage in Public Discourse 25-Support Legal Reforms
26-Protect Public Order 27-Contribute to Civic
Organizations
28-Exercise Rights Responsibly 29-Encourage Civic Education
30-Participate in Local Governance 31-Maintain Civic Duties
These points cover a broad spectrum of responsibilities, from
legal obligations and civic participation to ethical conduct and social
responsibility.
Fundamental Rights in the 1973, Constitution
The constitution of 1973 is democratic, public, federal and Islamic
in nature. It specifically includes the fundamental rights of citizens. These
rights enrich the citizen with the blessing of freedom and he leads a
happy life using these rights free from all kinds of worries and dangers.
The responsibility of protecting the rights has been assigned to the
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judiciary. If any right of a citizen is lost or revoked, he or someone else on
his behalf can approach the city's judiciary. Judiciary plays an important
role for the maintenance of right or rights. No constitution in the world
can be considered complete and democratic unless fundamental rights
are enshrined in it. Fundamental rights are included in the constitution of
every known country in the world today. Not only the United States, Great
Britain, Germany, France and India, rights have been given a place in the
constitutions of many African countries. Although authoritarian style of
government was prevalent in Russia. But even there the rights were made
part of the constitution. Russia has more rights than Western countries.
Along with the rights, the duties were also listed in the
Constitution. It is enough to include the rights in the constitution. It is
necessary that the citizens have the opportunity to enjoy their rights in
practice and reality. For this, the presence of an independent and
empowered judiciary and an informed public is essential.
It is claimed in the West that the Magna Carta is the first
document regarding rights that was signed by the King of Great Britain in
1215, allthough the first charter of rights was settled in Medina. The
Prophet of Islam (PBUH) determined the rights of the citizens of Madinah.
Not only Muslims but also all non-Muslims and Jews were given equal
opportunity to enjoy the rights. Rights were decided in Medina 1400 years
ago while the Magna Carta was written in 1215. The draft rights are the
product of a much later period. France was the second country after
Britain where citizens were granted basic rights.
Rights were given after the revolution of 1789, but when Napoleon
Bonaparte's monarchy was established, the rights were abolished. In
1789, the people of America were given rights under the Constitution.
After that, whatever nation became independent and wherever
democratic system was introduced. Rights were enshrined in the
Constitution. Now the rights are the adornment in all democratic
countries. Enshrining rights in the constitution is very encouraging for the
people. They begin to think of themselves as all-knowing and abusive.
Since Amen is above the general law and the legislature or the
administration should be careful not to exceed the constitutional limits,
the rights in the constitution are always available to the people. No
institution can harm the fundamental rights of the people. However, if the
country is in danger of internal disturbance or external attack, the
administration may temporarily suspend rights under certain
circumstances. These rights are suspended in case of emergency and as
soon as the situation becomes normal, the Constitution and the rights
granted under it are restored. In order to make the Constitution of
Pakistan 1973 more democratic, the Constituent Assembly has allotted
more fundamental rights to the citizens. Article 22 of the constitution
deals only with fundamental rights. These provisions are from 7 to 28.
Constitution grants the following rights
1-Protection of life
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2-Right of Property
3-Equality
4-Right of Speech and Writing
5-Right of Union
6-Right of Transportation
7-Right of Supremacy of Law
8-Getting rid of Beggar and Slavery
9-Cultural Rights
10-Religious Rights
11-Economic Rights
12-Religious Security in Educational Institutions
13-Right of Personal Freedom
Ethical Consideration in Civic Engagement
Meaning: Ethical consideration in civic engagement refers to the moral
principles that guide how individuals and groups participate in public life,
ensuring that their actions respect human dignity, promote fairness, and
contribute to the common good. Central to this is respect for autonomy,
meaning participation should be voluntary and informed, with individuals
having access to accurate information to make decisions freely. It also
involves ensuring inclusivity and equity, providing marginalized groups
equal opportunities to engage and preventing their exclusion from public
processes. Transparency and accountability are essential, as those
involved in civic actions must clearly communicate their intentions and be
responsible for the outcomes of their decisions. Additionally, avoiding
harm, whether through misinformation, exclusion, or divisiveness, is a key
ethical responsibility, and efforts should aim to enhance the well-being of
the community as a whole. Respect for diversity is another vital
consideration, recognizing and valuing the cultural, religious, and
ideological differences within a society. Ethical civic engagement fosters
open dialogue and deliberation, encouraging reasoned decision-making
rather than confrontation, and prioritizes the empowerment of
communities by building their capacity to participate effectively. Lastly,
ethical engagement takes a long-term perspective, considering the
environmental and societal impacts of actions to ensure sustainability.
Ultimately, these ethical principles ensure that civic participation is fair,
responsible, and oriented toward justice and positive societal outcomes.
Ethical Considerations in Civics Engagement
Civic engagement refers to the active participation of individuals
in public life to improve society, whether through political, social, or
community-based activities. While engaging in civic duties is essential for
the functioning of a democratic society, there are various ethical
considerations that must be taken into account to ensure that
participation is responsible, inclusive, and morally sound. Below is a
detailed exploration of the ethical considerations in civic engagement:
1-Informed Participation
* Ethical Obligation to Be Informed: Citizens have a responsibility to make
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informed decisions when participating in civic life. This includes
researching the issues, understanding the different perspectives, and
being aware of the possible consequences of their actions.
* Avoiding Misinformation: With the proliferation of fake news and biased
media, there is an ethical duty to critically evaluate information sources
and avoid spreading false or misleading information, which can harm the
democratic process.
2-Respect for Diversity and Inclusivity
* Equity and Access: Civic engagement must ensure that all individuals,
regardless of race, gender, class, or other identities, have equal access to
participate. This includes advocating for systems and platforms that
promote inclusivity.
* Cultural Sensitivity: In multicultural societies, engaging in a manner that
is respectful of various cultures, traditions, and values is important. Civic
engagement that disregards or disrespects minority cultures can lead to
exclusion or social fragmentation.
* Representation of Marginalized Groups: Ethical civic participation often
means amplifying the voices of underrepresented or marginalized groups
to ensure their needs and concerns are addressed.
3-Transparency and Accountability
* Transparency in Motives: When engaging in civic actions, especially in
leadership or organizational roles, participants must be transparent about
their intentions and the possible impacts of their actions. Hidden agendas
or misleading motivations undermine trust.
* Public Accountability: Engaged citizens and leaders must be
accountable for the decisions they advocate for or implement. This
includes being open to scrutiny and accepting responsibility for mistakes
or negative consequences of actions.
4-Nonviolence and Peaceful Participation
* Commitment to Nonviolence: Ethical civic engagement promotes
peaceful methods of participation, such as dialogue, voting, advocacy,
and protest. Violence undermines the democratic process and can
exacerbate conflicts.
* Civil Disobedience: In some cases, ethical considerations may justify
civil disobedience when laws are unjust or oppressive. However, even in
these cases, the methods should strive to minimize harm and promote
peaceful resolutions.
5-Balancing Individual and Collective Good
* Ethical Decision-Making for the Common Good: Civic participation often
involves a balance between individual interests and the collective well-
being. Engaging ethically means considering how one’s actions affect
others and society as a whole, rather than focusing solely on personal
benefits.
* Avoiding Self-Serving Behavior: Civic engagement should not be primarily
driven by personal gain, power, or recognition. Instead, it should focus on
the welfare of the community, society, or public interest.
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6-Fairness and Justice
* Upholding Justice: Ethical civic engagement means striving for fairness
and justice, particularly in addressing societal inequalities. This can
involve supporting policies or movements that promote equal opportunity,
fair distribution of resources, and protection of rights.
* Opposing Discrimination: Engaging in civic activities requires challenging
discriminatory practices, policies, and behaviors, and advocating for the
inclusion and protection of all individuals, particularly vulnerable or
historically marginalized populations.
7-Environmental Responsibility
* Sustainability: In modern civic engagement, there is an increasing ethical
responsibility to consider the environmental impact of civic actions. This
includes supporting policies that protect the environment and advocating
for sustainable practices that will benefit future generations.
* Stewardship of Resources: Ethical participation also includes being
responsible stewards of community and natural resources, ensuring they
are used wisely and conserved for future needs.
8-Respecting the Rule of Law
* Lawful Engagement: Ethical civic engagement generally means working
within the framework of the law to effect change. While civil disobedience
can sometimes be ethically justified, the general principle is to respect
the rule of law as a means of maintaining social order and protecting
rights.
* Challenging Unjust Laws: When laws are unjust, it may be ethical to
challenge them through legal reform, advocacy, or nonviolent protest.
Engaged citizens have a duty to resist laws or policies that infringe on
basic human rights or dignity.
9-Conflicts of Interest
* Avoiding Conflicts of Interest: Ethical engagement requires individuals
and organizations to avoid conflicts of interest that might compromise
the integrity of their civic work. This can include financial interests,
personal relationships, or other external pressures that could bias
decision-making.
* Transparency in Personal Gain: If personal gain is involved in civic
activities (e.g., monetary gain from political campaigns or public office),
this should be transparently disclosed to ensure trust and accountability.
10-Ethical Communication
* Honest Advocacy: Advocacy is a key component of civic engagement,
but it must be grounded in honesty and truth. Manipulating facts,
spreading misinformation, or using deceptive rhetoric undermines ethical
communication.
* Constructive Dialogue: Ethical engagement encourages open, respectful,
and constructive dialogue. Participants should be willing to listen to
differing viewpoints and avoid harmful or inflammatory language that
polarizes or alienates others.
11-Long-Term Commitment vs. Short-Term Action
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* Sustainable Impact: Ethical civic engagement should focus on long-term
solutions rather than temporary fixes. This involves understanding the
root causes of issues and committing to lasting change, even if it
requires sustained effort and time.
* Avoiding “Performative” Activism: In some cases, civic engagement can
become performative, where individuals or organizations participate for
the sake of appearances rather than true commitment to the cause.
Ethical engagement requires genuine, sustained efforts, rather than
symbolic actions for social approval.
Conclusion: Civic engagement is vital for the health of any democracy,
but it must be guided by ethical principles to ensure it is responsible,
inclusive, and focused on the common good. Informed participation,
respect for diversity, accountability, nonviolence, and a commitment to
justice are some of the key ethical considerations in ensuring that civic
engagement contributes positively to society. These considerations serve
as a moral compass to guide individuals and organizations in their
actions, ensuring that their participation strengthens democratic values
and promotes the well-being of all members of the community.

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CHAPTER NO. 5

COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT

Community

The term ‘Community’ is used in our society in various ways.

Sometimes, it is called ‘society’. Sometimes, a group of people related to
a particular profession is called ‘community’ i.e. community of teachers
or lawyers. The word ‘community’ is also used for a nation i.e. Pakistani
community or Iranian community. The terms ‘Civics community’ and
‘Rural community’ are also in use by dividing the whole population in two
categories. This word is used on religious bases two, i.e. Muslim
community or Christian community. But the term ‘Community’ can be
more appropriately attributed to the division on the base of area. A group
of people living in a particular area are called ‘community’. An area
where there are common values and people are culturally connected with
one another. When some families have same emotions, interests, values
and they have been living in a place unitedly, such group of people is
called ‘community’.

Difference between Society &Community

A society is a broad, organized group of people who share
common institutions, laws, and cultural practices. It encompasses
multiple communities, including various social, political, and economic
systems, and can span large geographic areas, such as nations or regions.
Society provides a framework for governing behavior and ensuring
stability through laws, institutions, and norms.
A community, on the other hand, is a smaller, more localized
group of people who share a common identity, interests, or values.
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Communities often involve close personal connections and frequent
interaction, and they can form based on geography (e.g., a neighborhood)
or shared interests (e.g., an online group).
In short, society is a larger, more complex structure that
encompasses many communities, while a community is a smaller, more
intimate group of individuals united by shared characteristics or goals
within a society.

Definitions

MacIver: “Wherever the members of any group… small or large … live

together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest,
but the basic conditions of life, we call that group a community.”

Ginsburg: “The whole population living in a particular area who has

common principles of life.”

Osborne: “Community is the collection of people who live in one

geographical area, have same interests and activities and collectively
take part in routine activities of daily life.”

Characteristics of a Community

● Community is consisted of people. Their number cannot be specified

however, it is less than a society.

● Common language is spoken which proves to be very helpful for mutual

co-operation.

● Aims and interests are the same.

●There is harmony among lifestyle and customs and traditions.

● Community is consisted of people belonging to a particular area.

● Collective struggle is their identity.

●There exist common emotions, feelings and values.

● People are emotionally linked with one another.

Kinds of Community

●On the base of religion i.e. Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Sikh.

●On the base of sects i.e. Sunni, Wahabi, Shia.

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●On the base of caste i.e. Jaat, Arain, Syed or Rajpoot etc.

●On the base of gender i.e. male or female.

●On the base of area/region/province i.e. Punjabi, Balouchi, Sindhi or

Pathan.

Some of other communities include international communities such

as western European countries, Latin American countries or Third world
countries.

Rural Community: Rural community is a group of people who have been

living in a small area since centuries. Rural people are simple, loyal,
honest, and trust worthy. They have a deep inclination towards customs
and traditions and are the real interiors of moral values. People living in
villages, that is, an open place, also has openness when it comes to their
approach towards life. Such community is filled with the emotions of
brotherhood, sacrifice, sympathy and comradeship.

Civic Community: There is a great number of people in civic community.

People have less connections and the emotions of brotherhood and
loyalty are not in plenty. Civic community is consisted of busy and all the
time active people. Most of the people are linked with trade or jobs. The
life standard of citizens is far better than the villagers. Civilized people are
more smart and intelligent and their lifestyle is very different from rural
community.

Professional Community: People linked with one profession are

considered one community i.e. farmers, laborers, industrialists, traders
and employees etc.
Sectarian Community: A religious group has its own separate identity i.e.
Christian community, Hindu community, Parsi community, Ahmadi
community. Muslims were given the right of separate elections in 1909
only because of being a separate community.

Meaning of Community Engagement

Community engagement means getting people involved in
improving their local community by working together to address common
issues, share ideas, and take action. It is about citizens, groups, and
organizations coming together to solve problems, make decisions, and
create positive changes that benefit everyone. Community engagement
allows people to participate in decisions that affect their lives, whether it's
about local schools, parks, public safety, or other community services. By
doing so, people feel empowered and have a sense of ownership over
what happens in their community.
There are many ways people can engage in their community. This
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could include volunteering for local projects, attending town hall meetings,
or participating in discussions about changes to local policies or services.
For example, people might come together to organize a neighborhood
cleanup, improve a local park, or provide food for those in need. Others
might join committees, vote in local elections, or speak up during public
meetings to share their ideas and concerns. These activities give
everyone a chance to contribute to making their community a better place.
Community engagement is important because it brings diverse
groups of people together. When people with different backgrounds,
experiences, and ideas come together, they can create new solutions to
problems that might not have been thought of otherwise. It also ensures
that the needs of the whole community are represented, not just a few
people. By including everyone, especially those who are often left out of
decision-making, communities can make fairer and more effective
choices that work for all.
Another benefit of community engagement is that it builds trust
and cooperation between citizens and local authorities or organizations.
When people feel their voices are heard, they are more likely to trust the
decisions that are made. This strengthens relationships and helps build a
stronger, more connected community where people feel responsible for
each other's well-being.
Community engagement also empowers people. When citizens
actively participate, they gain confidence and skills that help them
continue to make positive changes. This can lead to more involvement
from others, creating a cycle of participation that strengthens the
community over time. People learn to work together, solve problems, and
make decisions that improve their quality of life.
In conclusion, community engagement is about working together to
improve the places where we live. It involves collaboration, participation,
and inclusiveness. By volunteering, sharing ideas, and getting involved in
decision-making, people can make their communities stronger, safer, and
more connected. When everyone participates, the entire community
benefits, creating a better place for everyone to live.
Types of Community Engagement
Community engagement can take many different forms
depending on the goals, participants, and the issues being addressed.
Here are some key forms of community engagement:
1-Volunteering: Individuals contribute their time and skills to support local
projects, charities, or events. This could be helping at a food bank,
cleaning up a park, or tutoring students.
2-Public Consultations: Governments or organizations invite citizens to
provide feedback on proposed policies, projects, or changes. This can be
through surveys, focus groups, or public meetings.
3-Community Organizing: Citizens come together to address specific
issues affecting their community, such as organizing protests, petitions,
or campaigns for social change.
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4-Civic Participation: Involvement in political processes like voting,
attending town hall meetings, or running for local office to influence
decision-making and policy development.
5-Collaborative Decision-Making: Community members actively
participate in planning and decision-making processes. This could involve
joining advisory boards, planning committees, or task forces to work on
specific community projects.
6-Community Events and Workshops: Organizing or attending local
events, such as festivals, cultural celebrations, or educational workshops,
to foster a sense of community and address common goals.
7-Online Engagement: Using social media, online forums, or virtual
meetings to share ideas, raise awareness, and mobilize support for
community causes, especially when physical meetings aren't feasible.
8-Grassroots Movements: Local movements driven by community
members to address issues like environmental sustainability, social
justice, or healthcare access.
9-Neighborhood Watch Programs: Citizens collaborate to improve safety
and reduce crime in their neighborhoods by coordinating with local law
enforcement and each other.
10-Advocacy and Campaigning: Raising awareness about social or
political issues to bring about change, often through rallies, petitions,
lobbying, or media outreach.
Each form of engagement serves different purposes, but they all
aim to involve community members in improving their environment,
solving problems, or influencing decisions that affect their lives.
Salient Features of Community Engagement
Community engagement involves actively working with a group of
people or an entire community to address issues, create solutions, and
promote collective well-being. Its salient features include:
1-Inclusivity: Community engagement actively involves all segments of
the population, especially marginalized and underrepresented groups. It
ensures that everyone has a voice in decision-making processes,
promoting diversity of thought and experience.
2-Collaboration: It fosters collaboration between community members,
organizations, local government, and institutions. This partnership allows
for shared responsibility, bringing together diverse resources, knowledge,
and skills to address common issues.
3-Empowerment: Community engagement empowers individuals by
giving them the skills, confidence, and tools to participate meaningfully in
civic life. It focuses on enabling communities to take control of their own
development and solutions.
4-Sustainability: Rather than focusing on short-term fixes, community
engagement seeks long-term, sustainable outcomes. It builds systems
and processes that can continue to operate and evolve, even after the
initial engagement effort has ended.
5-Transparency: Ethical engagement requires clear and open
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communication regarding goals, processes, and outcomes. Transparency
builds trust between stakeholders and ensures that participants
understand how decisions are made and how their contributions are
valued.
6-Trust-Building: Trust is a cornerstone of community engagement. It is
built through consistent, respectful interactions, honest communication,
and by honoring commitments. Trust fosters a sense of safety and
belonging in the process.
7-Active Participation: Community members are not passive recipients
but active contributors. Their lived experiences and local knowledge are
crucial in shaping the direction of engagement, ensuring that solutions
are grounded in the community’s reality.
8-Capacity Building: Engagement often focuses on building the capacity
of individuals and organizations to continue addressing challenges. This
may involve training, education, and the development of local leadership,
fostering resilience and long-term community strength.
9-Cultural Sensitivity: Effective community engagement respects the
cultural values, practices, and traditions of the community. It ensures that
engagement methods are appropriate to the local context and that
cultural differences are acknowledged and celebrated.
10-Shared Ownership: Community engagement emphasizes that all
stakeholders share ownership of both the problems and the solutions.
When community members feel a sense of ownership, they are more
invested in the success and sustainability of the initiatives.
11-Feedback and Adaptation: Successful engagement includes
mechanisms for ongoing feedback, allowing the community to provide
input on the progress of initiatives. This allows for continuous
improvement and adaptation to the community’s changing needs.
12-Accountability: All participants, from community members to external
organizations, must be accountable for their actions and commitments.
Clear expectations and responsibilities are established, and stakeholders
are held responsible for delivering on promises.
13-Mutual Learning: Engagement is a two-way learning process. While
external stakeholders may bring expertise, they also learn from the local
community’s unique insights and experiences. This mutual exchange of
knowledge creates richer, more effective solutions.
14-Shared Decision-Making: Community engagement prioritizes
participatory decision-making. Instead of top-down approaches, decisions
are made collectively, with community members having a significant say
in shaping strategies and policies.
15-Evaluation and Reflection: Regular evaluation and reflection are built
into the engagement process to assess whether goals are being met,
what’s working, and what needs improvement. This process helps refine
strategies and ensures accountability to the community.
Conclusion: These features highlight the holistic, inclusive, and
collaborative nature of community engagement, emphasizing its role in
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creating sustainable, equitable, and locally grounded solutions.
Values of Community Engagement
The core values of community engagement serve as foundational
beliefs that guide the way organizations, governments, and individuals
interact with communities. These values emphasize respect,
collaboration, and inclusivity, ensuring that the engagement process is
meaningful and impactful. Here are the key core values of community
engagement:
1-Inclusiveness: All community members should have the opportunity to
participate, regardless of background, identity, or socio-economic status.
Engagement efforts should actively seek out and involve
underrepresented groups.
2-Collaboration: Community engagement is based on partnerships. It
involves working together with community members, organizations, and
stakeholders to find solutions to common issues and make joint
decisions.
3-Transparency: Open and honest communication is essential.
Community members should have clear access to information about the
purpose of engagement, the decision-making process, and how their
input will be used.
4-Respect: Everyone’s opinions, experiences, and contributions are
valuable. A respectful environment fosters trust and encourages people
to share their thoughts openly and without fear of judgment.
5-Empowerment: Community engagement should empower individuals
and groups by giving them the tools and opportunities to influence
decisions that affect their lives. This promotes a sense of ownership and
responsibility within the community.
6-Accountability: Those who lead the engagement process must be
accountable to the community. This means taking responsibility for
outcomes, following through on commitments, and reporting back on
how community input has influenced decisions.
7-Sustainability: Community engagement should aim for long-term,
ongoing involvement rather than one-time actions. Building strong, lasting
relationships ensures that communities stay engaged over time.
8-Trust: Trust is essential for effective community engagement. Building
trust requires consistency, openness, and a genuine commitment to
considering community input in decision-making processes.
9-Cultural Sensitivity: Engagement efforts should be culturally aware and
respectful, recognizing the diversity of the community and working in
ways that honor different traditions, values, and languages.
10-Mutual Learning: Community engagement is a two-way process where
both the community and those leading the engagement learn from each
other. It involves sharing knowledge and gaining new insights from
diverse perspectives.
By adhering to these core values, community engagement can
create positive, lasting change and build stronger, more resilient
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communities.
Principles of Community Engagement
Community engagement is guided by several key principles that
help ensure effective, inclusive, and meaningful participation. These
principles serve as a framework for fostering strong relationships
between citizens, organizations, and governments. Here are the main
principles of community engagement:
1-Inclusivity: Ensure that all community members, regardless of their
background, identity, or status, have opportunities to participate. This
involves actively reaching out to underrepresented groups and making
sure their voices are heard.
2-Transparency: Be open and honest about the purpose of engagement,
the decision-making process, and the roles and expectations of
participants. Clear communication builds trust and ensures that everyone
understands the goals and outcomes.
3-Collaboration: Encourage working together as partners. Collaboration
between community members, organizations, and local governments
ensures that multiple perspectives are considered and that solutions are
co-created.
4-Respect: Treat all participants with dignity and value their input,
experiences, and concerns. A respectful atmosphere promotes open
dialogue and encourages diverse viewpoints.
5-Empowerment: Enable individuals and communities to have real
influence over decisions and actions that affect them. This involves giving
people the tools, knowledge, and authority to participate meaningfully.
6-Accessibility: Ensure that engagement opportunities are easy for
everyone to access. This includes providing meetings at convenient times
and locations, offering materials in multiple languages, and ensuring
accessibility for people with disabilities.
7-Responsiveness: Actively listen to community feedback and
demonstrate that it has been considered and, where appropriate, acted
upon. People need to see that their input has an impact on decision-
making.
8-Sustainability: Focus on long-term engagement rather than one-off
events. Building lasting relationships with the community creates trust
and leads to sustained collaboration.
9-Accountability: Those involved in community engagement should be
accountable for their actions, decisions, and the outcomes of the
engagement process. This includes providing feedback to participants
about how their contributions were used.
10-Cultural Sensitivity: Acknowledge and respect the diverse cultural
backgrounds of community members. Engage in ways that are culturally
appropriate and relevant to the community's values and traditions.
11-Adaptability: Be flexible and responsive to changing community needs
and circumstances. Tailor engagement strategies to fit the specific
context of the community.
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12-Trust-building: Build and maintain trust through consistent, reliable
actions and communication. Trust is essential for open and effective
collaboration in community engagement.
By following these principles, community engagement efforts can
be more effective, equitable, and productive, leading to stronger, more
connected communities and better decision-making outcomes.
Importance of Community Engagement
Community engagement is important because it empowers
citizens to participate in decisions that impact their lives, creating more
inclusive and effective solutions. It builds trust between communities and
decision-makers, ensuring that diverse voices are heard and considered.
Engaged communities are more resilient, better able to address
challenges, and work together for common goals. This involvement
fosters civic responsibility, strengthens social connections, and improves
the overall quality of life. By promoting collaboration, transparency, and
accountability, community engagement leads to stronger, more
connected, and inclusive communities.
1-Strengthens Democracy: Community engagement promotes active
participation in decision-making processes, ensuring that all voices are
heard. It encourages citizens to take part in local governance, which leads
to more transparent and democratic decision-making. When people
engage, they hold leaders accountable and contribute to the development
of policies that better reflect the needs of the entire community.
2-Builds Trust and Relationships: Engagement fosters trust between
citizens, organizations, and local authorities. By involving the community
in decision-making processes, people feel their concerns are being heard
and respected, which leads to stronger, more cooperative relationships.
This trust is vital for effective governance and for solving community
challenges together.
3-Encourages Inclusivity & Diversity: Effective community engagement
ensures that underrepresented and marginalized groups have a voice in
matters that affect them. This creates a more inclusive environment
where diverse perspectives are considered, leading to fairer and more
balanced outcomes that reflect the needs of all community members.
4-Empowers Citizens: Community engagement empowers individuals by
giving them a platform to share their ideas, influence decisions, and take
part in the development of their community. When people see that their
contributions can make a difference, they are more likely to stay engaged
and work toward continuous improvement.
5-Leads to Better Decision-Making: When a wide range of community
members are involved in the decision-making process, their diverse
perspectives can lead to more innovative, practical, and effective
solutions to community problems. Local people often have a deeper
understanding of the issues affecting their community and can offer
insights that improve planning and policy-making.
6-Improves Community Resilience: Engaged communities are more
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resilient in the face of challenges, whether social, economic, or
environmental. By working together, communities can better plan for,
respond to, and recover from crises. The collective problem-solving that
arises from community engagement fosters a sense of shared
responsibility and cooperation.
7-Promotes Civic Responsibility: Community engagement helps instill a
sense of civic duty and responsibility. When people are actively involved
in improving their community, they are more likely to care for public
spaces, respect local institutions, and contribute to the overall well-being
of the area.
8-Builds Social Capital: Community engagement creates social networks
and relationships that are essential for social cohesion. Through
collaboration, people get to know their neighbors, build trust, and
strengthen the social fabric of the community. These connections can be
vital for supporting one another in times of need.
9-Enhances Quality of Life: When communities are engaged in decisions
about services, infrastructure, and development, the result is often
improvements in public spaces, education, healthcare, and overall well-
being. Engagement ensures that policies and projects directly reflect the
needs and aspirations of the community, leading to a better quality of life
for all.
10-Increases Accountability: Community engagement increases the
accountability of decision-makers. When community members are
involved in the process, they expect transparency and follow-through,
which pushes leaders to be more responsible and responsive to the
needs of the people they serve.
Conclusion: Community engagement is essential for fostering active
citizenship, improving decision-making, and building stronger, more
inclusive communities. It empowers individuals, promotes trust, and
creates a shared sense of responsibility, leading to better outcomes for
everyone involved.
Key Measures for Successful Community Engagement
For community engagement to be successful, several key
measures should be implemented:
1-Clear Objectives: Define the goals and purpose of the engagement
clearly so that participants understand what is being aimed for and how
their involvement will contribute.
2-Effective Communication: Use clear, accessible language and various
channels (meetings, social media, newsletters) to inform and update
community members. Ensure that information is timely and relevant.
3-Inclusivity: Ensure that engagement efforts reach diverse groups within
the community, including marginalized or underrepresented populations.
Provide multiple ways for people to participate.
4-Transparency: Be open about decision-making processes and how
community input will be used. Share outcomes and feedback on how
community contributions have influenced decisions.
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5-Respect and Trust: Treat all participants with respect and value their
contributions. Building trust is crucial for encouraging ongoing
participation and collaboration.
6-Empowerment: Provide community members with the tools, resources,
and authority to actively participate and influence outcomes. Empowering
individuals fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility.
7-Accessibility: Make engagement opportunities accessible to everyone
by considering factors like location, timing, and format. Offer
accommodations for people with disabilities and language barriers.
8-Feedback Mechanisms: Implement systems for collecting, analyzing,
and responding to feedback. This shows that participants' voices are
heard and considered, and helps improve future engagement efforts.
9-Capacity Building: Offer training and support to help community
members develop skills needed for effective participation. This could
include workshops on advocacy, public speaking, or understanding local
government processes.
10-Sustained Efforts: Engage with the community consistently rather
than as a one-time event. Long-term commitment to engagement helps
build stronger relationships and better outcomes.
11-Evaluation and Adaptation: Regularly assess the effectiveness of
engagement strategies and be willing to adapt based on feedback and
changing needs. Continuous improvement ensures that engagement
remains relevant and effective.
By implementing these measures, community engagement can
become more effective, inclusive, and impactful, leading to stronger, more
collaborative communities.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Meanings: Community development refers to a process where individuals
and groups work together to improve the quality of life in their local areas.
It involves a range of activities and strategies aimed at building the social,
economic, and environmental well-being of a community. The goal of
community development is to create sustainable, thriving communities by
addressing local needs, empowering residents, and fostering
collaboration.
At its core, community development focuses on strengthening the
capacity of communities to identify and solve their own problems. This
involves engaging community members in decision-making processes,
encouraging their active participation in local initiatives, and supporting
them in taking ownership of development projects. Community
development can include efforts such as improving local infrastructure,
enhancing educational opportunities, creating economic opportunities,
and fostering social cohesion.
Community development also emphasizes the importance of
inclusivity and equity. It seeks to involve all segments of the community,
including marginalized and disadvantaged groups, ensuring that everyone
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has a voice and benefits from development efforts. By addressing social
inequalities and promoting fair access to resources and opportunities,
community development aims to build more equitable and resilient
communities.
Moreover, community development is often driven by
collaboration between various stakeholders, including local governments,
non-profit organizations, businesses, and community groups. These
partnerships help leverage resources, expertise, and support to achieve
common goals and create more impactful outcomes.

Core Principles of Community Development

Here are some of important principles of community development.
1-Participation: Actively involve Community members throughout all
phases of development, from planning and decision-making to
implementation and evaluation. Ensuring that everyone has a say helps to
address real needs and fosters a sense of ownership and commitment to
the process.
2-Inclusivity: Include all segments of the community, particularly
marginalized and underrepresented groups, in development activities.
This principle ensures that diverse voices are heard and that development
efforts are equitable and fair.
3-Empowerment: Strengthen the abilities of individuals and groups to
take control of their own development. Empowerment involves providing
education, resources, and opportunities that enable community members
to lead initiatives and make informed decisions.
4-Sustainability: Focus on long-term impacts by promoting environmental,
economic, and social sustainability. Sustainable development aims to
create enduring benefits while conserving resources for future
generations and maintaining ecological balance.
5-Collaboration: Promote teamwork and partnerships among community
members, organizations, and government entities. Collaboration
leverages diverse skills, knowledge, and resources, enhancing the
effectiveness and reach of development efforts.
6-Local Ownership: Encourage local leadership and initiative by involving
residents in managing and directing development projects. When people
feel ownership over initiatives, they are more likely to be invested in their
success and sustainability.
7-Capacity Building: Develop skills and resources within the community
to support effective action. Capacity building involves training, education,
and the provision of tools and resources that enhance the community’s
ability to address its own challenges.
8-Flexibility and Adaptability: Be responsive to changing conditions and
feedback. Effective community development requires adapting strategies
and approaches based on evolving needs, opportunities, and challenges.
9-Equity: Address and reduce inequalities by ensuring fair access to
resources and opportunities. Equity involves providing additional support
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to those who face greater disadvantages and striving for fairness in all
development efforts.
10-Transparency: Maintain openness about the goals, processes, and
outcomes of development activities. Transparency builds trust and
ensures that community members understand how decisions are made
and how their contributions are used.
11-Accountability: Hold all stakeholders accountable for their roles and
responsibilities. Accountability involves monitoring progress, evaluating
outcomes, and addressing any issues or concerns that arise during the
development process.
12-Self-Reliance: Promote independence by encouraging communities to
develop their own solutions and rely on local resources and expertise.
Self-reliance fosters resilience and reduces dependence on external aid.
13-Respect for Diversity: Acknowledge and value the cultural, social, and
economic diversity within the community. Incorporating diverse
perspectives helps to ensure that development efforts are relevant and
sensitive to different needs.
14-Engagement with Local Knowledge: Utilize local knowledge and
traditions to inform development efforts. Leveraging the community’s
existing expertise and cultural practices ensures that solutions are
appropriate and culturally relevant.
15-Integrated Approach: Address multiple aspects of community life
economic, social, and environmental through a holistic and integrated
approach. This ensures that development efforts are comprehensive and
consider the interconnections between different areas of community life.
16-Community-Driven Goals: Set goals and objectives based on the
community’s own priorities and aspirations rather than imposing external
mandates. Development should align with what the community values
and strives to achieve.
17-Resource Mobilization: Identify and leverage various
resources—financial, human, and material to support development
initiatives. Effective resource mobilization involves tapping into both local
and external sources of support.
18-Partnerships with Local Institutions: Collaborate with local
institutions, such as schools, businesses, and religious organizations, to
enhance development efforts. Partnerships with these entities can
provide additional resources and support for community initiatives.
19-Evaluation and Learning: Regularly assess and review the
effectiveness of development activities. Use evaluations to gather
insights, learn from successes and challenges, and refine strategies to
improve future efforts.
20-Promoting Social Cohesion: Foster a sense of unity and cooperation
within the community. Encouraging collective action, shared goals, and
mutual support helps to build a stronger, more connected community.

Importance of Community Development

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Community development is vital for creating and maintaining
healthy, thriving, and resilient communities. Its importance can be
understood through several key aspects:
1-Enhancing Quality of Life: Community development initiatives improve
living conditions by addressing essential needs such as housing,
education, healthcare, and infrastructure. By improving these aspects,
communities can offer better opportunities and a higher quality of life for
their residents.
2-Fostering Economic Growth: Development activities stimulate local
economies by creating jobs, supporting small businesses, and attracting
investment. Economic growth helps to reduce poverty and increase the
financial stability of community members.
3-Building Social Cohesion: Community development fosters social
connections and unity by bringing people together around common goals.
Strong social networks and a sense of belonging contribute to community
resilience and stability.
4-Empowering Residents: By involving community members in decision-
making and development processes, community development empowers
individuals to take control of their own lives and contribute to their
community’s growth. This empowerment enhances self-efficacy and
fosters a sense of ownership.
5-Addressing Inequality: Community development works to reduce social
and economic inequalities by ensuring that resources and opportunities
are distributed fairly. Targeted efforts can address the needs of
marginalized or disadvantaged groups, promoting greater equity.
6-Promoting Sustainability: Effective community development
incorporates sustainable practices that protect the environment and
ensure resources are used responsibly. This approach helps to create
long-term benefits while preserving the community’s natural resources
for future generations.
7-Encouraging Civic Participation: Community development fosters
active civic engagement and participation. When residents are involved in
shaping their community, they are more likely to be invested in civic
duties and responsibilities, contributing to a more democratic society.
8-Improving Public Services: Development initiatives often focus on
enhancing public services such as transportation, sanitation, and safety.
Improved public services lead to better living conditions and overall
community well-being.
9-Strengthening Local Governance: Community development encourages
effective and accountable local governance by promoting transparency
and involving residents in decision-making processes. Strong governance
leads to more responsive and effective administration.
10-Facilitating Social Change: Community development can drive
positive social change by addressing systemic issues, advocating for
policy reform, and promoting social justice. It helps communities adapt to
evolving social and economic conditions.
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11-Building Resilience: By addressing vulnerabilities and preparing for
potential challenges, community development enhances a community’s
ability to withstand and recover from crises, such as natural disasters or
economic downturns.
12-Creating Opportunities for Education and Skills Development:
Development projects often include educational components that
provide training and skills development. Access to education and
vocational training equips individuals with the tools needed to succeed
and contribute to their community.
13-Fostering Innovation: Community development encourages innovative
solutions to local problems by leveraging the creativity and
resourcefulness of community members. This innovation can lead to new
approaches and improvements in various aspects of community life.
14-Enhancing Community Identity and Pride: Development efforts that
respect and celebrate local culture and history help to strengthen
community identity and pride. A strong sense of community identity
fosters cohesion and motivates collective action.
15-Attracting Investment: Well-developed communities are more
attractive to investors and businesses. By creating a supportive
environment for economic activity, community development can draw
external investment and boost local economic growth.
Conclusion: community development is crucial for improving the overall
well-being of residents, promoting economic growth, enhancing social
cohesion, and ensuring sustainable and equitable progress. It creates a
foundation for vibrant, resilient communities where people can thrive and
work together to achieve common goals.

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CHAPTER NO. 6

ADVOCACY & ACTIVISM

Public Discourse
Public discourse refers to the open exchange of ideas, opinions,
and arguments in public spaces, where individuals and groups engage in
discussions on matters of common interest, often related to politics,
social issues, culture, or policy. It is a crucial element of democratic
societies, serving as a means for citizens to express their views,
deliberate on issues, and influence decision-making processes.
At its core, public discourse involves a diverse range of voices,
including citizens, media, political leaders, activists, and scholars. This
dialogue can take place in various forums, such as public meetings,
debates, social media platforms, newspapers, or other media outlets. The
goal is to foster collective reasoning, allowing participants to consider
different perspectives, challenge assumptions, and reach a broader
understanding of shared issues.
Key characteristics of public discourse include its openness and
accessibility. Ideally, it welcomes participation from all sectors of society,
ensuring that marginalized or underrepresented groups have an
opportunity to contribute. Civility and respect for opposing viewpoints are
also essential, as public discourse thrives when discussions are
constructive rather than divisive.
However, public discourse faces challenges, especially in today’s
digital age. The rise of misinformation, echo chambers, and polarized
debates can undermine its effectiveness. When discussions are
dominated by hostility, manipulation, or false information, public
discourse loses its ability to contribute meaningfully to democratic
processes.
In sum, public discourse is the foundation for democratic
engagement and collective problem-solving. By enabling open, respectful,
and informed dialogue, it plays a vital role in shaping public opinion,
influencing policy, and fostering social cohesion in diverse societies.
Effective public discourse relies on transparency, access to accurate
information, and the willingness to engage thoughtfully with opposing
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viewpoints.

Definitions
1-Habermas: "A domain of our social life in which such a thing as public
opinion can be formed. Access is guaranteed to all citizens. A portion of
the public sphere comes into being in every conversation in which
private individuals assemble to form a public body."
2-John Dewey: "The essential need... is the improvement of the methods
and conditions of debate, discussion, and persuasion. That is the
problem of the public." He further argues that "without such
communication, public opinion cannot be formed." on of public opinion
in a democratic society.
3-Michel Foucault: "Discourse is not simply that which translates
struggles or systems of domination, but is the thing for which and by
which there is struggle. Discourse is the power which is to be seized."
These philosophers emphasize public discourse as a critical
mechanism for democratic participation, political action, and the shaping
of knowledge and power.

Importance of Public Discourse

Public discourse is vital for several reasons, particularly in
democratic societies and community engagement. Here are some key
points highlighting its importance:
1-Facilitates Democracy: Public discourse allows citizens to express their
opinions, engage in debates, and participate in decision-making
processes. This engagement is fundamental to democratic governance,
ensuring that diverse voices are heard and considered.
2-Promotes Informed Citizenship: Through open discussions, citizens
gain access to information and different perspectives. This informed
citizenry is crucial for making educated choices, whether in elections or
public policy decisions.
3-Encourages Critical Thinking: Engaging in public discourse fosters
critical thinking skills. Individuals learn to analyze arguments, evaluate
evidence, and articulate their thoughts, which contributes to a more
thoughtful and engaged populace.
4-Builds Community: Public discourse fosters social cohesion by bringing
people together to discuss shared concerns. It helps build relationships
and a sense of community, encouraging collaboration and collective
action.
5-Enhances Accountability: Open dialogue holds public officials and
institutions accountable. When citizens engage in discourse about
policies and practices, they can demand transparency and accountability
from those in power.
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6-Drives Social Change: Public discourse is a platform for advocacy and
mobilization, allowing individuals and groups to challenge injustices and
push for social reforms. It plays a crucial role in raising awareness and
rallying support for important causes.
7-Encourages Tolerance and Understanding: Engaging with diverse
viewpoints through public discourse promotes empathy and
understanding. It encourages individuals to consider perspectives
different from their own, fostering a more tolerant society.
8-Shapes Public Opinion: Public discourse influences the development of
public opinion on various issues, affecting how policies are formed and
implemented. This influence can lead to significant societal changes
based on collective values and priorities.
9-Supports Pluralism: It embraces the idea of pluralism, recognizing that
multiple viewpoints contribute to a richer understanding of complex
issues. This diversity in discourse helps ensure that no single narrative
dominates the conversation.
10-Empowers Individuals: Participating in public discourse empowers
individuals by validating their voices and experiences. It encourages them
to take ownership of their role in society and contribute to meaningful
discussions.
Conclusion: public discourse is essential for fostering democracy,
enhancing civic engagement, promoting social cohesion, and driving
positive change within communities and society at large. It serves as a
cornerstone for informed, active, and engaged citizenship.

PUBLIC OPINION

With the progress of democracy, the importance of public opinion

has been increased a lot. The views prevalent among public are
recognized as public opinion. But sometimes it becomes difficult to
decide which opinion is the public opinion. Gettel is of the view that what
is commonly called public opinion, it does neither have any concern with
the Public nor it is the opinion.

Public opinion is not unanimous opinion of people because it is not

possible that all citizens will stand together on one issue. Each opinion of
majority cannot also be recognized as public opinion because there is
possibility of hidden common interests in it, and it may wholly neglect the
minority. Lowell is of the view that “To be the public opinion, any opinion
does neither require full majority nor complete unity.”

Sometimes, the opinion of minority has the ability to be recognized as

public opinion. Majority is usually illiterate and unaware of political and
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social issues. Therefore, it does not have the ability to make sound
decisions. Superfluous and useless opinions of majority cannot obtain
the rank of public opinion. Rousseau is of the view that people usually
have two opinion on any social issue. First opinion is formed because of
their selfish approach and second because of their selfless approach.
Rousseau calls the selfless opinion of majority the ‘General Will’. We can
call it public opinion.

Definitions

Lord Bryce: “Public opinion contains majoritarian opinions and passions

by means of checking the national issues.”

Prof. Soltau: “Public Opinion is that desire of people which they wish to
adopt in practical life.”

Lippman: “Public Opinion is irrational and often self-serving social

perceptions that influence individual behavior and prevent optimal
societal cohesion.’’

Importance of Public Opinion

1-Base of Democracy: Sovereignty of the people, which is the very basis

of democracy, really means supremacy of the public opinion. In every
democracy, the government and its policies are continuously based on
public opinion. The government remains in power so long as it is backed
by public opinion. Prof. V. O. Key said in this regard; “If public opinion is
not much regarded in common political decisions, the democracy will
only be a folk tale.”

2-Formation of Government: In democracy, government is formed

through an electoral process. General elections are the real source of
public opinion. People vote for the formation of government in their
country. Only those representatives can make the government who are
selected by public itself.

3-Control over Government: Public opinion is the most effective

instrument of control over the government. The Government is really
responsible to public opinion.

4-Major Source of Legislation: The laws passed by the government are in

-fact based upon public demands. Not only public opinion is a source of
law but also it is an important sanction behind law. Only those laws get
successfully implemented and produce desired results, which are backed
by public opinion.

5-Formation of State Policies: The government of the state formulates its

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policies on the basis of the public opinion. All public policies are based on
public opinion. The government is supposed to do everything which the
public opinion demands.

6-Social Values: No law aimed at social change, no policy aimed at social

reforms and no action aimed at development can be really successful
unless it is backed by strong public opinion. Social values and principles
are programmed keeping in view public demands. Customs and traditions
are usually the reflection of public preferences.

7-International Rectitude: A government backed by strong public opinion

enjoys a high degree of credibility on international level even. A
democratic government stands high in the categories of different nations
and international institutions.

8-Public and Legal Sovereignty: As the people express their opinion on

issues of national importance, they are, at the same time, participating
indirectly in the governance of their country. As a result, there is harmony
among the country laws, sovereign authority and public sovereignty. In
democracy, the representatives run the government on public demands.
Thus, people tend to support the steps and policies of their
representatives and let them succeed.

Realizing fully the importance of public opinion, J.S. Mill, a British

philosopher very strongly advocated the need for an absolutely free flow
of public opinion in the society. He was certain that each opinion should
be allowed to freely flow in the society as it is necessary for the
emergency of a true public opinion. Laski was of the view that even
during a period of war, freedom of public opinion should not be
suppressed.

Formation of Public Opinion

How public opinion is formed? Who play their role in formation of

public opinion? If we critically analyze, we will come to know that firstly
there develops an opinion, later it grows and lastly it becomes the public
opinion. In order to become the public opinion, an opinion goes through
three stages. If all three categories approve the opinion, it takes the form
of public opinion.

1-Politicians and Thinkers: It is the first category which develops an

opinion. This group consists of politicians, thinkers, intellectuals, teachers,
lawyers, writers and scholars. It presents different opinions. These people
discuss miscellaneous issues. Different opinions reach the public through
books, articles, speeches and negotiations. Newspapers, magazines,
radio, and television etc. prove to be helpful in this regard. The politicians
express their views in public meetings and the opinion starts its journey
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towards public.

2-People who take Interest in Public Issues: The views of the first group
come to these people through newspapers, magazines, radio, television
and other sources. These people take interest in public issues and
critically analyze the opinions of politicians and intellectuals. They
minutely examine the causes and outcomes of opinions. If they like it,
they adopt it and if they do not like it, they reject it.

3-Public: After going through two stages, opinion comes to public. If

people accept the opinion, it becomes the public opinion, otherwise, it
gets expired.

The Sources of Formation and Demonstration of Public Opinion

Various agencies support in the formation of public opinion. The

political parties, pressure groups and unions spend much money for the
purpose of propaganda. On international levels, the states interact with
public with the help of specific institutions. To make an opinion a public
opinion, the following sources and units help;

1-Press: Press means newspapers, magazines, books, booklets,

pamphlets, advertisements and Gazettes. With time, education is
increasing the importance of printed things. People wait for newspapers
and magazines. Essays, articles, discussions and news cause an increase
in public information. Political parties and pressure groups publish their
own newspapers and magazines for publication of their ideas and
development of their interests and convey their views to the public.

2-Platform: Platform means the place where processions and public

meetings are held. The society where majority of people is illiterate, there
platform is supposed to be an important source of public opinion where
the speaker directly addresses the public and shares his views.

3-Radio and Television: Radio and Television are supposed to be the

sources of entertainment but they spread information as well. There are
the programs of political discussions on radio and television. National
and international issues including political, economic, social, religious and
moral affairs are discussed which enhances the public opinion. In west,
television and radio are freely used by different political schools of
thought and they communicate their point of view to the public in this way.

4-Cinema: Cinema had great importance in past times. Television has

replaced cinema to the great extent but still many people prefer going to
cinema. Alongside the entertainment, the feature films can also spread
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the message of good governance. The concept of good and evil can be
presented. Cinema can also educate people to avoid dowry, child
marriage, crimes and irregularities. Thus, it can be helpful in prevention of
so many social evils.

5-Educational Institutes: In educational institutions, students get the

knowledge of political, economic, social and other problems. The
teachers present both the sides of an issue on the base of their
experiences. The students discuss certain things and reach an outcome.
In formation of public opinion, the role of intellectuals, philosophers and
mentors is more positive because they do not have any personal interests
just like political leaders.

6-Political Parties: Political parties are part and parcel of the democracy.
In formation and good performance of democratic governments, political
parties play the most vital role. A political party is actually a group of
those people who are selected by public itself to represent public in
affairs of government. Each political party interacts with public for its own
political purposes. They convey their views to the public through their own
newspapers and magazines. Processions are also held for the purpose of
communication where different political parties make people aware of
their problems.

7-Group of Profiteers: In western countries, especially in America, the

group of profiteers has been increased a lot. People belonging to one
profession influence the public opinion. They spread the propaganda to
get the support of the members of legislature as well as common people.
In America, there are organized groups for traders, industrialists, laborers
and other professions.

8-Legislative Assemblies: Legislative assembly consists of public

representatives and makes laws for country and nation. The members of
assembly share their views in the parliament where government
representatives are also present. They together find solutions. Opposition
criticizes the performance of government. Daily proceeding is covered by
media. People themselves comment on duties of their leaders and make
an opinion after analyzing the causes and outcomes.

9-Personal Observations: Our personal observations and experiences

help a lot in shaping a proper view point. Through the daily interactions,
people learn about their circumstances.

10-Religious Institutions: Religion effects human life. In East, People are

being organized on the base of religion even today. The religious scholars
convey their ideas in mosques, temples and churches. In mosques, there
are special sermons after the prayer of Jummah where the scholars
analyze different problems and mentally prepare the Muslims to adopt a
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correct way by guiding them.

The Ways to Measure the Public Opinion

In modern times, it is much needed to measure the public opinion.

In west, there are different ways to know about public opinion on different
issues. These ways are now exercised in East as well.

1- Electoral Process: The most simple and traditional way of knowing the
public opinion is the general elections which are being held on regular
basis in democratic countries. People vote those parties whom they
consider eligible for their representation. The rescript of winning party is
often recognized as public opinion.

2-Election before General Elections: In America and European countries,

there are mock elections. Political parties arrange polling stations and
invite people to vote. These mock elections forecast about winning party
or candidate for future general elections. Units like Harris Survey and
Gallup Poll are famous for conducting elections before General Elections
in America.

3-Interviews: Public interviews help a lot in collecting data. Such

interviews are also organized by newspapers and magazines. Some
analysts conduct the research and reach an outcome after having the
opinion of people on different social issues. Television and Radio play an
important role in this regard as well.

4-Questionnaires: The researchers usually make questionnaires

containing fifty or hundred questions. Through obtaining the opinion of
few thousand people, the general opinion of public is measured.

5-Press Forum: Press Forums invite people belonging to different

professions and conduct their discussions. Thus, different point of views
come in the light and public leaders get to know about public attitudes
and behaviors. Daily Jang and Nawa-i-Waqt arrange such forums time
and again.
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ADVOCACY
Advocacy means taking action to support a specific cause or help
people who may not have a strong voice. It involves speaking up for
individuals or groups, especially those who are vulnerable or marginalized,
to make sure their needs and rights are heard and considered. Advocacy
can include different types of support, such as helping one person with a
problem, bringing a group together to address shared issues, or working
to change laws and policies that affect many people. The main goal of
advocacy is to create positive change in society. This can involve raising
awareness about important issues, influencing government decisions,
and promoting fairness and justice for everyone. There are many ways to
advocate, including organizing community events, using social media to
spread the word, and talking to leaders or lawmakers about specific
needs. Advocacy is important in a democracy because it empowers
people to participate in shaping the rules and decisions that affect their
lives. By advocating for change, individuals and groups can push for
better policies, ensure that everyone has access to resources, and help
build a society where everyone’s voice matters. Overall, advocacy is a
powerful way to drive progress and make the world a more fair and
inclusive place for everyone. It helps to create a society where people can
come together, support each other, and work toward common goals,
making sure that no one is left behind.

Definitions
1-John Stuart Mill: In his work On Liberty, Mill states, “He who knows
only his own side of the case knows little of that. His reasons may be
good, and if he were to be put to the proof, he would be unable to refute
them. But if he is not aware of the reasons which can be given against
the views he defends, he has no ground for preferring them.”
2-Hannah Arendt: “The life of the mind is not only about thinking; it’s
also about how to think together, which allows us to share our opinions,
our beliefs, and our judgments.”
3-Mahatma Gandhi: “You must be the change you wish to see in the
world.” This highlights the idea that advocacy starts with personal
commitment and action to inspire broader societal change.
These definitions illustrate that advocacy is not only about
supporting specific causes but also about fostering dialogue,
understanding diverse perspectives, and committing to social justice and
change.

Types of Advocacy
Advocacy can take many forms, each with its own focus and
methods. Here are some key types of advocacy:
1-Individual Advocacy: Supporting and representing the needs of an
individual. Helping someone navigate systems like healthcare, education,
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or legal services. This often involves providing information, resources, or
direct assistance to empower the individual.
2-Group Advocacy: Mobilizing a community or group of individuals to
address common issues or injustices. Organizing community meetings,
campaigns, or petitions that reflect the collective voice and concerns of
the group.
3-Systemic or Policy Advocacy: Aiming to change policies, laws, or
institutional practices at a broader level. Lobbying government officials,
engaging in public campaigns, and working with policymakers to
influence legislation that addresses systemic issues.
4-Legal Advocacy: Using legal systems to protect rights and achieve
justice for individuals or groups. Providing legal representation, filing
lawsuits, or engaging in litigation to address violations of rights.
5-Public Advocacy: Raising awareness and influencing public opinion on
specific issues. Utilizing media, public speaking, social media campaigns,
and community outreach to educate the public and generate support.
6-Grassroots Advocacy: Mobilizing community members at the local
level to effect change. Organizing local events, campaigns, and initiatives
that empower community members to advocate for their own interests.
7-Media Advocacy: Using media platforms to shape public discourse and
influence policymakers. Writing articles, participating in interviews, or
creating content that highlights specific issues and advocates for change.
8-Research and Data Advocacy: Using research and data to inform and
support advocacy efforts. Conducting studies, gathering statistics, and
presenting findings that highlight the need for change and support
advocacy claims.
9-International Advocacy: Addressing global issues and advocating for
human rights, environmental justice, or social equity on an international
scale. Collaborating with global organizations, participating in
international forums, and raising awareness about issues that transcend
national borders.
10-Youth Advocacy: Engaging and empowering young people to advocate
for their rights and interests. Creating platforms for youth voices,
organizing workshops, and encouraging youth participation in civic
activities.
Conclusion: These types of advocacy can often overlap and work
together to achieve common goals, leveraging the strengths of different
approaches to create meaningful change.
Significance of Advocacy
Advocacy holds significant importance in various aspects of
society, contributing to positive change and the promotion of justice. Here
are some key points highlighting its significance:
1-Empowerment of Individuals: Advocacy empowers individuals,
especially those from marginalized communities, by giving them the tools
and support to voice their needs and rights. This empowerment fosters
confidence and encourages active participation in societal issues.
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2-Promotion of Social Justice: Advocacy addresses systemic inequalities
and injustices, working to create a fairer society. Advocates challenge
discriminatory practices and fight for policies that promote equity and
inclusion.
3-Influence on Policy and Legislation: Advocates play a crucial role in
shaping public policy and legislation. By engaging with lawmakers and
providing research and testimonies, they help craft laws that reflect the
needs of the communities they represent.
4-Raising Public Awareness: Advocacy campaigns raise awareness
about pressing social issues, educating the public and informing them of
the challenges faced by certain groups. This heightened awareness can
mobilize community support for change.
5-Encouragement of Civic Engagement: Advocacy encourages
individuals to engage in the democratic process, including voting,
attending public meetings, and participating in discussions. This civic
engagement strengthens democracy and promotes accountability.
6-Facilitation of Access to Resources: Advocacy improves access to
essential services such as healthcare, education, and housing. Advocates
work to break down barriers that prevent individuals from receiving the
support they need.
7-Building Community Solidarity: Advocacy fosters a sense of
community by uniting people around common causes. This solidarity
creates stronger social ties and enhances the ability of communities to
address shared challenges.
8-Support for Sustainable Change: Advocacy focuses on long-term
solutions to social problems, addressing root causes rather than just
symptoms. This sustainable approach ensures that changes are effective
and enduring.
9-Encouragement of Accountability: Advocacy holds institutions,
organizations, and leaders accountable for their actions. By demanding
transparency and ethical practices, advocates ensure that those in power
are answerable to the public.
10-Driving Innovation and Improvement: Advocacy can lead to new ideas
and approaches for addressing social issues. By challenging existing
norms and practices, advocates encourage innovative solutions that
improve community well-being.
11-Protection of Human Rights: Advocacy is vital for protecting human
rights and freedoms. Advocates work to raise awareness about violations
and push for policies that safeguard the rights of individuals and
communities.
12-Strengthening Democracy: By fostering public debate and
participation, advocacy strengthens democratic processes. It encourages
diverse perspectives and ensures that a wide range of voices are
considered in decision-making.
13-Enhancement of Social Capital: Advocacy builds social capital by
creating networks of support and collaboration. These connections can
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lead to greater community resilience and the ability to mobilize resources
for social change.
14-Encouraging Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Advocacy often involves
collaboration across various sectors, including healthcare, education, and
social services. This interdisciplinary approach can lead to more
comprehensive solutions to complex social issues.
15-Inspiration for Future Generations: Advocacy sets an example for
future generations by demonstrating the importance of civic
responsibility and social engagement. It inspires young people to become
active participants in shaping their communities and the world.
Conclusion: Advocacy is significant because it empowers individuals,
promotes justice, influences policy, and strengthens communities. It
serves as a critical mechanism for driving social change and fostering a
more equitable society.

Steps for Public Advocacy

Public advocacy involves a structured approach to effectively
promote a cause, influence public opinion, and drive social change. Here
are the key steps typically involved in public advocacy:
1-Identify the Issue: Clearly define the issue you want to address.
Understand its significance, the stakeholders involved, and the impact it
has on individuals or communities.
2-Research and Gather Information: Conduct thorough research to gather
data, statistics, and case studies related to the issue. Understand existing
laws, policies, and the positions of key stakeholders to build a strong
foundation for your advocacy efforts.
3-Set Clear Goals: Establish specific, measurable, achievable, relevant,
and time-bound (SMART) goals for your advocacy campaign. Determine
what you want to achieve, such as influencing legislation, raising
awareness, or mobilizing community support.
4-Identify Target Audiences: Determine who needs to be influenced to
achieve your goals. This may include policymakers, community leaders,
the general public, or specific organizations. Tailor your messaging to
resonate with each audience.
5-Develop a Strategic Plan: Create a detailed advocacy plan outlining your
goals, target audiences, key messages, and tactics. Consider how you will
engage stakeholders, raise awareness, and mobilize support.
6-Build Alliances and Coalitions: Collaborate with other organizations,
groups, or individuals who share similar goals. Building coalitions can
amplify your efforts, combine resources, and strengthen your message.
7-Craft Your Message: Develop clear, compelling messages that
communicate the urgency and importance of the issue. Use storytelling
and data to make your case relatable and impactful.
8-Utilize Multiple Channels: Employ a variety of communication channels
to reach your audience, including social media, traditional media, public
speaking, community events, and direct outreach. Diversifying your
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methods can enhance visibility and engagement.
9-Engage in Direct Action: Organize activities that directly engage the
public and decision-makers. This could include rallies, petitions, letter-
writing campaigns, or public forums to raise awareness and advocate for
your cause.
10-Monitor and Evaluate Progress: Continuously assess the
effectiveness of your advocacy efforts. Track progress toward your goals
and gather feedback to refine your strategies as needed.
11-Follow Up and Maintain Engagement: After initial advocacy efforts,
maintain communication with stakeholders and supporters. Share
updates on progress, celebrate successes, and keep the issue alive in
public discourse.
12-Be Persistent: Advocacy is often a long-term effort. Stay committed to
your cause, adapt your strategies as needed, and continue to engage with
your audience to keep momentum going.
13-Educate and Empower Others: Equip others with knowledge and tools
to advocate for the cause. Training sessions, workshops, and
informational resources can empower community members to become
advocates themselves.
14-Build a Support Network: Cultivate a network of supporters who are
committed to your cause. This network can provide resources, share
information, and amplify your advocacy efforts.
15-Celebrate Achievements: Recognize and celebrate milestones and
successes, no matter how small. Celebrating achievements can motivate
supporters and reinforce the importance of continued advocacy.
By following these steps, advocates can effectively raise
awareness, influence decision-makers, and drive meaningful change in
their communities and beyond.
Salient Features of Public Advocacy
Public advocacy has several salient features that define its
approach and effectiveness. Here are some key characteristics:
1-Purpose-Driven: Public advocacy is focused on specific issues or
causes, aiming to bring about social change, influence policy, or raise
awareness about important matters affecting individuals or communities.
2-Inclusivity: Effective advocacy seeks to include diverse voices and
perspectives, particularly those from marginalized or underserved
communities. This inclusivity ensures that advocacy efforts reflect the
needs and concerns of all stakeholders.
3-Research-Based: Public advocacy relies on thorough research and
evidence to support its claims. Data, statistics, and case studies provide
credibility and strengthen arguments, making the case for change more
compelling.
4-Strategic Communication: Advocacy employs strategic messaging
tailored to various audiences. Clear, persuasive communication is
essential for raising awareness, mobilizing support, and influencing
decision-makers.
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5-Coalition-Building: Successful advocacy often involves forming
coalitions with other organizations, groups, or individuals who share
similar goals. Collaborative efforts can amplify voices, combine resources,
and enhance the overall impact of advocacy initiatives.
6-Engagement and Mobilization: Public advocacy actively engages
individuals and communities, encouraging them to participate in the
advocacy process. Mobilization efforts, such as rallies, campaigns, and
community events, foster a sense of collective action.
7-Accountability and Transparency: Advocates hold institutions,
organizations, and decision-makers accountable for their actions.
Transparency in processes and outcomes builds trust and reinforces the
integrity of advocacy efforts.
8-Long-Term Focus: Advocacy often aims for sustainable, long-term
change rather than immediate fixes. This long-term perspective involves
addressing root causes of social issues and creating policies that
promote lasting solutions.
9-Public Awareness and Education: A key feature of public advocacy is
its focus on educating the public about specific issues. Raising
awareness helps inform community members and encourages informed
discussions and actions.
10-Adaptability: Effective advocacy is flexible and can adapt to changing
circumstances, emerging challenges, and new opportunities. This
adaptability allows advocates to respond to current events and shifts in
public sentiment.
11-Use of Multiple Channels: Public advocacy employs a variety of
communication channels, including social media, traditional media, public
events, and direct outreach. This multi-channel approach helps reach a
wider audience and increases visibility.
12-Empowerment: Advocacy seeks to empower individuals and
communities, providing them with the tools and resources needed to
voice their concerns and advocate for their rights and needs.
13-Networking and Relationship Building: Building relationships with
stakeholders, including policymakers, community leaders, and other
advocates, is crucial for effective advocacy. Networking enhances
collaboration and strengthens advocacy efforts.
14-Ethical Considerations: Ethical practices are fundamental in advocacy,
ensuring that advocates respect the dignity and rights of those they
represent. This includes being truthful, transparent, and responsible in
communications and actions.
15-Evaluation and Reflection: Public advocacy involves ongoing
evaluation of its effectiveness. Reflecting on successes and challenges
helps refine strategies and improve future advocacy efforts.
These salient features collectively enhance the effectiveness of public
advocacy, enabling advocates to create meaningful change and foster a
more just and equitable society.
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SOCIAL ACTION MOVEMENT

A social action movement refers to organized, collective efforts
by individuals or groups to bring about social, political, economic, or
environmental change. These movements typically arise in response to
perceived inequalities, injustices, or unmet needs within society. Social
action movements can take many forms, including protests, advocacy
campaigns, civil disobedience, and community organizing.
The primary goal of a social action movement is to create a shift
in public policy, cultural norms, or societal behaviors. Such movements
are driven by a desire to address systemic issues, such as racial
discrimination, gender inequality, environmental degradation, or labor
rights violations. They often work to raise awareness, mobilize
communities, and put pressure on governments, corporations, and
institutions to enact change.
Social action movements rely on collective action, meaning they
involve collaboration among people who share common concerns or
goals. These movements are characterized by grassroots participation
and often use a variety of strategies, from peaceful demonstrations to
digital activism.
A key aspect of social action movements is their emphasis on
empowerment and justice. They seek to give voice to marginalized or
oppressed groups, challenging the status quo and advocating for more
equitable systems. Examples of well-known social action movements
include the Civil Rights Movement, the environmental movement, and the
feminist movement.
Social action movements play a critical role in driving societal
progress by fostering dialogue, challenging injustices, and encouraging
civic engagement.

Definitions
1-Herbert Blumer: "A social movement is a collective enterprise
motivated by a common purpose, where individuals come together to
pursue shared beliefs and identities."
2-Charles Tilly:"Social movements are a series of contentious
performances, displays, and campaigns by which ordinary people make
claims on others in the pursuit of their goals."
3-Martha Nussbaum: "Social movements arise from the collective
emotions and capabilities of individuals who seek justice and a better
understanding of moral issues in society."
Kinds of Social Movements
Social action movements can be categorized in various ways based
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on their goals, methods, and characteristics. Here are some common
types:
1-Reform Movements: Aimed at making gradual changes within existing
social and political systems. Examples include the civil rights movement
and women's suffrage.
2-Revolutionary Movements: Seek to completely overthrow existing
structures and create a new political or social order. The Russian
Revolution is a notable example.
3-Resistance Movements: Focus on opposing or resisting specific
policies or changes imposed by authorities, such as the anti-globalization
movement.
4-Expressive Movements: Concerned primarily with personal or collective
identity and cultural expression rather than specific policy changes.
5-Redemptive Movements: Aim to bring about significant personal
change in individuals, often with a spiritual or religious focus, such as the
temperance movement.
6-Environmental Movements: Focused on issues related to
environmental protection and sustainability, like the climate action
movement.
7-Labor Movements: Centered on workers' rights and improving
conditions in the workplace, including unions and strikes.
8-Global Movements: Transnational efforts that address global issues,
such as human rights campaigns or anti-poverty initiatives.
9-Youth Movements: Involve young people advocating for change, often
focusing on issues like education reform or climate change, exemplified
by movements like Fridays for Future.
These categories highlight the diverse objectives and strategies
employed by social movements in their quest for change.
Salient Features of Social Action Movement
Social action movements have distinct characteristics that
differentiate them from other forms of collective action. Here are the
salient features of social movements:
1-Collective Action: Social movements are driven by the collective efforts
of individuals or groups who share a common interest or cause. They
involve organized participation in activities like protests, rallies, or
advocacy campaigns.
2-Common Purpose: Participants in a social movement are united by a
shared goal, often seeking to bring about social, political, or cultural
change. This can involve promoting reforms, resisting policies, or
advocating for marginalized groups.
3-Organized Structure: While social movements may vary in formality,
they generally have some level of organization, leadership, or coordination.
This structure helps mobilize resources, strategize, and communicate
effectively.
4-Sustained Activity: Unlike spontaneous or short-lived protests, social
movements persist over time. They involve sustained efforts to achieve
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long-term objectives, often requiring resilience and adaptability.
5-Social Change Orientation: Social movements aim to challenge existing
power structures, policies, or cultural norms. They seek to address issues
of inequality, injustice, or environmental degradation, among others.
6-Mass Mobilization: Successful social movements involve large
numbers of people. Mass participation provides visibility, legitimacy, and
pressure on institutions or authorities to take action.
7-Ideological Framework: Social movements are often guided by a set of
beliefs or ideologies, such as equality, justice, or environmentalism, which
shape their goals and strategies.
8-Conflict and Opposition: Social movements often arise in opposition to
established authorities, institutions, or social norms. They typically face
resistance from those benefiting from the status quo.
9-Use of Multiple Tactics: Social movements employ a variety of tactics,
such as peaceful protests, civil disobedience, lobbying, media campaigns,
and sometimes even legal action, to advance their causes.
10-Grassroots Nature: Many social movements begin at the grassroots
level, involving ordinary people rather than political elites, making them a
powerful force for bottom-up change.
These features help define the dynamics and structure of social
movements and contribute to their ability to effect change in society.

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CHAPTER NO. 7

DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP AND TECHNOLOGY

Digital Platform
A digital platform is an online space or technology that enables
users to connect, interact, and exchange information, goods, or services
over the internet. Think of it as a virtual environment where people can
come together for different purposes, such as communicating, buying
and selling products, sharing content, or collaborating on projects. Digital
platforms can take many forms, such as websites, apps, or social media,
and are designed to make these interactions easier and more efficient.
For example, e-commerce platforms like Amazon or eBay allow buyers
and sellers to meet online and exchange goods, while social media
platforms like Facebook or Instagram enable users to share updates,
photos, and videos with friends or followers. There are also platforms
designed for specific tasks, like Uber, which connects drivers with people
needing rides, or Airbnb, where homeowners can rent out their spaces to
travelers.
What makes digital platforms powerful is that they provide a
framework where various parties such as individuals, businesses, and
developers can create, share, or offer something valuable to one another,
without needing to meet in person. Most platforms also allow users to
create profiles, join communities, and interact in real-time, making them
convenient and widely used in our daily lives. Another important aspect is
that digital platforms often use algorithms to personalize content or
services based on users' preferences and behaviors, creating a tailored
experience for each person. This could be the recommendations you see
on Netflix or the ads you come across while browsing a website.
In addition to facilitating exchanges, digital platforms also collect
data about users' activities, which helps them improve their services or
target specific groups with advertisements. Platforms can be open, where
anyone can join (like YouTube), or more closed, where only certain groups
are allowed access (like corporate software platforms). Overall, digital
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platforms are reshaping how we communicate, work, shop, and entertain
ourselves, bringing convenience and connection to almost every aspect of
life.
Definitions
1-Shoshana Zuboff: "Digital platforms are ubiquitous infrastructures for
the extraction, analysis, and monetization of behavioral data, shaping
our digital experiences and the markets that surround them."
2-Nick Srnicek: "Platforms are digital infrastructures that enable two or
more groups to interact. They provide the basic infrastructure for a wide
range of activities, but they also collect, analyze, and use the data
generated in these interactions."
3-Manuel Castells: "Platforms are the technical and social architectures
through which flows of information, power, and culture are distributed,
enabling the network society."
4-Trebor Scholz: "Digital platforms are systems designed to connect
users to services or goods, but they often rely on exploiting labor and
data for profit, prompting the need for more equitable, cooperative
alternatives."
5-Jean Tirole: "Platforms are multi-sided markets that create value by
facilitating interactions between different user groups, often extracting
value through network effects and data-driven insights."
These definitions reflect the multifaceted nature of digital
platforms, focusing on aspects like data, power structures, economics,
and social impact.
Types of Digital Platform
1-Social Media Platforms: These platforms enable users to create
profiles, share content, and interact with others through likes, comments,
and messages. They focus on fostering communication and community
building. Examples: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn.
2-E-commerce Platforms: E-commerce platforms allow businesses and
individuals to buy and sell goods and services online. They offer tools for
transactions, customer support, and logistics. Examples: Amazon, eBay,
Alibaba, Shopify.
3-Content Sharing Platforms: These platforms let users create, upload,
and share various types of content such as videos, photos, articles, and
music. They are often monetized through ads, subscriptions, or user-
generated content. Examples: YouTube, Vimeo, Sound Cloud, Medium.
4-Collaborative Economy Platforms (Sharing/Gig Economy): These
platforms connect individuals offering services with people needing those
services. They enable peer-to-peer exchanges, often disrupting traditional
industries like transportation, lodging, or freelance work. Examples: Uber,
Airbnb, TaskRabbit, Fiverr.
5-Cloud Computing and SaaS Platforms: These platforms offer software
and services over the internet, eliminating the need for installation or
management on individual computers. They provide scalable computing
resources and tools for businesses and individuals.
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Examples: Google Cloud, Microsoft Azure, Dropbox, Salesforce.
6-Marketplace Platforms: Marketplaces connect multiple sellers with
buyers in a central location. These platforms act as intermediaries for a
wide range of goods and services, providing payment processing and
customer support. Examples: Etsy, eBay, Alibaba.
7-Financial Platforms (FinTech): These platforms focus on providing
financial services such as payments, banking, investing, and money
transfers. They are often regulated by financial authorities and focus on
simplifying financial transactions. Examples: PayPal, Stripe, Robin Hood,
Square.
8-Educational Platforms (EdTech): These platforms provide online
learning through virtual courses, tutorials, and resources, catering to both
students and professionals. Many offer certifications, degrees, and
interactive learning experiences. Examples: Coursera, Khan Academy,
Udemy, Duolingo.
9-Streaming Platforms (Entertainment): Streaming platforms offer on-
demand access to digital media, including movies, TV shows, music, and
live broadcasts. Most operate on a subscription or ad-based model.
Examples: Netflix, Spotify, Hulu, Twitch.
10-Search Engines: Search platforms allow users to search for
information, products, or services on the internet. They use algorithms to
index and rank content, making it accessible to users based on relevance.
Examples: Google, Bing, Yahoo.
11-Developer Platforms: Developer platforms provide tools, libraries,
frameworks, and environments for software developers to create, test,
and deploy applications. They often feature collaboration tools and a
community for sharing resources. Examples: GitHub, Heroku, Microsoft
Azure.
12-Job and Freelance Platforms: These platforms connect employers
and employees or freelancers, offering job postings, hiring tools, and
profiles for candidates. They streamline the job search and hiring process.
Examples: LinkedIn, Indeed, Up work, Freelancer.
13-Health and Fitness Platforms: Health platforms focus on providing
access to medical services, fitness tracking, or wellness programs. They
include telemedicine, fitness apps, and mental wellness resources.
Examples: MyFitnessPal, Fitbit, Headspace, WebMD.
14-Gaming Platforms: These platforms provide an environment for users
to play video games, either by downloading, streaming, or accessing them
online. They often offer multiplayer interaction, in-game purchases, and
gaming communities. Examples: Steam, PlayStation Network, Xbox Live.
15-Crowdfunding Platforms: Crowdfunding platforms allow individuals or
businesses to raise money from the public for a specific project, cause, or
business idea. They operate by pooling small amounts of money from
many contributors. Examples: Kickstarter, GoFundMe, Patreon, Indiegogo.
16-Advertising Platforms: Advertising platforms are designed to connect
businesses with audiences through targeted ads. These platforms collect
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user data to allow businesses to run ad campaigns based on specific
demographics and interests. Examples: Google Ads, Facebook Ads,
AdSense.
17-Communication Platforms: These platforms provide users with tools
for real-time communication via text, voice, or video. They are essential
for both personal and professional communication and collaboration.
Examples: WhatsApp, Zoom, Slack, Microsoft Teams.
18-Data and Analytics Platforms: Data platforms aggregate and analyze
data from various sources, offering insights that can be used to make
informed decisions. They are used in industries like marketing, healthcare,
and business intelligence. Examples: Google Analytics, Tableau, Splunk.
19-Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) Platforms: These
platforms create immersive virtual environments or overlay digital
elements onto the real world. They are used in gaming, education, and
industries like real estate and healthcare. Examples: Oculus, Google
ARCore, Magic Leap.
20-Logistics and Supply Chain Platforms: Logistics platforms facilitate
the management of supply chains, inventory, and shipping processes.
They connect suppliers, manufacturers, and retailers to ensure smooth
transactions and deliveries. Examples: Flexport, ShipBob, Alibaba’s
Cainiao.
Conclusion: These types of digital platforms illustrate the broad range of
functionalities they offer, revolutionizing industries, simplifying daily tasks,
and enabling new forms of interaction and business opportunities.

Utility & Importance of Digital Platform

The utility and importance of digital platforms have grown
tremendously in today's interconnected world. Here’s an in-depth look at
their utility and significance across various domains:
1-Global Connectivity and Communication: Digital platforms enable
people across the globe to communicate and interact in real-time,
regardless of geographical boundaries. Social media platforms like
Facebook, WhatsApp, and LinkedIn help individuals and businesses
connect, share information, and collaborate seamlessly.
2-Convenience and Accessibility: Digital platforms provide convenient
access to services and products from anywhere, at any time. For instance,
e-commerce platforms like Amazon or Alibaba allow users to shop from
the comfort of their homes, making the process easier and faster.
Similarly, cloud platforms like Google Drive give access to files and
software remotely.
3-Economic Growth and Job Creation: Digital platforms play a crucial role
in fostering economic development by creating new business
opportunities, jobs, and revenue streams. Gig economy platforms such as
Uber, Fiverr, and Upwork empower freelancers and small businesses to
offer services to a global market. These platforms democratize access to
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income by breaking down traditional employment barriers.
4-Innovation and Business Transformation: Digital platforms encourage
innovation by providing a space for developers, startups, and
entrepreneurs to create, launch, and scale new products or services.
Platforms like GitHub and Google Cloud offer developers the tools to
build applications, while platforms like Shopify enable businesses to
easily set up online stores.
5-Efficient Service Delivery: Digital platforms streamline service delivery,
making it more efficient. For example, fintech platforms such as PayPal
and Stripe simplify financial transactions, while healthcare platforms like
telemedicine apps allow patients to access medical consultations online,
improving healthcare accessibility and response times.
6-Data-Driven Decision Making: By aggregating vast amounts of user
data, digital platforms provide valuable insights that help organizations
make informed decisions. Analytics platforms such as Google Analytics
and Tableau analyze user behavior and market trends, enabling
businesses to optimize marketing strategies, improve products, and
enhance user experience.
7-Facilitating Education and Learning: Educational platforms like
Coursera, Udemy, and Khan Academy democratize learning by offering
access to courses and resources to people around the world, regardless
of their financial or geographical limitations. This promotes lifelong
learning and skill development.
8-Cost Savings for Businesses: Digital platforms reduce the need for
physical infrastructure, significantly lowering operating costs for
businesses. For instance, SaaS (Software-as-a-Service) platforms like
Salesforce or Microsoft 365 eliminate the need for on-premise software,
reducing maintenance and hardware expenses.
9-Scalability: Businesses and services can easily scale using digital
platforms. Platforms like AWS (Amazon Web Services) offer scalable
cloud solutions for storage and processing, while e-commerce platforms
enable companies to quickly reach larger audiences without the
traditional limitations of brick-and-mortar stores.
10-Personalization and Customer Experience: Digital platforms use
algorithms and data analytics to personalize user experiences. For
example, streaming platforms like Netflix recommend content based on
viewing history, while e-commerce sites provide tailored product
recommendations, enhancing customer satisfaction and retention.
11-Enhanced Collaboration: Collaboration platforms such as Slack,
Microsoft Teams, and Zoom improve workplace productivity by providing
tools for communication, document sharing, and real-time collaboration.
They make remote work feasible and efficient, which has become
particularly important in the post-pandemic world.
12-Environmental Sustainability: Digital platforms contribute to
sustainability by reducing the need for physical resources. For example, e-
books and digital content eliminate paper use, while teleconferencing
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platforms reduce the need for travel, lowering carbon emissions.
13-Market Expansion for Small Businesses: Digital platforms allow small
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to access global markets, leveling
the playing field with larger competitors. Platforms like Etsy or Shopify
provide an opportunity for artisans and small-scale manufacturers to sell
their products to a global audience without the need for physical
storefronts.
14-Flexibility and Adaptability: Digital platforms offer immense flexibility
to businesses and individuals. Whether it’s setting up an online store,
booking a service, or accessing software, platforms provide customizable
solutions that can be adapted to specific needs, reducing the time and
effort needed for complex operations.
15-Fostering Communities and Social Movements: Social media and
digital advocacy platforms facilitate the creation of communities and the
mobilization of social movements. Activist groups use platforms like
Twitter and Change.org to spread awareness, garner support, and drive
action for various causes.
16-Security and Compliance: Many digital platforms provide built-in
security measures like encryption, multi-factor authentication, and
compliance tools, which help businesses and individuals protect their
data. Financial platforms like PayPal and Stripe also ensure that
transactions are secure and compliant with legal regulations.
17-Entertainment and Engagement: Platforms like YouTube, Netflix, and
Spotify offer vast amounts of digital content, providing entertainment and
cultural engagement. These platforms have transformed how people
consume media, shifting from traditional TV and radio to on-demand
streaming.
18-Data Monetization and New Revenue Streams: Digital platforms allow
businesses to monetize user data in ethical and profitable ways. For
instance, advertising platforms like Google Ads generate revenue by
targeting consumers with personalized ads, while e-commerce platforms
use purchase data to suggest products.
19-Crisis Management and Rapid Response: Digital platforms have
proven essential in crises, providing real-time information and
coordination. During the COVID-19 pandemic, telemedicine, remote work,
and educational platforms ensured continuity of services, while social
media platforms helped disseminate critical health information.
20-Global Reach: Digital platforms provide instant global reach, enabling
businesses, educators, artists, and individuals to connect with audiences
worldwide. This global accessibility breaks down traditional barriers,
opening up new markets, ideas, and collaborations.
Conclusion: The utility and importance of digital platforms lie in their
ability to foster connectivity, facilitate innovation, drive economic growth,
enhance service delivery, and provide access to information and services
on a global scale. They are reshaping how individuals and businesses
operate, collaborate, and thrive in the digital age.
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CYBER ETHICS & RESPONSIBLE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
Cyber ethics refers to the rules and moral principles that guide
behavior and decision-making in the online world. Just like in real life,
where we have social norms and laws to tell us what’s right and wrong,
the internet has its own set of ethical guidelines. These rules help
individuals and organizations use technology responsibly, ensuring that
online activities respect the rights and safety of others.
In simple terms, cyber ethics is all about doing the right thing
online. It covers a wide range of issues, such as privacy, security, and
digital communication. For example, when you are on the internet, it’s
ethical to protect your personal information, avoid hacking into other
people’s accounts, and not spread harmful or false information. Following
these rules helps create a safe and trustworthy online environment for
everyone.
Key Areas of Cyber Ethics
1-Privacy: Respecting privacy means not snooping into other people’s
data or personal information without their permission. Ethical internet
users understand that everyone has the right to keep certain details about
themselves private. Sharing someone’s personal details, like their address
or photos, without their consent is a violation of their privacy and is
considered unethical.
2-Cyberbullying and Online Behavior: Treating people with kindness and
respect online is a core part of cyber ethics. Just because we’re behind
screens doesn’t mean we can hurt or bully others. Cyberbullying involves
harassing or attacking someone online through harmful comments or
messages. Ethical behavior online is about being respectful in your
communication and understanding that your words and actions can
affect real people.
3-Intellectual Property: Ethical online behavior also includes respecting
intellectual property. This means not copying or stealing someone else’s
work, like music, movies, or articles, without permission. Downloading
pirated software or sharing copyrighted content without permission is
against the principles of cyber ethics.
4-Security: Keeping your devices and accounts safe from hackers and
viruses is another important aspect of cyber ethics. This includes using
strong passwords, updating your software regularly, and not engaging in
activities like spreading malware or hacking other people's systems.
5-Digital Footprint: Everything you do online leaves a trail, called a digital
footprint. Ethical internet users are aware of how their actions can have
long-term consequences, so they think carefully before posting,
commenting, or sharing anything online.
Conclusion: Cyber ethics is about responsible and respectful behavior on
the internet. Following ethical guidelines makes the online world a better
place for everyone by promoting fairness, honesty, and safety in all digital
interactions.
Branches of Cyber Ethics
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Cyber ethics is a broad field that touches on many aspects of
online behavior and technology. The main branches of cyber ethics focus
on various issues that arise in the digital world. Here are the key branches:
1-Privacy Ethics: This branch deals with the protection of personal data
and the ethical handling of private information. It raises questions like:
* How should personal data be collected, stored, and shared?
* What rights do individuals have over their data?
* Is it ethical for companies to track user behavior without consent?
2-Intellectual Property Ethics: This focuses on the ethical use of digital
content, such as music, videos, software, and written works. It explores:
* How to respect copyrights, patents, and trademarks online.
* The ethics of file sharing, piracy, and downloading illegal content.
*Protecting the rights of creators while ensuring fair access to
information.
3-Hacking and Security Ethics: This branch involves the ethical use of
hacking skills and ensuring cybersecurity. It includes:
* The morality of hacking, both legal (white hat) and illegal (black hat).
* Ethical hacking for security testing versus malicious attacks.
* Responsibilities in preventing and protecting against cyberattacks.
4-Cybercrime Ethics: Cybercrime ethics addresses illegal activities that
happen online, such as:
* Hacking, phishing, and fraud.
* The ethical considerations of cyber law enforcement.
* Issues of jurisdiction in cross-border cybercrimes.
5-Freedom of Speech and Censorship: This branch deals with the ethical
balance between free speech and regulation on the internet. It explores:
* The limits of freedom of speech online, such as hate speech and
misinformation.
* Ethical issues surrounding government censorship or corporate content
moderation.
6-Social Media and Communication Ethics: Focusing on ethical behavior
in digital communication, this includes:
* Cyberbullying, trolling, and harassment.
* The spread of fake news and misinformation.
* Responsible use of social media platforms.
7-Digital Divide and Access Ethics: This branch addresses the ethical
issue of unequal access to technology and the internet. Key topics
include:
* The ethics of ensuring fair access to digital resources.
* How technology can bridge or widen the gap between different
socioeconomic groups.
8-Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Automation Ethics: As technology
advances, this branch looks at the ethical implications of AI and
automation, including:
* The ethical use of AI in decision-making, such as facial recognition or
data analysis.
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* Concerns over job displacement due to automation.
* Ensuring that AI development aligns with human rights and ethics.
9-Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) Ethics: This branch
covers ethical concerns in immersive digital environments, such as:
* The impact of VR/AR experiences on psychological well-being.
* The ethics of simulating real-world activities in virtual environments.
* Data privacy in VR/AR applications.
10-Digital Identity and Digital Footprint Ethics: This deals with how
individuals manage their digital identities and the long-term
consequences of their online actions, such as:
* The ethical responsibility of managing one's digital footprint.
* The potential misuse of online identities, like identity theft.
* Ethical concerns around anonymity and pseudonymity online.
Conclusion: These branches of cyber ethics guide responsible use of the
internet, ensuring that individuals, businesses, and governments behave
ethically in the digital space. Each branch addresses specific moral
dilemmas and challenges that arise with new technologies.
Ensuring the Right & Responsible Use of Social Media
1-Think before Posting: Reflect on how your post may be perceived by
others.
2-Verify Sources: Check the credibility of information before sharing.
3-Protect Personal Information: Avoid sharing sensitive personal details.
4-Use Privacy Settings: Adjust privacy settings to control who sees your
content.
5-Engage Positively: Foster constructive conversations and interactions.
6-Be Respectful: Treat others online as you would in person.
7-Avoid Oversharing: Share selectively to maintain your privacy.
8-Report Harmful Content: Use reporting tools for harassment or hate
speech.
9-Limit Screen Time: Set boundaries to avoid excessive use.
10-Educate Yourself: Stay informed about social media trends and safety
practices.
11-Be Authentic: Share content that reflects your true self and values.
12-Think about Long-term Impact: Consider how posts may affect your
future.
13-Avoid Engagement with Trolls: Don’t feed negative or disruptive
behaviors.
14-Check Facts: Fact-check news articles before sharing them.
15-Avoid Spamming: Don't post excessively or irrelevant content.
16-Use Block/Mute Features: Manage your feed by blocking or muting
negative influences.
17-Promote Positive Content: Share uplifting and informative material.
18-Be Mindful of Mental Health: Curate your feed for positivity and limit
exposure to negativity.
19-Stay Aware of Trends: Understand trending topics and how they may
affect discussions.
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20-Engage with Empathy: Approach discussions with understanding and
kindness.
Conclusion: Ensuring the right and responsible use of social media
requires a collective effort involving individuals, companies, governments,
and educators. By fostering digital literacy, enforcing cyber laws,
promoting ethical behavior, and providing tools to protect privacy and
security, we can create a safer and more respectful digital world.
Everyone has a role to play in making the internet a place of responsible
and ethical interaction.

DIGITAL DIVIDE & DISPARITIES

The "digital divide" means that some people have easy access to
computers, the internet, and technology, while others do not. This
difference creates gaps in opportunities, education, and work. People with
access to the internet can do things like learn online, search for jobs, and
connect with others easily. However, those without access, often in
poorer areas or rural places, miss out on these opportunities. Even when
people have access to technology, they may not know how to use it well,
which is called a lack of digital skills or literacy. Older people or those
who haven't grown up with technology may find it harder to use
computers or navigate the internet. Another big part of the digital divide is
cost. Not everyone can afford a computer or pay for reliable internet
service, which limits what they can do. For example, students without
internet at home may fall behind in school because they can’t complete
online assignments. Adults without internet access or computer skills
may have trouble finding jobs or accessing important services like online
healthcare. During the COVID-19 pandemic, this divide became more
noticeable as many people couldn’t work or attend school from home due
to a lack of technology. Fixing the digital divide involves making
technology and internet access more affordable, providing free Wi-Fi in
public areas, and offering training programs to help people develop digital
skills. Governments, companies, and communities all have a role to play
in closing this gap. Overall, the digital divide is about the unequal access
to technology and the opportunities that come with it, which affects how
people live, learn, and work.
Origin: The term "digital divide" originated in the 1990s, when technology,
especially the internet, began to play a larger role in everyday life. As
computers and the internet became more widespread, researchers,
policymakers, and educators noticed that not everyone had equal access
to these new tools. The term was coined to describe the growing gap
between those who could afford and use digital technology, and those
who could not.
Definitions
1-Manuel Castells (Sociologist): "Access to the Internet has become a
critical factor for social inclusion in the Information Age. The digital
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divide is not only a divide in access to the network, but also a divide in
the ability to process and produce the knowledge that runs economies
and societies."
2-Mark Warschauer (Digital Literacy Scholar): "The real issue is not the
'haves' versus the 'have-nots' in terms of access to computers or the
internet, but rather the 'cans' versus the 'can-nots' in terms of ability to
use and benefit from the technology." nology.
3-Henry Jenkins (Media Scholar): "The digital divide is not simply about
access to technology but about access to the skills, knowledge, and
opportunities that are needed to participate fully in the digital world."
4-Jan van Dijk (Sociologist and Communication Theorist): "The digital
divide is a social and political problem resulting from the unequal
distribution of access to digital technology, which in turn reinforces
existing social inequalities."
Conclusion: These scholars, while not classic philosophers in the
traditional sense, are influential thinkers who have contributed to our
understanding of the digital divide. They explore it as a complex issue
that involves not just access to technology, but also deeper structural
inequalities, digital literacy, and participation in the digital world.
Kinds of Digital Divide
The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals, groups, or
communities who have access to information and communication
technology (ICT) and those who do not. There are several kinds of digital
divide, each focusing on different aspects of this inequality. These
divisions go beyond just physical access to technology and involve skills,
usage, and social factors. Below are the key types of digital divides:
1-Access Divide (Physical Divide): This is the most basic form of the
digital divide and refers to the gap between those who have access to
computers, the internet, and other digital devices, and those who do not. It
is usually based on geography (urban vs. rural areas), socio-economic
status, or availability of infrastructure. Examples: Urban areas often have
high-speed internet, while rural areas may lack reliable or affordable
internet services. Wealthier families can afford computers, while poorer
families cannot.
2-Skills Divide (Digital Literacy Divide): Having access to technology
doesn't guarantee that people know how to use it effectively. The skills
divide refers to the gap between those who have the ability to use digital
technologies and those who do not, often due to a lack of digital literacy
or educational opportunities. Examples: Older adults or people with less
formal education may struggle to use computers, apps, or websites. On
the other hand, younger generations, exposed to technology early on,
often find it easier to adapt.
3-Usage Divide (Quality of Use Divide): Even if someone has access and
basic skills, there’s a divide in how people use digital technologies. This
refers to the difference between those who use the internet for advanced
tasks (e.g., professional work, research, content creation) and those who
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use it only for simple tasks (e.g., social media, watching videos).
Examples: Some individuals use the internet to access educational
platforms or start businesses, while others may use it only for
entertainment. This divide reflects not just skills, but also the purpose of
use.
4-Economic Divide: This divide concerns the affordability of digital
technology. Even when technology is available, not everyone can afford
high-quality devices, data plans, or fast internet connections. Lower-
income individuals may only be able to afford basic internet or cheaper,
outdated devices, limiting their digital experiences. Examples: A person
may have a smartphone with limited data but cannot afford a laptop or
high-speed internet, reducing their ability to participate fully in online
learning or remote work.
5-Geographical Divide: Access to digital technology can vary greatly
based on location. Rural and remote areas often face challenges with
infrastructure, such as a lack of broadband or high-speed internet,
compared to urban areas where technology infrastructure is more
developed. Examples: Rural areas in developing countries may not have
the necessary infrastructure for internet access, while cities in the same
country may have modern, fast broadband connections.
6-Gender Divide: In some regions, especially in developing countries,
there is a digital divide based on gender. Women are often less likely to
have access to digital technology due to cultural, social, or economic
factors. Examples: In parts of Africa and South Asia, cultural norms may
limit women's access to education and, by extension, to technology,
further widening the gap between men and women in digital participation.
7-Age Divide: The age divide refers to the generational gap in technology
usage. Younger people, often referred to as "digital natives," tend to adopt
new technologies more quickly and use them more frequently, while older
generations may find it more challenging to adapt to rapidly changing
technologies. Examples: Younger generations use smartphones and
social media as part of their daily routines, while older adults may
struggle with smartphones or prefer traditional means of communication.
8-Disability Divide: People with disabilities often face challenges in
accessing and using technology due to a lack of accessible digital
resources and tools. Many websites and digital services are not designed
with accessibility in mind, creating a barrier for individuals with disabilities.
Examples: Websites that are not compatible with screen readers make it
difficult for visually impaired individuals to access information. Lack of
closed captions or subtitles may limit content for people with hearing
impairments.
9-Language and Content Divide: This divide refers to the availability of
digital content in different languages and the relevance of that content to
specific communities. English is the dominant language of the internet,
which creates a barrier for people who are not fluent in English or for
communities whose cultural content is underrepresented online.
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Examples: Many educational resources and websites are available only in
English or a few major languages, making it difficult for non-English
speakers to access information or learn online.
10-Institutional Divide: Institutions, such as schools, businesses, and
governments, can also experience a digital divide based on their access
to and adoption of technology. Well-funded schools may provide students
with computers and internet access, while underfunded schools may lack
such resources. Examples: A well-equipped school with internet access
and digital devices will offer its students more learning opportunities
compared to a school in a poorer neighborhood without such resources.
Conclusion: The digital divide is a multi-dimensional issue that involves
not only physical access to technology but also social, economic, and
educational factors. Bridging this divide requires addressing these
different types of divides through inclusive policies, investments in
infrastructure, and education aimed at increasing digital literacy and
access for all.
Effects & Impacts of Digital Divide
The digital divide has profound socio-economic effects, as it
contributes to widening inequalities between individuals, communities,
and even nations. In a world where technology plays a central role in
almost every aspect of life, those without access to digital resources face
significant disadvantages. Below are the socio-economic effects of the
digital divide on different fields of life:
1-Education: The digital divide significantly affects educational
opportunities and outcomes, deepening socio-economic disparities.
* Unequal Access to Education: Students from low-income families or rural
areas who lack access to digital devices or high-speed internet are unable
to participate in online learning. This became especially apparent during
the COVID-19 pandemic when education shifted online, leaving many
students behind.
* Widening Achievement Gaps: The digital divide exacerbates educational
inequalities, as students with access to technology can benefit from
additional learning resources (like online tutoring or research materials),
while others cannot. This results in long-term socio-economic
consequences, as those with better education are more likely to secure
higher-paying jobs.
* Digital Literacy Divide: Students without access to technology miss out
on developing essential digital literacy skills, which are increasingly
important in the modern economy. This can limit their ability to compete
in the job market later in life.
2-Employment and Income: The digital divide has a direct impact on job
opportunities, career growth, and income levels, perpetuating socio-
economic inequality.
* Limited Job Opportunities: Many job applications, especially for higher-
paying or remote jobs, are now online. Individuals without internet access
or digital skills are at a disadvantage when searching for jobs, filling out
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applications, or attending virtual interviews.
* Skills Gap: Workers without access to digital technologies or training are
often left behind in terms of skill development, particularly in industries
that rely on technology. This skills gap means that lower-income
individuals may remain stuck in low-paying jobs with fewer opportunities
for advancement.
* Remote Work Disparities: The rise of remote work during the pandemic
highlighted the digital divide. Employees without reliable internet or
proper technology could not take advantage of remote work opportunities,
leaving them at a disadvantage compared to their peers. This further
impacts income and career mobility.
3-Healthcare: The digital divide creates barriers to accessing healthcare,
which can deepen existing health and economic inequalities.
* Access to Telemedicine: People in underserved areas or low-income
households may not have access to telemedicine services, which are
increasingly important in healthcare. This can lead to delayed diagnoses
or a lack of preventative care, ultimately worsening health outcomes.
* Healthcare Information: The digital divide limits access to important
health information and online health management tools, such as patient
portals, medical apps, or online research about symptoms and treatments.
Those without access may struggle to manage chronic conditions or
make informed healthcare decisions.
* Cost of Care: Poorer health outcomes due to the digital divide can result
in higher healthcare costs over time, disproportionately affecting low-
income individuals and exacerbating their financial struggles.
4-Economic Development: The digital divide slows down economic
growth and development, particularly in disadvantaged regions and
communities.
* Barriers to Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurs and small businesses in
areas without reliable internet access or digital tools face significant
challenges in starting or scaling their businesses. This limits job creation
and economic opportunities in these communities.
* Regional Economic Disparities: Urban areas with better digital
infrastructure tend to experience faster economic growth, while rural or
underdeveloped areas lag behind. This exacerbates regional inequalities
and limits national economic competitiveness.
* Innovation Gap: The digital divide can stifle innovation in economically
disadvantaged areas. Lack of access to digital tools and information
means that fewer people in these areas can contribute to or benefit from
technological advancements, leading to a widening economic gap
between regions and nations.
5-Social Mobility: The digital divide contributes to lower social mobility by
limiting access to the resources and opportunities necessary for socio-
economic advancement.
* Inequality in Access to Opportunities: Individuals without access to
technology face barriers in education, employment, and healthcare,
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making it harder to break the cycle of poverty. They miss out on
scholarships, job postings, networking opportunities, and government
services that are increasingly provided online.
* Perpetuation of Poverty: Without access to technology and digital skills,
low-income families remain trapped in a cycle of poverty. The inability to
access better education and job opportunities results in continued
financial struggles for future generations.
6-Civic Engagement and Political Participation: The digital divide also
has socio-economic consequences for civic engagement, as it limits
access to political information and participation.
* Limited Access to Information: People without internet access miss out
on important political news, government services, and opportunities to
engage in civic activities. This limits their ability to participate in decision-
making processes that affect their socio-economic conditions.
* Disenfranchisement: Digital access is becoming increasingly important
for voter registration, staying informed about policies, and engaging in
political discourse. People who lack access are often excluded from
these processes, weakening their voice in the political sphere and
reducing their ability to advocate for policies that could improve their
socio-economic standing.
7-Social Inequality and Exclusion: The digital divide deepens social
inequality and exclusion, reinforcing existing socio-economic disparities.
* Social Isolation: Individuals without access to digital tools and platforms
may become socially isolated, especially in an increasingly digital world.
This can be especially true for older adults or people living in rural areas,
affecting their mental well-being and social inclusion.
* Cultural Exclusion: The inability to participate in digital spaces, such as
social media or online communities, can marginalize certain groups and
limit their participation in cultural and social discussions. This creates a
divide not only in socio-economic status but also in social integration and
community participation.
* Generational Divide: Older generations, particularly those with lower
incomes, are often more affected by the digital divide, making it harder for
them to access information, stay connected with family, and engage in
modern services. This further contributes to intergenerational socio-
economic inequality.
Conclusion: The digital divide creates and exacerbates socio-economic
inequalities by limiting access to critical resources and opportunities in
education, employment, healthcare, and civic participation. It affects
individuals' ability to improve their socio-economic standing, perpetuating
cycles of poverty and limiting social mobility. Addressing the digital divide
is crucial for ensuring equitable socio-economic development and
fostering inclusion in an increasingly digital world.
Causes of Digital Divide
The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals,
households, or regions with access to digital technologies (like the
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internet and computers) and those without. It can be influenced by
several factors, which include:
1-Socioeconomic Factors
* Income Level: People with lower incomes often cannot afford internet
services, computers, or smartphones.
* Education: Lower levels of education can limit people's digital literacy,
affecting their ability to use technology effectively.
* Employment: Occupations with limited or no access to digital tools
further widen the divide.
2-Geographical Location
* Urban vs. Rural Divide: People in rural or remote areas often lack high-
speed internet infrastructure, while urban areas tend to have better
connectivity.
* Developed vs. Developing Countries: Developing nations may have
limited technological infrastructure, making internet access more
expensive or unavailable.
3-Age
* Generational Gaps: Older generations may have less experience with
digital technologies, making it harder for them to engage in the digital
world.
4-Gender: In some regions, cultural or societal norms may result in
women having less access to digital tools compared to men, further
widening the gender gap in the digital divide.
5-Infrastructure
* Broadband and Wireless Access: The availability of reliable and
affordable internet services, like broadband or mobile networks, varies
greatly across regions.
* Electricity: In areas where electricity is inconsistent or unavailable,
digital access is severely limited.
6-Government Policies
* Lack of Investment: Insufficient public investment in digital
infrastructure can lead to areas being underserved.
* Censorship and Regulations: In some countries, strict internet
regulations and censorship can limit access to global information and
digital resources.
7-Digital Literacy
* Skills Gap: Without the necessary skills to navigate the internet or use
digital devices, even those with access to technology might not be able to
fully participate in the digital world.
8-Cultural and Language Barriers
* Linguistic Differences: Much of the online content is in dominant
languages (e.g., English), limiting access for people who speak less
widely used languages.
* Cultural Norms: In some cultures, there may be a lack of interest or
trust in digital technologies.
9-Disabilities
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* Accessibility: People with disabilities may face additional challenges if
digital devices and platforms are not designed with accessibility features,
such as screen readers or alternative input methods.
10-Technological Obsolescence
* Outdated Equipment: Those who have access to technology but use
outdated devices may find it difficult to benefit from modern applications
and services, which can further increase the digital divide.
Conclusion: These factors contribute to the disparities in digital access,
creating significant implications for economic development, education,
healthcare, and social inclusion in both local and global contexts.
Measures to Minimize the Effects of Digital Divide
Reducing the effects of the digital divide requires addressing its
root causes while creating inclusive solutions that allow everyone to
benefit from digital technologies. Here are 15 actionable ways to reduce
the effects:
1-Promote Digital Literacy
* Training Programs: Implement widespread digital literacy programs,
targeting both youth and adults, to ensure people can use digital tools
effectively.
* School Initiatives: Integrate digital skills training into school curriculums
from early education to bridge generational knowledge gaps.
2-Provide Affordable Internet Access
* Subsidized Internet Plans: Work with internet service providers (ISPs) to
offer low-cost or subsidized internet plans for low-income households.
* Public Wi-Fi Hotspots: Expand free or low-cost public Wi-Fi hotspots in
community centers, parks, libraries, and transportation hubs.
3-Increase Access to Devices
* Device Donation Programs: Encourage device donation and
refurbishing programs to provide affordable or free laptops, smartphones,
and tablets to underserved populations.
* Government-Subsidized Devices: Launch government initiatives to
provide discounted or free devices for students and low-income families.
4-Support Remote Learning
* Hybrid Learning Models: Establish hybrid models of in-person and
online learning, ensuring that students with limited access to technology
can still participate.
* Educational Grants: Offer grants or scholarships for students to acquire
the necessary technology for remote learning.
5-Expand Infrastructure in Underserved Areas
* Broadband Expansion: Invest in broadband infrastructure in rural and
remote areas to ensure reliable, high-speed internet access.
* Community Networks: Support the creation of community-owned or
cooperative internet networks in areas where private ISPs are less willing
to invest.
6-Develop Mobile Solutions
* Mobile Data Programs: Promote the expansion of mobile data networks,
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especially 4G and 5G, to increase internet access through mobile devices
in underserved regions.
* Affordable Mobile Devices: Support the production and distribution of
affordable smartphones to enable greater access via mobile technology.
7-Enhance E-Government Services
* Accessible Digital Platforms: Make government services available
online, ensuring they are user-friendly and accessible even to those with
limited digital skills.
* Digital IDs and Services: Create digital identity systems that allow
citizens to access government services online without the need for in-
person visits.
8-Provide Technical Support
* Tech Support Hotlines: Establish free or low-cost tech support services
for people who are new to technology or struggling to use digital tools.
* Community Tech Hubs: Set up community technology hubs where
people can receive hands-on assistance and training with digital devices.
9-Promote Accessibility
* Design for All: Ensure that websites, apps, and devices are accessible to
people with disabilities by following inclusive design principles (e.g.,
screen readers, text-to-speech tools).
* Assistive Technologies: Fund and distribute assistive technology that
helps people with disabilities access and use digital services.
10-Reduce Data Costs
* Zero-Rated Services: Encourage ISPs to offer zero-rated services,
allowing users to access essential websites (education, healthcare,
government) without using up data.
* Community Data Sharing: Support community data-sharing programs
where pooled resources provide internet access to those who can’t afford
it individually.
11-Promote Digital Inclusion for Marginalized Groups
* Gender-Inclusive Programs: Design and promote programs to enhance
digital literacy and access for women and girls in regions where they face
additional barriers.
* Ethnic and Linguistic Inclusivity: Offer digital content in local languages
and create culturally relevant platforms to increase engagement among
marginalized ethnic communities.
12-Encourage Public-Private Partnerships
* Collaborative Projects: Foster partnerships between governments,
NGOs, and the private sector to fund and develop initiatives that close the
digital gap.
* Corporate Social Responsibility: Encourage tech companies to develop
initiatives as part of their corporate social responsibility efforts aimed at
increasing digital inclusion.
13-Strengthen Cybersecurity Awareness
* Security Training: Provide training on cybersecurity, especially for older
adults and vulnerable populations, to ensure they can use the internet
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safely.
* Trust in Technology: Promote public awareness campaigns to build
trust in technology, emphasizing safe and secure online practices.
14-Create Inclusive Job Opportunities
* Remote Work Access: Promote digital skills development to enable
people in underserved areas to access remote job opportunities that rely
on technology.
* Tech Apprenticeships: Create apprenticeships and internships in the
tech sector to give low-income or rural populations access to digital
career paths.
15-Advocate for Policy and Legal Frameworks
* Pro-Digital Policies: Push for government policies that mandate
affordable internet access and infrastructure development in underserved
areas.
* Regulatory Frameworks: Advocate for legal frameworks that protect
users' digital rights, ensuring they can access online resources without
discrimination or barriers.
Conclusion: By implementing these strategies, the effects of the digital
divide can be significantly reduced, allowing more people to access the
educational, economic, and social benefits of digital connectivity.

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CHAPTER NO. 8

DIVERSITY, INCLUSION AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

Diversity and Inclusion

Diversity and Inclusion refer to the principles and practices that
aim to create a workplace or community that values and incorporates a
wide range of human differences. Diversity encompasses the presence of
various identities, including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender,
sexual orientation, age, religion, disability, socioeconomic status, and
cultural background. It recognizes that individuals come from different
backgrounds and experiences, which shape their perspectives and
contributions. Embracing diversity means actively acknowledging these
differences and fostering an environment where everyone feels
represented and valued.
Inclusion, on the other hand, focuses on the practices and policies that
ensure all individuals feel welcomed, respected, and empowered to
participate fully in an organization or community. It involves creating an
atmosphere where diverse voices are not only heard but actively sought
out and integrated into decision-making processes. Inclusion goes
beyond mere representation; it requires cultivating a culture of belonging
where individuals can express their authentic selves without fear of
discrimination or exclusion. Together, diversity and inclusion enhance
creativity, innovation, and problem-solving by bringing together varied
viewpoints and experiences, ultimately leading to more equitable and
effective organizations.
Diversity in society: refers to the variety of distinct identities,
backgrounds, and perspectives present within a community or population.
This includes differences in race, ethnicity, culture, language, religion,
gender, sexual orientation, age, socioeconomic status, and abilities. The
presence of such diversity enriches social interactions and contributes to
a more vibrant and dynamic community. It allows for a multitude of
viewpoints and experiences, fostering creativity, innovation, and a deeper
understanding of complex social issues.
Moreover, embracing diversity in society promotes social
cohesion and mutual respect among different groups. It encourages
dialogue and collaboration, helping to break down stereotypes and
prejudices. By recognizing and valuing the contributions of diverse
individuals, societies can work towards greater equity and inclusion,
leading to enhanced community well-being. Ultimately, a diverse society
is better equipped to address challenges, celebrate cultural richness, and
create opportunities for all its members to thrive.
Different Shapes of Diversity
Diversity can be understood through various dimensions or
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"shapes," each representing different aspects of human identity and
experience. Here are some key shapes of diversity:
1-Cultural Diversity: Encompasses the variety of cultural identities within
a society, including customs, traditions, languages, and artistic
expressions. It highlights how different cultural backgrounds influence
perspectives and practices.
2-Racial and Ethnic Diversity: Refers to the representation of different
racial and ethnic groups within a community or organization. This shape
emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing the unique
experiences and histories of various racial and ethnic populations.
3-Gender Diversity: Involves the representation and inclusion of different
genders, including male, female, and non-binary identities. Gender
diversity promotes equity in opportunities and challenges traditional
gender norms.
4-Age Diversity: Reflects the inclusion of individuals from different age
groups, including children, young adults, middle-aged individuals, and
seniors. This diversity brings varied perspectives and experiences based
on generational differences.
5-Ability Diversity: Involves the inclusion of individuals with varying
physical, cognitive, and sensory abilities. It emphasizes the need for
accessibility and accommodations to ensure everyone can participate
fully in society.
6-Socioeconomic Diversity: Refers to the representation of individuals
from different socioeconomic backgrounds, including varying levels of
income, education, and occupation. This diversity highlights the impact of
economic status on opportunities and experiences.
7-Religious Diversity: Involves the presence of various religious beliefs
and practices within a community. Recognizing religious diversity fosters
tolerance and understanding among different faith groups.
8-Intellectual Diversity: Reflects the inclusion of different thought
processes, problem-solving approaches, and intellectual backgrounds.
This diversity encourages innovation and creativity by valuing varied
perspectives in decision-making.
9-Geographical Diversity: Represents the differences in people based on
their geographic locations, such as urban versus rural settings or regional
cultures. This shape acknowledges how location influences experiences
and viewpoints.
Each of these shapes of diversity plays a crucial role in creating a
more inclusive society, enhancing collaboration, and driving innovation by
bringing together a wide range of perspectives and experiences.
Salient Features of Diversity in the Society
1-Cultural Variety: Different cultures coexist, bringing unique traditions,
customs, and values.
2-Ethnic Diversity: A mix of ethnic groups contributes to a rich tapestry of
identities and experiences.
3-Religious Pluralism: Multiple faiths and belief systems exist, fostering
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dialogue and understanding.
4-Language Diversity: A range of languages spoken enhances
communication and cultural exchange.
5-Social Class Differences: Varied socioeconomic backgrounds influence
perspectives and opportunities.
6-Gender Diversity: Recognition and representation of different gender
identities and expressions.
7-Age Diversity: Different age groups contribute unique insights and
experiences.
8-Disability Representation: Inclusion of people with disabilities promotes
accessibility and awareness.
9-Geographical Variation: Urban and rural differences in lifestyles,
resources, and challenges.
10-Political Beliefs: A spectrum of political ideologies encourages debate
and democratic engagement.
11-Historical Context: Different historical experiences shape identities
and societal roles.
12-Innovation and Creativity: Diverse perspectives lead to greater
creativity and problem-solving.
13-Economic Contributions: Varied backgrounds can enhance economic
productivity and growth.
14-Social Cohesion and Tension: Diversity can promote unity through
shared goals, but may also lead to conflict if not managed well.
These features highlight the complexity and richness of societal
diversity, illustrating both its potential benefits and challenges.
Diversity in Pakistani Society & Culture
Diversity in Pakistani society and culture is characterized by a rich
tapestry of ethnicities, languages, religions, and traditions. Here are 18
points highlighting this diversity:
1-Ethnic Diversity: Pakistan is home to numerous ethnic groups, including
Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns, Baloch, Muhajirs, and others, each with
distinct cultural identities and traditions.
2-Linguistic Variety: Over 70 languages are spoken in Pakistan, with Urdu
being the national language, while Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, and
English are also widely spoken.
3-Religious Pluralism: While Islam is the dominant religion, Pakistan also
has minority communities, including Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, and others,
contributing to the country’s religious diversity.
4-Cultural Traditions: Each ethnic group has its own cultural practices,
rituals, and festivals, reflecting unique historical and social contexts, such
as Basant (spring festival) in Punjab and Sindhi festivals.
5-Cuisine Diversity: Pakistani cuisine varies significantly across regions,
featuring dishes like biryani, karahi, nihari, and various types of bread,
showcasing local ingredients and cooking styles.
6-Traditional Clothing: Traditional dress varies by region, with Punjabis
often wearing shalwar kameez, Sindhis donning ajrak, and Baloch people
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wearing distinctive embroidered garments.
7-Festivals and Celebrations: Major religious and cultural festivals like
Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, Diwali, Christmas, and Basant highlight the diverse
cultural fabric of the country.
8-Art and Crafts: Pakistan boasts rich artistic traditions, including
intricate truck art, pottery, textiles, and traditional crafts, reflecting the
skills and creativity of various communities.
9-Music and Dance: Music genres such as qawwali, ghazal, folk, and
classical music are integral to Pakistani culture, with each region
contributing its unique styles and instruments.
10-Literary Heritage: Pakistan has a rich literary tradition, with poets like
Allama Iqbal and Faiz Ahmed Faiz reflecting diverse cultural and
philosophical influences through their works.
11-Historical Influences: The historical influences of various civilizations,
including the Indus Valley Civilization, Persian, Mughal, and British
Empires, have shaped the cultural landscape of Pakistan.
12-Geographical Diversity: The country’s diverse geography, ranging from
mountains to deserts, impacts local lifestyles, agriculture, and traditions,
fostering regional identities.
13-Social Structure: Different communities have distinct social structures,
customs, and practices, influencing family dynamics, marriage rituals, and
community interactions.
14-Religious Practices: Various sects within Islam, such as Sunni and
Shia, as well as different interpretations, contribute to the religious
diversity and practices observed in the country.
15-Urban vs. Rural Dynamics: There are significant cultural differences
between urban centers like Karachi and Lahore, and rural areas, affecting
lifestyles, education, and economic opportunities.
16-Gender Roles: Diverse gender roles and expectations exist across
different communities, influencing women's participation in education,
employment, and public life.
17-Sports and Recreation: Popular sports like cricket, field hockey, and
traditional wrestling reflect regional preferences and cultural significance,
bringing people together in celebration.
18-Civic Participation: Diverse communities engage in various forms of
civic participation, influencing local governance, political representation,
and advocacy for rights and resources.
Conclusion: These points illustrate the complexity and richness of
diversity in Pakistani society and culture, reflecting a vibrant mix of
identities that contribute to the nation's unique character.

SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Development refers to the process of growth, progress, and positive
transformation in various aspects of society, economy, and human well-
being. It involves improvements in infrastructure, education, healthcare,
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governance, and living standards, aiming to enhance the quality of life for
individuals and communities. Economic development is often measured
through increases in income, industrialization, and job opportunities,
which help reduce poverty and create wealth. Social development focuses
on equitable access to resources, education, gender equality, and
healthcare, fostering social inclusion and reducing inequalities. Political
development ensures the establishment of fair governance, democratic
institutions, and the protection of human rights. Sustainable development,
a more recent focus, emphasizes growth that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs, balancing economic progress with environmental
protection. Technological advancements, innovation, and globalization
are key drivers of development, enabling societies to adapt and compete
in a rapidly changing world. However, development is not uniform; it
varies across regions and can be influenced by political, cultural, and
geographic factors. Challenges such as corruption, inequality, and
environmental degradation can impede development, while good
governance, education, and investment can accelerate it. Ultimately,
development is a multidimensional and dynamic process aimed at
creating a more prosperous, just, and sustainable world.
Definitions
1-Karl Marx: "Development is the movement towards the realization of
human potential."
2-Joseph Schumpeter: "Development is the process of carrying out new
combinations, including innovation and technological advancement."
3-Walter Rodney: "Development in human society is a many-sided
process. It implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom,
creativity, self-discipline, responsibility, and material well-being."
These definitions reflect different perspectives on development,
ranging from economic progress to social and moral growth, freedom,
and human potential.
Important Indicators of Social Development
Indicators of social development reflect the progress and well-
being of a society, particularly in terms of quality of life, equity, and social
inclusion. Here are 18 key indicators of social development:
1-Life Expectancy: Measures the average number of years a person is
expected to live, reflecting the overall health and quality of healthcare in a
society.
2-Literacy Rate: The percentage of people who can read and write,
indicating the level of access to education and educational quality.
3-Education Enrollment Rates: The proportion of children and young
adults enrolled in primary, secondary, and tertiary education, reflecting
access to educational opportunities.
4-Infant Mortality Rate: The number of deaths of infants under one year
of age per 1,000 live births, indicating the quality of maternal and child
healthcare services.
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5-Gender Equality: Measured by indicators such as the gender wage gap,
representation in leadership positions, and equal access to education,
reflecting the status of women and gender equity in society.
6-Access to Clean Water and Sanitation: The percentage of the
population with reliable access to safe drinking water and sanitation
facilities, indicating living standards and public health infrastructure.
7-Poverty Rate: The percentage of people living below the poverty line,
reflecting the economic disparity and social safety nets available in
society.
8-Employment Rate: The proportion of the working-age population that is
employed, indicating economic participation and opportunities for
livelihood.
9-Housing Quality: Indicators of adequate housing conditions, including
access to safe and affordable housing, proper sanitation, and electricity.
10-Crime Rate: The level of crime and violence in society, reflecting social
stability, law enforcement, and the overall safety of citizens.
11-Access to Healthcare: The availability and quality of healthcare
services, measured by healthcare coverage, doctor-to-patient ratios, and
access to essential medications.
12-Social Inclusion: The degree to which marginalized or disadvantaged
groups, such as ethnic minorities, disabled individuals, and LGBTQ+
populations, are integrated and treated equally in society.
13-Income Inequality: Measures the distribution of income across the
population, with lower inequality indicating more equitable economic
development.
14-Child Malnutrition Rates: The prevalence of underweight, stunted, or
malnourished children, indicating the nutritional status and food security
in society.
15-Access to Social Services: Availability of government-provided social
services such as pensions, unemployment benefits, and welfare
programs for vulnerable populations.
16-Political Participation: Indicators such as voter turnout, representation
in government, and civic engagement, reflecting democratic processes
and citizen involvement in governance.
17-Environmental Sustainability: The level of environmental preservation
and sustainable use of natural resources, which affects the long-term
health and well-being of the population.
18-Cultural Participation: Access to and engagement in cultural activities,
including arts, music, and heritage, reflecting the enrichment of social and
cultural life.
These indicators together provide a comprehensive understanding
of a society's social development, highlighting the quality of life, equity,
and the extent to which all members of society can participate and
benefit from progress.
Role of Youth, Women and Minorities in Social Development
i. Role of Youth in Social Development
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The role of youth in social development is both dynamic and
transformative, as they are key agents of change, innovation, and
progress. Their contributions span across various dimensions of society,
from political activism and economic development to social reform and
environmental sustainability. Here’s an outline of how youth play a pivotal
role in social development:
1-Agents of Change and Advocacy: Youth are often at the forefront of
social movements, advocating for justice, equality, and human rights.
Whether its climate change, gender equality, or racial justice, young
people push for societal reforms and challenge the status quo.
Youth-led organizations and initiatives bring attention to pressing
issues, inspiring broader community engagement and policy changes.
2-Innovation and Entrepreneurship: With access to technology and new
ideas, youth bring creativity and innovation to the economy and society.
They drive entrepreneurship, creating startups and new businesses that
address societal needs, promote job creation, and foster economic
growth.
Young innovators are also at the heart of technological
advancements, shaping the future of industries like tech, healthcare, and
education.
3-Political Participation and Leadership: Youth engagement in politics,
whether through voting, participating in civil society, or running for public
office, is crucial for ensuring that policies reflect the needs and
aspirations of future generations.
By taking active roles in decision-making, youth advocate for
inclusive policies, social justice, and reforms that prioritize education,
healthcare, and employment opportunities.
4-Education and Skill Development: Education is a key driver of social
development, and youth participation in learning, skill-building, and
innovation leads to a more knowledgeable, skilled workforce. By
prioritizing education, young people contribute to the overall intellectual
and economic growth of a society.
Educated youth also serve as role models and mentors, helping to
uplift and empower younger generations.
5-Volunteering and Community Service: Many young people actively
engage in volunteerism, contributing to the welfare of their communities
through social work, environmental conservation, and humanitarian
efforts.
Youth involvement in community service fosters social cohesion,
builds empathy, and helps address local challenges such as poverty,
inequality, and environmental degradation.
6-Promoting Social Inclusion: Youth often work to break down barriers
related to gender, race, religion, and class, promoting a more inclusive
society. By embracing diversity and advocating for equal opportunities,
young people help build a more just and equitable world.
Through cultural exchanges, social media activism, and
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grassroots organizing, they work toward dismantling stereotypes and
promoting understanding among different social groups.
7-Environmental Sustainability: Youth are key advocates for
environmental protection and sustainability. They actively participate in
movements aimed at combating climate change, conserving natural
resources, and promoting sustainable development practices.
Young environmental activists play a crucial role in raising
awareness about the long-term impacts of environmental degradation
and pushing governments and corporations to take responsibility for
protecting the planet.
8-Economic Growth and Employment: As future workers and
entrepreneurs, youth are central to economic development. Their entry
into the labor force fuels economic growth, while their entrepreneurial
ventures drive innovation and create new employment opportunities.
By focusing on skill development and vocational training, youth
contribute to building a competitive and dynamic economy.
Conclusion: The youth play a critical role in shaping the present and
future of society. Through their energy, innovation, and commitment to
justice and sustainability, they drive social development forward, ensuring
progress in governance, economy, environment, and culture. Investing in
youth empowerment is essential for achieving long-term, sustainable
development across the world.

ii. Role of Women in Social Development

The role of women in social development is fundamental and
transformative. Women contribute significantly to the progress of
societies through their participation in various sectors, ranging from
education and healthcare to governance and the economy. Empowering
women leads to more equitable, prosperous, and stable societies. Below
are the key ways in which women contribute to social development:
1-Economic Growth and Workforce Participation: Women's involvement
in the labor force is crucial for economic development. As workers,
entrepreneurs, and business leaders, women contribute to increased
productivity, innovation, and economic growth.
Research shows that when women are economically empowered,
household incomes rise, poverty declines, and overall national
productivity improves.
2-Leadership and Governance: Women in leadership roles in politics,
government, and civil society are vital for shaping policies that address
social welfare, education, healthcare, and gender equality.
Women leaders often advocate for inclusive and equitable policies,
ensuring that the needs of marginalized and vulnerable groups, including
children and minorities, are met.
3-Promoting Gender Equality: Women play a central role in advocating for
gender equality, fighting against discriminatory practices, and ensuring
that women have equal access to education, employment, healthcare, and
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political representation.
Through activism and leadership, women challenge societal
norms that restrict their participation and promote legal reforms that
enhance women's rights.
4-Education and Skill Development: Educated women contribute
significantly to societal development. They are more likely to invest in the
education and well-being of their children, leading to improved social
outcomes for future generations.
Women's access to education enhances their ability to participate
in the workforce and leadership roles, contributing to social and
economic progress.
5-Healthcare and Family Welfare: Women, particularly as caregivers, play
a key role in maintaining family health and well-being. Their knowledge of
health and nutrition often leads to better child-rearing practices, improved
infant health, and reduced child mortality.
Women's involvement in healthcare professions also contributes
to the development of health systems, improving access to healthcare
services and promoting public health.
6-Social Cohesion and Community Building: Women are often the glue
that holds communities together, playing key roles in social cohesion,
conflict resolution, and peacebuilding.
Through their participation in local and community organizations,
women contribute to the resolution of conflicts and the promotion of
unity and cooperation within diverse communities.
7-Advocacy for Human Rights: Women are at the forefront of advocating
for human rights, including reproductive rights, domestic violence laws,
and rights for marginalized groups. Women's rights movements have led
to critical changes in social policies, enhancing protection and
opportunities for all citizens.
Through activism, women promote greater social justice, equality,
and human dignity in society.
8-Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Women entrepreneurs drive
innovation and create employment opportunities, particularly in industries
such as agriculture, textiles, and technology. Their participation in
business not only boosts the economy but also promotes sustainable
development by introducing environmentally friendly and socially
responsible practices.
9-Social Services and Volunteering: Women contribute to the
development of social services by working in education, healthcare, and
social work. Their roles in these sectors help address critical social
challenges, such as poverty alleviation, elder care, and mental health
support.
As volunteers, women often engage in charitable work,
contributing to community development and helping to uplift vulnerable
populations.
10-Empowerment of Future Generations: Women play a vital role in
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shaping future generations through their influence as mothers, teachers,
and mentors. Their empowerment leads to positive outcomes in child
development, family well-being, and social values.
Educated and empowered women are more likely to raise children
who are healthier, better educated, and more socially conscious,
contributing to long-term social development.
11-Peace and Conflict Resolution: Women are active participants in
peacebuilding efforts and post-conflict reconstruction. Their involvement
in peace processes has been shown to result in more durable and
inclusive peace agreements.
Women's participation in decision-making in conflict situations
ensures that the perspectives and needs of all members of society are
considered.
12-Cultural Preservation and Innovation: Women play an important role in
preserving cultural heritage through storytelling, arts, and traditional
practices. At the same time, they contribute to cultural innovation by
challenging outdated customs and introducing progressive social norms.
13-Sustainable Development: Women are key advocates for sustainable
development, particularly in sectors like agriculture, where they manage
resources and promote environmentally friendly practices.
Women's leadership in sustainable development initiatives
contributes to the fight against climate change and the promotion of
environmental conservation.
Conclusion: Women’s involvement in social development is essential for
creating inclusive, equitable, and prosperous societies. Empowering
women not only benefits them individually but also has a profound impact
on families, communities, and entire nations, driving progress in
economic growth, social justice, health, education, and sustainability.

iii. Role of Minorities in Social Development

The role of minorities in social development is vital as they
contribute to the cultural, social, and economic fabric of society. Their
participation and inclusion lead to a more diverse, equitable, and just
social order. By bringing unique perspectives and experiences, minorities
help foster innovation, challenge social inequalities, and promote cultural
richness. Here’s a detailed look at how minorities contribute to social
development:
1-Cultural Diversity and Enrichment: Minorities bring unique traditions,
languages, and cultural practices, enriching the social fabric of a society.
This diversity promotes understanding and tolerance, fostering social
cohesion.
Through festivals, art, music, and culinary traditions, minority
groups contribute to the cultural vibrancy and dynamism of their
communities.
2-Economic Contributions: Minority groups often play significant roles in
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local economies, contributing through entrepreneurship, innovation, and
workforce participation. By starting businesses and creating jobs, they
help reduce unemployment, stimulate economic growth, and contribute to
the overall prosperity of society.
3-Innovation and Creativity: The distinct experiences and perspectives of
minorities often lead to creativity and innovation in various fields,
including arts, technology, and business. This diversity of thought drives
social and economic development.
Minorities in academia, science, and industry have been known to
contribute groundbreaking ideas and solutions that benefit society at
large.
4-Challenging Social Inequalities: Minorities often face systemic
challenges and discrimination, making their advocacy for equal rights and
social justice crucial to societal progress. Their struggles and movements
for civil rights, anti-discrimination laws, and equitable access to resources
play a pivotal role in shaping fairer social policies and promoting
inclusivity.
5-Promoting Social Inclusion: The active participation of minorities in
public life ensures that diverse voices are represented in decision-making
processes, leading to more inclusive governance. By advocating for their
own rights, minorities also push for policies that benefit other
marginalized groups, creating a more inclusive society for all.
6-Educational Impact: Many minorities place a strong emphasis on
education as a means of empowerment. By excelling in education and
contributing to academic research, minorities enhance social
development by bringing new knowledge, perspectives, and innovations.
Minority educators and scholars also play a key role in promoting
intercultural understanding and social harmony.
7-Political Participation: Minority groups actively participate in political
processes, advocating for laws and policies that address their specific
needs and contribute to the overall well-being of society. Their
involvement in politics ensures that governments are more representative
and democratic, fostering accountability and equality in governance.
8-Social Justice and Human Rights: Minority groups often lead
movements that advocate for human rights and equality. Their efforts in
combating racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination are key to
fostering social justice.
Through legal activism, community organizing, and participation in
international forums, they contribute to global efforts toward human
rights and dignity.
9-Community Building and Social Solidarity: Minority communities often
have strong social bonds and networks that contribute to community
resilience and support. These networks help in times of economic
hardship or social crises, fostering mutual aid and social solidarity.
Their models of community organization can inspire broader
societal efforts in areas such as poverty alleviation, education, and
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healthcare.
10-Peacebuilding and Conflict Resolution: Minorities often play key roles
in peacebuilding efforts, especially in regions affected by conflict. Their
participation in dialogue and reconciliation processes helps to heal
divided societies and foster long-term peace.
By promoting tolerance and understanding across cultural or
ethnic lines, they contribute to a more peaceful and harmonious social
environment.
11-Advocacy for Environmental Sustainability: Indigenous and minority
groups often have strong connections to the environment, advocating for
sustainable development practices that protect natural resources. They
play crucial roles in movements against environmental degradation,
climate change, and land rights, promoting practices that benefit society
and the planet.
12-Strengthening Democratic Institutions: By advocating for their rights,
minorities strengthen democratic processes and institutions, pushing for
equal representation, the rule of law, and protection against abuses.
Their activism promotes greater civic engagement, contributing to
a more participatory and responsive political system.
13-Bridging Gaps and Promoting Intercultural Dialogue: Minorities often
serve as bridges between different cultural or ethnic groups, promoting
dialogue and understanding. This intercultural interaction fosters peace,
reduces stereotypes, and promotes mutual respect.
Through intercultural dialogue, they contribute to breaking down
social barriers and building inclusive communities.
14-Contributions to Healthcare and Social Services: Minority healthcare
professionals and social workers often play key roles in providing
services to underserved or marginalized populations. Their cultural
competence helps address health disparities and improve outcomes for
diverse communities.
Many minority groups establish community-based healthcare
initiatives, which provide vital services and fill gaps in mainstream
healthcare systems.
15-Legal and Humanitarian Advocacy: Minority leaders and organizations
are frequently involved in legal battles that set important precedents for
civil rights and social justice. Their efforts in court cases and international
advocacy influence legal reforms and human rights protections,
improving the social framework for all citizens.
16-Religious and Spiritual Contributions: Religious minorities contribute
to the spiritual diversity of societies, promoting values of peace, tolerance,
and compassion. Their religious institutions often play key roles in
providing social services, education, and charitable activities.
By promoting interfaith dialogue, religious minorities help to
create understanding and respect between different faith groups.
17-Combatting Marginalization and Exclusion: Minorities often organize
and lead campaigns that tackle systemic exclusion, whether in education,
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employment, or social services. Their activism creates pathways for
greater inclusion of all marginalized communities.
These efforts lead to changes in policies that make social
services more accessible, benefitting the entire population.
18-Fostering Resilience and Innovation: Minority groups, through their
perseverance in the face of adversity, often develop innovative solutions
to social and economic challenges. Their resilience strengthens
communities and fosters the development of adaptive strategies for
social progress.
These innovations can lead to new approaches to solving
common social issues like poverty, inequality, and access to resources.
Conclusion: Minorities play a central role in social development,
contributing to cultural enrichment, economic growth, political reform,
social justice, and innovation. Their inclusion in all aspects of society not
only enhances the richness of the social fabric but also strengthens
democracy, promotes peace, and ensures a more equitable and
prosperous society for all.

SOCIAL INEQUALITY & INJUSTICE IN PAKISTAN

Social Inequality
Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources,
opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups in society. It
manifests across dimensions such as income, wealth, education,
healthcare, and access to power, often resulting from systemic factors
like discrimination, institutional biases, and historical legacies. Economic
inequality, for instance, leads to a concentration of wealth in the hands of
a few, leaving many in cycles of poverty with limited opportunities for
upward mobility. Gender inequality results in unequal treatment and
opportunities for men and women, particularly in pay, professional roles,
and leadership positions. Racial and ethnic inequality, often rooted in
historical discrimination, marginalizes minority groups in access to
housing, education, and employment. Social inequality also affects other
groups, including those with disabilities or non-heteronormative identities.
The consequences of social inequality are widespread, including
increased crime rates, social unrest, and weakened trust in institutions. It
also hampers economic growth by limiting the potential of disadvantaged
groups. Addressing social inequality requires systemic change, including
policies that promote wealth redistribution, equitable access to services,
and the dismantling of discriminatory practices, making societies more
just and inclusive.
Definitions
1-Rousseau: “There are two kinds of inequality in the human species:
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one, which I call natural or physical, because it is established by nature,
and consists in differences of age, health, bodily strength, and the
qualities of the mind or of the soul; the other, which may be called moral
or political inequality, because it depends on a kind of convention and is
established, or at least authorized, by the consent of men.”
2-Karl Marx: “In a higher phase of communist society, after the enslaving
subordination of the individual to the division of labor, and thereby also
the antithesis between mental and physical labor, has vanished; after
labor has become not only a means of life but life’s prime want; after the
productive forces have also increased with the all-round development of
the individual, and all the springs of co-operative wealth flow more
abundantly—only then can the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be
crossed in its entirety and society inscribe on its banners: from each
according to his ability, to each according to his needs!”
Salient Features of Social Inequality
The salient features of social inequality highlight its multi-
dimensional and pervasive nature, shaping various aspects of individuals’
lives and the broader societal structure. These key features include:
1-Unequal Distribution of Resources: Social inequality is primarily
characterized by an unequal distribution of wealth, income, opportunities,
and resources such as education, healthcare, and housing. Certain
individuals or groups enjoy more privileges and access to resources than
others, often based on class, race, gender, or other social factors.
2-Stratification: Society is divided into hierarchical layers or strata based
on factors like economic status, occupation, education, and power. These
layers create distinct social classes, such as the upper class, middle class,
and lower class, each with different access to resources and life
opportunities.
3-Institutionalized and Systemic: Social inequality is often embedded
within societal institutions, including legal, political, economic, and
educational systems. Institutional biases, such as racism, sexism, and
classism, reinforce and perpetuate inequality through policies, practices,
and laws that favor certain groups over others.
4-Intergenerational Transmission: Inequality tends to be passed down
through generations, with the advantages or disadvantages of one’s
socioeconomic status often determining the opportunities available to
the next generation. This results in limited social mobility, where people
find it difficult to move out of the social class they are born into.
5-Multiple Dimensions: Social inequality is not limited to just economic
disparities but encompasses various dimensions, including:
(i)-Economic Inequality: Unequal distribution of wealth and income.
(ii)-Gender Inequality: Unequal treatment based on gender, affecting
access to opportunities, pay, and social roles.
(iii)-Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Discrimination and marginalization of
certain racial or ethnic groups.
(iv)-Educational Inequality: Disparities in access to quality education,
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which impact future employment and income opportunities.
(v)-Health Inequality: Unequal access to healthcare and differences in
health outcomes based on socioeconomic status, race, or geography.
6-Power and Privilege: Social inequality is deeply linked to unequal power
relations, where certain groups have more control over political, economic,
and social institutions. Those in privileged positions can influence
decisions and structures to maintain their dominance, often perpetuating
inequality.
7-Social Exclusion: Marginalized groups, such as racial minorities,
women, people with disabilities, often face social exclusion. This
exclusion manifests in reduced participation in political, economic, and
cultural life, further deepening their inequality.
8-Cultural Legitimization: Inequality is often legitimized through cultural
norms, values, and ideologies that justify the hierarchical structure. For
example, meritocracy the belief that success is based on individual effort
can obscure structural barriers that perpetuate inequality.
9-Cumulative Disadvantages: Social inequality often creates a cycle of
cumulative disadvantages, where multiple forms of inequality (e.g., lack
of education, poor health, low income) interact and reinforce each other,
making it difficult for individuals to break out of poverty or
marginalization.
10-Global Dimension: Social inequality exists not only within nations but
also between countries. Global inequality highlights the vast disparities in
wealth, education, and access to basic needs between developed and
developing nations, often perpetuated by global economic systems and
historical exploitation.
11-Conflict and Social Tensions: Social inequality can lead to social
conflict, as disadvantaged groups may resist and challenge the status
quo. It often manifests in social movements, protests, or civil unrest as
marginalized groups demand equal rights, opportunities, and access to
resources.
12-Impact on Social Cohesion: High levels of social inequality can
undermine social cohesion, leading to fragmentation, distrust in
institutions, and reduced solidarity among members of society. It often
contributes to higher crime rates, political instability, and a decline in civic
engagement.
Conclusion: By understanding these features, it becomes clear that social
inequality is a complex and systemic issue, affecting various aspects of
life and requiring comprehensive measures to address it effectively.
Measurement of Social Inequality
Measuring social inequality involves analyzing the distribution of
resources, opportunities, and privileges across different segments of
society. Various methods and indices are used to assess social inequality
across dimensions such as income, wealth, education, healthcare, and
social mobility. Here are some of the most common approaches:
1-Income and Wealth Inequality
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* Gini Coefficient: The Gini coefficient is the most widely used measure
of income inequality. It ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum
inequality), where a higher number indicates a greater disparity in income
distribution.
* Lorenz Curve: This graphical representation shows the distribution of
income or wealth, with the x-axis representing the cumulative percentage
of the population and the y-axis representing the cumulative percentage
of income or wealth. The further the curve deviates from the line of
equality, the greater the inequality.
* Palma Ratio: This measure compares the share of income of the richest
10% of the population to the poorest 40%, focusing on the extremes of
income distribution.
* Top 1% or 10% Income Share: This indicator tracks the proportion of
total income held by the wealthiest 1% or 10% of the population.
2-Educational Inequality
* Access and Completion Rates: Educational inequality can be measured
by tracking differences in enrollment, completion rates, and access to
quality education across social classes, genders, and ethnic groups.
* PISA Scores: The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)
tests 15-year-olds worldwide and provides insights into the disparities in
educational outcomes across countries and social groups.
* Literacy Rates: Differences in literacy rates between various
demographics (such as gender, region, or socioeconomic background)
provide another measure of educational inequality.
3. Health Inequality
* Life Expectancy and Mortality Rates: Disparities in life expectancy,
infant mortality, and maternal mortality rates between different
socioeconomic or ethnic groups reflect health inequality.
* Access to Healthcare: This is measured by looking at the availability
and quality of healthcare services, as well as differences in outcomes like
disease prevalence and recovery rates.
* Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs): DALYs measure the total
number of years lost due to illness, disability, or premature death,
highlighting the health disparities in different populations.
4-Social Mobility
* Intergenerational Income Elasticity (IGE): This measures the extent to
which income or social status is passed from one generation to the next.
A high IGE indicates low social mobility, meaning that individuals’ income
levels are highly dependent on their parents' income.
* Educational Mobility: Differences in the ability of children from different
socioeconomic backgrounds to access higher education can be tracked
to assess social mobility.
* Occupation Mobility: Examines how easily people can move between
occupational classes, reflecting broader societal openness to upward
mobility.
5-Gender Inequality
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* Gender Pay Gap: This measures the difference in earnings between
men and women, reflecting unequal opportunities in the labor market.
* Global Gender Gap Index: Published by the World Economic Forum, this
index measures gender inequality in terms of economic participation,
educational attainment, health, and political empowerment.
* Female Labor Force Participation Rate: The difference in the rate at
which men and women participate in the labor force reflects gender
inequality in employment.
6-Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): This index measures poverty by
considering various deprivations across education, health, and living
standards, providing a broader understanding of inequality beyond just
income.
7-Social Exclusion Indicators
* Marginalization: The degree to which certain groups (e.g., racial
minorities, the disabled, or individuals) are excluded from social, political,
or economic participation can be measured through surveys and
participation rates.
* Human Development Index (HDI): While primarily an indicator of overall
development, HDI also highlights inequality in health, education, and living
standards between different countries and regions.
8-Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI): This is a
modification of the HDI, factoring in inequalities in income, education, and
life expectancy. It adjusts the HDI downwards based on the level of
inequality within a country.
Conclusion: These measures help policymakers and researchers
understand the extent and nature of social inequality, allowing for
targeted interventions to reduce disparities in society.
Remedies to Reduce Social Inequality & Social Injustice
Reducing social inequality requires a comprehensive, multi-
dimensional approach that addresses its root causes and manifestations.
Solutions need to be implemented at the individual, institutional, and
systemic levels to create lasting change. Here are several strategies that
can help reduce social inequality:
1-Progressive Taxation and Wealth Redistribution
* Progressive Tax Policies: Implementing progressive taxation, where
higher earners pay a greater percentage of their income in taxes, helps
redistribute wealth and fund social programs. This reduces the wealth
gap by ensuring that those with more resources contribute proportionally
to societal well-being.
* Wealth Taxes: Taxes on inheritance, property, and capital gains can
prevent the accumulation of extreme wealth within a small elite and
ensure that resources are more evenly distributed across society.
2-Universal Access to Quality Education
* Equal Education Opportunities: Ensuring that all individuals, regardless of
socioeconomic background, have access to quality education is key to
breaking the cycle of poverty. Investing in public education, especially in
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disadvantaged areas, can bridge the educational gap between rich and
poor.
* Scholarship and Financial Aid Programs: Expanding scholarships, grants,
and other financial assistance for underprivileged students helps improve
access to higher education and boosts social mobility.
* Curriculum Reform: Education systems should emphasize equity and
inclusion, integrating multicultural and gender-sensitive curricula to foster
understanding and eliminate biases early on.
3-Healthcare for All
* Universal Healthcare: Providing universal access to affordable, high-
quality healthcare can reduce health disparities that often correlate with
socioeconomic status. Ensuring that basic healthcare services are
accessible to all helps prevent disadvantaged populations from falling
deeper into poverty due to medical expenses.
* Targeted Health Programs: Addressing health issues that
disproportionately affect marginalized groups, such as racial and ethnic
minorities or low-income populations, through targeted public health
initiatives can reduce health inequality.
4-Social Safety Nets
* Social Welfare Programs: Expanding social safety nets, such as
unemployment benefits, food assistance, and housing subsidies, can help
reduce economic inequality by providing financial support to those in
need. These programs protect vulnerable populations and provide them
with opportunities to improve their circumstances.
* Universal Basic Income (UBI): A UBI provides all citizens with a regular,
unconditional sum of money, ensuring that even the poorest have a
minimum standard of living. This can alleviate poverty and reduce income
inequality.
5-Employment and Labor Market Reforms
* Living Wage Policies: Implementing a living wage ensures that workers
receive enough income to meet basic living costs, reducing the income
gap between low-wage workers and higher earners.
* Equal Pay Legislation: Enforcing equal pay for equal work, especially for
women and minority groups, helps reduce gender and racial wage gaps.
* Support for Workers' Rights: Strengthening labor unions, collective
bargaining rights, and worker protections ensures that employees have
the power to negotiate better wages, benefits, and working conditions,
which can reduce inequality in the workplace.
6-Affirmative Action and Anti-Discrimination Policies
* Affirmative Action: Introducing affirmative action policies in education,
employment, and political representation helps correct historical
inequalities faced by disadvantaged groups, such as women, racial and
ethnic minorities, and people with disabilities.
* Anti-Discrimination Laws: Strengthening and enforcing anti-
discrimination laws in hiring, education, and housing can reduce
inequality by ensuring that marginalized groups have fair access to
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opportunities.
* Inclusion Initiatives: Promoting diversity and inclusion in workplaces,
schools, and public institutions fosters equal representation and reduces
systemic bias.
7-Gender Equality Measures
* Closing the Gender Pay Gap: Governments and companies must take
steps to eliminate the gender pay gap by ensuring that women receive
equal pay for equal work. This includes transparency in wage structures
and policies that promote women’s advancement in leadership roles.
* Parental Leave and Childcare Support: Providing parental leave and
affordable childcare ensures that both men and women can balance work
and family responsibilities, which promotes gender equality in the labor
market.
* Combatting Gender-Based Violence: Policies and programs aimed at
preventing gender-based violence and supporting survivors help create
safer, more equitable environments for women and other vulnerable
groups.
8-Promoting Social Mobility
* Early Childhood Education: Investing in early childhood development
programs, particularly for disadvantaged children, helps level the playing
field and promotes long-term social mobility.
* Job Training and Vocational Programs: Offering vocational training, adult
education, and job placement programs helps individuals from lower-
income backgrounds access better employment opportunities and
escape poverty.
9-Affordable Housing
* Public and Social Housing Programs: Expanding affordable housing
options, particularly for low-income individuals and families, can reduce
housing inequality and improve living standards for disadvantaged
populations.
* Rent Control and Homeownership Support: Rent control policies and
programs that help low-income families become homeowners can reduce
housing inequality and provide greater economic stability.
10-Empowering Marginalized Groups
* Political Participation: Encouraging and enabling greater political
participation by marginalized groups helps ensure that policies reflect the
needs of all citizens, not just the privileged elite. This can be done by
removing barriers to voting, ensuring representation in decision-making
bodies, and promoting civic engagement.
* Grassroots Movements: Supporting grassroots social movements that
advocate for the rights of marginalized communities can empower these
groups to challenge systemic inequalities and push for social and
economic justice.
11-Tackling Global Inequality
* Fair Trade Policies: Supporting fair trade practices ensures that workers
in developing countries receive fair compensation for their labor, reducing
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global inequality.
* International Aid and Development: Providing targeted aid to developing
countries can help improve access to education, healthcare, and
infrastructure, reducing the global gap between wealthy and poor nations.
12-Cultural and Ideological Change
* Addressing Stereotypes and Prejudice: Campaigns, education, and public
discourse that challenge harmful stereotypes and prejudices based on
race, gender, or class can help shift societal attitudes and promote
equality.
* Promoting Inclusive Values: Schools, media, and leaders should promote
values of inclusivity, diversity, and social justice to build a more equitable
society.
13-Technology and Innovation
* Bridging the Digital Divide: Ensuring that marginalized communities have
access to technology and the internet can improve educational and
employment opportunities, helping to close the inequality gap.
* Inclusive Technological Development: Encouraging innovation that
addresses the needs of underserved populations, such as affordable
healthcare technologies or educational tools, can reduce inequality in
access to vital services.
Conclusion: Reducing social inequality requires a combination of
economic, political, and social reforms that address both the symptoms
and root causes of inequality. Governments, businesses, and civil society
must work together to implement policies that promote equitable access
to resources, opportunities, and decision-making power. Through these
collective efforts, we can move toward a more just, inclusive, and
cohesive society.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social stratification refers to the structured ranking of individuals
and groups in a society based on various criteria such as wealth, power,
prestige, education, and occupation. It creates distinct social classes or
layers, where individuals have unequal access to resources, opportunities,
and privileges. These hierarchical divisions are often institutionalized and
perpetuate inequality, with the upper classes typically having more control
over resources and decision-making processes than lower classes. Social
stratification can be based on factors like economic status (class), race,
ethnicity, gender, or caste, depending on the societal context. It tends to
be passed down through generations, as individuals often inherit their
social position, making it difficult for those at the bottom to move up the
social ladder. The effects of stratification are profound, shaping people’s
life chances, health outcomes, access to education, and overall quality of
life. Social stratification can lead to social tension and conflict as
marginalized groups may challenge the inequalities imposed by these
hierarchical structures. Understanding social stratification is crucial for
addressing issues of social inequality and promoting a more equitable
society.
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Definitions
1-Max Weber: "Social stratification is the distribution of power within a
community between individuals or groups, where power is determined
by a combination of class (economic status), status (social honor or
prestige), and party (political influence)."
2-Karl Marx: "Social stratification is rooted in the capitalist system,
where society is divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (owners
of production) and the proletariat (workers). This division leads to
inherent class conflicts based on the unequal distribution of wealth and
power."
Salient features of Social Stratification
The salient features of social stratification highlight its systematic
nature and its impact on individuals and society. Here are the key features:
1-Hierarchical Structure: Social stratification is characterized by a
hierarchy in which individuals or groups are ranked in a system of higher
and lower positions. People at higher levels of the hierarchy have more
power, prestige, and wealth than those at lower levels.
2-Inequality: It inherently involves inequality, where resources, privileges,
and opportunities are distributed unequally across different social groups.
This inequality can be based on wealth, status, race, gender, or other
factors.
3-Institutionalization: Social stratification is institutionalized, meaning it
is embedded in the social, political, and economic systems of society.
Laws, customs, and practices reinforce the hierarchical divisions, making
it a persistent part of societal structure.
4-Ascription and Achievement: Stratification can be based on ascribed
status (characteristics one is born into, like race, gender, or family
background) or achieved status (based on one's efforts, such as
education or occupation).
5-Social Mobility: Social stratification allows for varying degrees of social
mobility, which refers to the ability of individuals to move up or down the
social hierarchy. In some societies, mobility is more rigid (closed systems
like caste), while others offer more flexibility (open systems like class).
6-Class Division: Stratification often results in the division of society into
classes or strata, such as upper, middle, and lower classes. These
divisions dictate one's life chances, including access to education,
healthcare, and economic opportunities.
7-Power and Privilege: Those in higher strata typically have more power
and control over societal institutions, which allows them to maintain their
position and perpetuate the inequality inherent in the stratification system.
8-Functional Necessity: From a functionalist perspective (Davis and
Moore), stratification serves a necessary function by ensuring that the
most talented individuals fill the most important societal roles, although
this view is debated.
9-Universality: Social stratification exists in every society, though its
forms and intensity may vary. All societies, from simple tribal ones to
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complex industrialized nations, have some form of hierarchy.
10-Intergenerational Transmission: Social stratification is often passed
down from generation to generation. Children typically inherit the social
class, status, or caste of their parents, making upward mobility
challenging for many.
These features reveal the deep-seated nature of stratification and
its significant impact on societal structure and individual life chances.
Determinants of Social Stratification
The determinants of social stratification are the factors that
contribute to the ranking of individuals and groups within a society. These
determinants influence one’s social position and access to resources,
opportunities, and privileges. Here are the key determinants:
1-Economic Factors
* Wealth and Income: The distribution of wealth and income is a primary
determinant of social stratification. Individuals and families with higher
incomes and accumulated wealth occupy higher social strata, granting
them greater access to resources and opportunities.
* Occupation: The type and status of one’s occupation significantly
influence social standing. Professions perceived as more prestigious,
such as doctors or lawyers, typically confer higher social status
compared to lower-wage or less skilled jobs.
2-Education: Higher levels of education generally correlate with higher
social status. Education affects job prospects, income levels, and overall
social mobility, influencing an individual’s position within the stratification
system.
3-Social Class: Society is often divided into different classes (e.g., upper,
middle, lower), which are determined by a combination of income,
occupation, and education. Class affiliation shapes one’s lifestyle, values,
and social networks.
4-Race and Ethnicity: Social stratification is influenced by race and
ethnicity, often leading to systemic inequalities. Certain racial or ethnic
groups may face discrimination or marginalization, affecting their access
to resources and opportunities.
5-Gender: Gender Roles and Discrimination, Gender significantly affects
social stratification. Women, for instance, often face wage gaps,
underrepresentation in leadership positions, and systemic barriers that
impact their social mobility and economic status.
6-Age: Age can influence one’s social position. Younger individuals may
have less experience and fewer resources, while older individuals might
enjoy higher status due to accumulated wealth and experience.
7-Political Power: Individuals and groups with greater political power
often maintain their privileged status and can influence policies that
perpetuate social inequality, affecting the distribution of resources and
opportunities.
8-Cultural Norms and Values: Societal beliefs about merit, success, and
individualism can influence social stratification. Cultures that value
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education and hard work may promote social mobility, while those that
reinforce traditional hierarchies may limit it.
9-Family Background & Influence: The socioeconomic status of one’s
family, including their education level, income, and social connections,
plays a crucial role in determining an individual’s opportunities and social
position.
10-Geographic Location: Urban vs. Rural Divide: Geographic factors can
influence access to resources and opportunities. Urban areas often
provide more educational and employment opportunities compared to
rural regions, leading to disparities in social stratification.
11-Social Networks: Connections and relationships in Social networks
can provide individuals with access to information, resources, and job
opportunities, influencing their social mobility and position within the
stratification system.
Conclusion: Understanding these determinants is essential for analyzing
social stratification and addressing the inequalities that arise from it.
Each determinant interacts with others, creating a complex web of
factors that shape individuals' social positions and life chances within
society.
Social Injustice
Social injustice refers to the systemic and institutionalized
inequalities and disparities that deny individuals or groups their
fundamental rights and opportunities, leading to unequal treatment and
access to resources. It manifests in various forms, including economic
inequality, racial discrimination, gender bias, and violations of human
rights, creating a society where certain groups are marginalized and
disadvantaged. Social injustice often stems from entrenched power
structures and cultural norms that perpetuate discrimination and
inequality, making it difficult for affected individuals to achieve social
mobility and equity. The consequences of social injustice can be
profound, affecting individuals' well-being, quality of life, and ability to
participate fully in society. Issues such as poverty, inadequate access to
education and healthcare, and lack of political representation are often
rooted in social injustices that create barriers to opportunity and
advancement. Addressing social injustice requires a collective effort to
dismantle discriminatory practices, advocate for equitable policies, and
promote social change, ensuring that all individuals, regardless of their
background, have the opportunity to thrive and contribute to society. By
challenging the structures that perpetuate injustice, communities can
work toward a more equitable and inclusive future.
Reasons for Social Injustice
1-Systemic Discrimination: Institutionalized racism and sexism create
barriers for marginalized communities.
2-Poverty: Economic deprivation restricts access to education, healthcare,
and other essential services.
3-Lack of Political Representation: Underrepresentation in decision-
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making processes leads to neglect of marginalized groups' needs.
4-Social Attitudes and Prejudice: Negative societal attitudes can
perpetuate exclusion and discrimination.
5-Weak Legal Protections: Insufficient enforcement of anti-discrimination
laws allows injustices to persist.
6-Violence and Conflict: Social and political unrest can exacerbate
injustice and normalize oppression.
7-Displacement and Migration: Forced migration or displacement can
lead to marginalization and lack of rights for affected individuals.
8-Economic Exploitation: Labor practices that prioritize profit over
workers' rights contribute to systemic injustice.
9-Environmental Inequities: Vulnerable communities often face
disproportionate impacts from environmental degradation and climate
change.
10-Historical Legacy: Historical injustices, such as colonialism and
slavery, continue to influence contemporary social structures and
inequalities.
Conclusion: Both social inequality and social injustice arise from
interconnected factors that influence individuals’ access to resources,
opportunities, and rights. Addressing these issues requires a
comprehensive understanding of their root causes and a commitment to
creating equitable and inclusive societies.

SOCIAL HARMONY & PEACEFUL CO-EXISTANCE

Harmony: Harmony refers to a state of balance and agreement among
individuals, groups, or elements, characterized by a peaceful coexistence
and cooperation. It encompasses the idea of different components
working together in a complementary manner, creating a sense of unity
despite diversity. In social contexts, harmony fosters mutual respect,
understanding, and collaboration, allowing people to appreciate
differences while pursuing common goals. In music, harmony involves
the simultaneous combination of different sounds or chords that produce
a pleasing effect. Overall, harmony is essential for nurturing relationships,
promoting social cohesion, and creating environments where individuals
can thrive collectively.
Social Harmony: Social harmony refers to a state of peaceful coexistence
and cooperation among individuals and groups within a society,
characterized by mutual respect, understanding, and shared values. It
emphasizes the importance of diversity while fostering a sense of unity
and collective identity. In a harmonious society, conflicts are resolved
through dialogue and collaboration rather than violence or discrimination,
allowing for the flourishing of various cultural, ethnic, and social groups.
Social harmony is built on the principles of equity, justice, and inclusion,
where all members feel valued and have equal access to opportunities
and resources. It encourages active participation in community life,
promoting social cohesion and resilience against division. By nurturing
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positive relationships and fostering a sense of belonging, social harmony
contributes to overall well-being, stability, and progress, ultimately leading
to a more equitable and vibrant society where individuals can thrive
together while embracing their differences.
Definitions
1-Mahatma Gandhi: "Social harmony is the state of peaceful coexistence
among individuals and groups of different backgrounds, where mutual
respect and understanding prevail."
2-A. H. Maslow: "Social harmony refers to the integration of diverse
individuals and communities into a cohesive society, where each
person's needs and contributions are recognized and valued."
Salient Features of Social Harmony
1-Mutual Respect: Individuals recognize and value the dignity and rights
of others, fostering an environment of acceptance and understanding.
2-Cooperation: Collaborative efforts among diverse groups enable
problem-solving and collective action, enhancing community strength.
3-Diversity Appreciation: Social harmony embraces and celebrates
cultural, ethnic, and ideological differences, recognizing them as valuable
contributions to society.
4-Conflict Resolution: Emphasizes peaceful dialogue and negotiation to
resolve disputes, reducing the likelihood of violence and discord.
5-Inclusivity: Ensures that all members of society, regardless of
background, have a voice and are included in decision-making processes.
6-Social Justice: Promotes equity and fairness, ensuring that resources
and opportunities are accessible to all individuals.
7-Shared Values: Establishes common goals and principles that unite
community members, fostering a sense of belonging and purpose.
8-Active Participation: Encourages community engagement and
involvement, empowering individuals to contribute to societal well-being.
9-Trust Building: Develops strong interpersonal relationships, where
individuals trust each other and their institutions.
10-Positive Communication: Promotes open and respectful dialogue,
enhancing understanding and reducing misunderstandings among
individuals and groups.
11-Resilience: Creates a robust community capable of withstanding
challenges and conflicts, emerging stronger through cooperation.
12-Support Systems: Fosters networks of support that provide
assistance and resources to individuals in need, enhancing overall
community welfare.
Conclusion: These features collectively contribute to a harmonious
society, where individuals coexist peacefully, collaborate effectively, and
work towards common goals. Social harmony is crucial for fostering
resilience, well-being, and progress within communities.

Importance of Social Harmony Peaceful Co-Existence

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1-Community Cohesion: Fosters a strong sense of belonging among
individuals.
2-Conflict Resolution: Promotes peaceful dialogue and understanding
over violence.
3-Cultural Appreciation: Encourages the celebration and respect of
diverse cultures.
4-Economic Stability: Attracts investment and promotes sustainable
economic growth.
5-Mental Well-Being: Reduces stress and anxiety associated with conflict.
6-Social Justice: Ensures fair access to opportunities and resources for
all.
7-Environmental Cooperation: Facilitates collaborative efforts to address
environmental issues.
8-Public Safety: Creates safer communities by reducing crime and
violence.
9-Strengthened Relationships: Builds trust and camaraderie among
community members.
10-Enhanced Communication: Encourages open dialogue and the sharing
of ideas.
11-Collective Resilience: Strengthens the community’s ability to respond
to crises.
12-Empowerment: Allows marginalized groups to have a voice in decision
-making.
13-Social Innovation: Promotes creative solutions to community
challenges through collaboration.
14-Educational Opportunities: Enhances learning environments by
fostering inclusivity.
15-Family Stability: Contributes to stronger family units by reducing
external stresses.
16-Civic Engagement: Encourages active participation in community and
political life.
17-Cultural Exchange: Facilitates the sharing of ideas and traditions
among diverse groups.
18-Reduced Discrimination: Minimizes biases and promotes equality
among individuals.
19-Stronger Institutions: Builds trust in public institutions and
governance.
20-Peaceful Advocacy: Allows for peaceful protests and activism without
fear of backlash.
21-Global Cooperation: Promotes international relations and global peace
efforts.
22-Quality of Life: Enhances overall quality of life by fostering supportive
communities.
23-Mental Health Support: Provides a network of support that contributes
to better mental health outcomes.
24-Crisis Management: Facilitates organized responses to emergencies
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and disasters.
25-Positive Role Models: Encourages individuals to become positive
influences within their communities.
26-Increased Trust: Builds trust among individuals, fostering stronger
community bonds.
27-Cultural Competence: Enhances the ability to navigate and appreciate
cultural differences.
28-Support for Vulnerable Populations: Ensures that the needs of
marginalized and vulnerable groups are met.
29-Encouragement of Volunteerism: Promotes community service and
volunteer initiatives.
30-Shared Vision for the Future: Helps communities work towards
common goals, enhancing collective well-being.
These points illustrate how social harmony and peaceful
coexistence are essential for fostering healthy, resilient, and vibrant
societies.
Steps to promote Social Harmony
1-Encourage Dialogue: Facilitate open discussions among diverse groups
to foster understanding and address misconceptions.
2-Promote Inclusivity: Ensure that marginalized voices are heard and
included in decision-making processes.
3-Educate on Diversity: Implement educational programs that celebrate
cultural differences and promote awareness of social issues.
4-Support Community Initiatives: Encourage and fund community-driven
projects that promote collaboration and mutual aid.
5-Organize Cultural Events: Host festivals and events that celebrate
various cultures, fostering appreciation and respect.
6-Develop Conflict Resolution Programs: Train community members in
mediation and conflict resolution techniques to address disputes
peacefully.
7-Create Safe Spaces: Establish environments where individuals can
express themselves freely without fear of judgment or discrimination.
8-Foster Volunteerism: Encourage community service and volunteer
opportunities that bring people together for a common cause.
9-Strengthen Community Organizations: Support local organizations that
work towards social cohesion and community development.
10-Encourage Intergroup Collaborations: Promote partnerships between
different community groups to work on shared goals and initiatives.
11-Use Media Responsibly: Advocate for media that portrays diverse
groups positively and accurately, combating stereotypes.
12-Promote Equity in Resources: Ensure equitable distribution of
resources, such as education and healthcare, to all community members.
13-Engage Youth: Involve young people in community-building activities
to instill values of cooperation and respect.
14-Celebrate Achievements Together: Recognize and celebrate the
contributions of various groups to foster a sense of shared
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accomplishment.
15-Encourage Empathy: Promote programs that help individuals
understand and appreciate the experiences and challenges faced by
others.
Conclusion: These steps can help create a more harmonious society by
fostering understanding, cooperation, and respect among diverse groups.

......................
1-Short Questions & Answers
Q1: What is the Arabic term for Civics, and what does it represent?
A: The Arabic term for Civics is "Madniat," which represents the study of
the city (Madina) and its citizens.
Q2: When was the term 'Civics' first formally used as a branch of
knowledge?
A: The term 'Civics' was first formally used in 1887 when it was classified
as a proper discipline.
Q3: How did Civics evolve from small city-states to larger states?
A: Civics evolved when small Greek city-states, like Athens and Sparta,
were merged into larger states after Alexander the Great's conquests,
expanding the scope of Civics.
Q4: How does modern Civics differ from its ancient origins?
A: Modern Civics addresses both local and national issues, whereas
ancient Civics focused mainly on the affairs of city-states.
Q5: What role does Civics play in understanding rights and duties?
A: Civics educates individuals about their rights, like freedom of speech
and voting, and their duties, such as obeying laws and paying taxes.
Q6: How does Civics promote social values?
A: Civics teaches the importance of social values like patience, tolerance,
and cooperation, fostering a cultured society where people respect each
other’s ideas.
Q7: What is civic engagement, and why is it important?
A: Civic engagement is the active participation of individuals in political
and social activities, important for promoting democratic governance and
social responsibility.
Q8: What are the contributions of philosophers like Plato and Aristotle to
Civics?
A: Plato’s The Republic and Aristotle’s The Politics critically analyzed laws
and government systems, laying foundational ideas for the study of Civics.
Q9: How does Civics contribute to the growth of democracy?
A: Civics helps people understand their democratic rights and
responsibilities, creating an informed electorate that can support
competitive and effective governance.
Q10: What impact does Civics have on international awareness?
A: Civics fosters an understanding of international relations and global
issues, helping citizens recognize their role in the global community and
promoting international cooperatio
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Q11: What are the two main branches of science?
A: The two main branches of science are Pure Sciences (like Physics,
Chemistry, etc.) and Social Sciences (like History, Political Science,
Economics, etc.).
Q12: What is the relationship between Civics and Social Sciences?
A: Civics is a part of Social Sciences, focusing on human rights, duties,
and governance, while other social sciences cover broader human
activities and societal structures.
Q13: How does Sociology relate to Civics?
A: Sociology is considered the "Mother of Social Sciences" and explores
society as a whole, while Civics is a part of Sociology that focuses on
human rights, duties, and political institutions.
Q14: What do Sociology and Civics have in common?
A: Both subjects study human beings, their social institutions, and civic
life, with a shared focus on human welfare and society.
Q15: What distinguishes Civics from Sociology?
A: Civics focuses on human actions within legal and political frameworks,
while Sociology looks at broader social behaviors, including unconscious
and disorganized activities.
Q16: How is Civics connected to Geography?
A: Civics and Geography are linked because geography influences how
governments operate, how laws are made, and how people interact with
their physical environment.
Q17: What is the key similarity between Civics and Geography?
A: Both Civics and Geography study human interactions, with Civics
focusing on governance and laws, and Geography on how humans
interact with their environment.
Q18: What is the main focus of History in relation to Civics?
A: History studies past events and developments, which help inform the
principles and understanding of Civics, particularly in the evolution of
political and social institutions.
Q19: How does Civics benefit from History?
A: Civics draws on historical events and experiences, using them to guide
the development of political systems and civic principles.
Q20: What role does Economics play in relation to Civics?
A: Economics studies the production and distribution of wealth, while
Civics focuses on the governance and regulation of these processes to
ensure social and economic justice.
Q21: What was the historical relationship between Civics and Political
Economics?
A: Civics, Economics, and Political Science were once considered a single
discipline known as "Political Economy" before they evolved into separate
fields.
Q22: How do Civics and Economics share a common focus?
A: Both disciplines center on individuals; Civics addresses civic life while
Economics examines individuals' economic needs and resources.
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Q23: What role do public welfare and human development play in both
Civics and Economics?
A: Both fields aim for public welfare, focusing on equitable wealth
distribution, labor rights, and the establishment of a welfare state to
enhance human prosperity.
Q24: What is a key philosophical contribution to both Civics and
Economics?
A: Philosophers like Karl Marx contributed significantly to both fields,
analyzing the interplay between economic conditions and civic
responsibilities.
Q25: How does Economics differ in its scope compared to Civics?
A: Economics primarily focuses on material aspects of life, while Civics
encompasses a broader range of topics, including moral, social, and
political dimensions.
Q26: In what way do Civics and Political Science overlap?
A: Both disciplines began similarly in ancient Greece, focusing on civic
and political issues, but they later diverged as the concepts of city and
state evolved.
Q27: What distinguishes the study focus of Civics from that of Political
Science?
A: Civics deals with local issues and civic life, while Political Science
covers a wider array of topics, including national and international affairs.
Q28: How do the approaches of Civics and Political Science differ
regarding theory and practice?
A: Political Science emphasizes theoretical aspects, whereas Civics
prioritizes practical roles and responsibilities of citizens.
Q29: What cultural aspect does Civics promote that Political Science
does not emphasize as much?
A: Civics encourages cultural values and mutual cooperation among
citizens, while Political Science focuses more on political awareness and
rights.
Q30: How do the depths of study in Civics and Political Science compare?
A: While Political Science is broader, Civics offers deeper scrutiny of
specific issues, highlighting its importance in understanding societal
dynamics.
Q31: What is Civics?
A: Civics is the study of human habits, activities, emotions, and
institutions, focusing on the rights and duties of citizenship.
Q32: How are Civics and Ethics related?
A: Civics and Ethics are interconnected; Ethics provides the moral
principles that underpin a better civic life, and both aim to foster good
citizens.
Q33: Who are key philosophers associated with Civics and Ethics?
A: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle emphasized the importance of moral and
civic life, integrating Ethics into the study of Civics.
Q34: What is the primary aim of Civics?
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A: The primary aim of Civics is to cultivate good citizens, while Ethics
helps in shaping individuals into good human beings.
Q35: What distinguishes the focus of Civics from Ethics?
A: Civics addresses a broader range of aspects including social, political,
and cultural dimensions, whereas Ethics primarily concerns moral values.
Q36: What defines a good citizen according to Lord Bryce?
A: A good citizen possesses qualities like intelligence, self-control, and a
strong sense of responsibility, along with being honest and respectful of
laws.
Q37: What does Citizenship entail?
A: Citizenship is the status of being a citizen, granting political rights and
duties, and requiring individuals to respect state laws and contribute to its
progress.
Q38: What is the difference between citizens and nationals?
A: Citizens have political rights and responsibilities, while nationals may
live in a state without having political rights, like the right to vote.
Q39: What are the ways to acquire citizenship?
A: Citizenship can be acquired through birth, naturalization, long
residence, or by marriage, among other means.
Q40: What are some reasons for loss of citizenship?
A: Citizenship can be lost due to acquiring another citizenship, long
absence from the state, investment in a foreign country, or involvement in
serious crimes.
Q41:What is citizenship?
A: Citizenship refers to the legal status, rights, and responsibilities
individuals have as members of a state or society.
Q42: What is active citizenship?
A: Active citizenship involves individuals participating in civic, political,
and social processes, such as voting, volunteering, and advocating for
change.
Q43: How does participatory citizenship differ from active citizenship?
A: Participatory citizenship emphasizes deeper engagement in
democratic processes and collective decision-making, whereas active
citizenship can be more general.
Q44: What does digital citizenship encompass?
A: Digital citizenship involves the responsible use of technology for civic
engagement, including digital activism and participation in e-governance.
Q45: What is global citizenship?
A: Global citizenship refers to a sense of belonging to a global community,
emphasizing responsibilities toward global issues like human rights and
environmental sustainability.
Q46: What is ecological citizenship?
A: Ecological citizenship focuses on individuals’ responsibilities toward
the environment, promoting sustainability and conservation efforts.
Q47: What does economic citizenship entail?
A: Economic citizenship involves individuals’ rights and responsibilities in
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their country’s economic life, including labor rights and participation in
entrepreneurship.
Q48: What is cultural citizenship?
A: Cultural citizenship recognizes individuals' rights to participate in and
contribute to their community’s cultural life, supporting cultural diversity
and preservation.
Q49: What role does education play in democratic citizenship?
A: Education is essential for informed citizenship, enabling individuals to
understand political issues and participate effectively in democracy.
Q50: Why is the relationship between democracy and citizenship
important?
A: This relationship is crucial as active, engaged citizens are the
foundation of democracy, ensuring government accountability and
protection of rights.

2-Short Questions & Answers

Q1: What is the basic unit of human society?
A: The family is the most basic unit of human society, essential for social
interaction and relationships.
Q2: Who were the first human beings mentioned in the text?
A: The first human beings mentioned are Prophet Adam and Mother Eve,
who formed the first family on earth.
Q3: What is Aristotle's view on the relationship between family and the
state?
A: Aristotle believed that the family is the foundational unit that eventually
leads to the formation of the state, as it grows from individuals to
families, then to villages, and finally to states.
Q4: How is a patriarchal family defined?
A: A patriarchal family is one where the father is the supervisor, and
ancestry is traced through the male line.
Q5: What characterizes a matriarchal family?
A: In a matriarchal family, the mother is the head, and ancestry is traced
through the female line, with property often inherited by daughters.
Q6: What distinguishes a joint family from a separate family?
A: A joint family consists of multiple relatives living together under one
roof, whereas a separate family is typically formed when a couple lives
independently from their parents.
Q7: What is a monogamous family?
A: A monogamous family consists of one male married to one female,
with a focus on loyalty and cooperation between parents.
Q8: How does family contribute to the social and emotional
development of children?
A: Family teaches children values like obedience, loyalty, and cooperation,
functioning like a small state where children learn to participate in
decision-making.
Q9: What is the role of family in the economic aspect of life?
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A: Families provide financial support and basic needs, including education
and resources necessary for individuals to become economically stable.
Q10: What defines modern society according to the text?
A: Modern society is defined as a group of people living together, bound
by social roles, customs, and shared goals, and is characterized by
stability, organization, and common values.
Q11: What is democracy?
A: Democracy is a system of government where citizens have the right to
vote for their leaders and influence decisions, promoting fairness and
accountability in governance.
Q12: Why is the rule of law important?
A: The rule of law ensures that everyone, including government officials,
must follow the law, providing protection from abuse of power and
fostering a sense of justice and security.
Q13: What are human rights?
A: Human rights are basic freedoms and protections, such as the right to
life and freedom of speech, that are essential for maintaining dignity and
respect for all individuals in modern society.
Q14: How do economic systems affect society?
A: Economic systems, such as capitalism and socialism, determine the
production, distribution, and consumption of resources, influencing job
creation, opportunities, and overall quality of life.
Q15: What role does education play in modern society?
A: Education is fundamental for personal and societal growth, providing
knowledge and skills necessary for informed decision-making and active
participation in the economy.
Q16: How does technology influence modern life?
A: Technology and innovation improve various aspects of daily life,
including communication and healthcare, enabling new opportunities and
enhancing productivity.
Q17: What are social institutions?
A: Social institutions, such as families and schools, provide support and
structure to society, shaping values and fostering relationships among
individuals.
Q18: What is meant by cultural diversity?
A: Cultural diversity refers to the variety of backgrounds, traditions, and
perspectives within society, which encourages creativity, understanding,
and cooperation among different groups.
Q19: How does globalization affect communities?
A: Globalization connects countries and cultures, transforming
interactions and providing economic opportunities while also presenting
challenges like cultural homogenization.
Q20: What is community in a sociological context?
A: Community refers to a group of people living in a particular area with
shared values and cultural connections, often characterized by emotional
ties, common interests, and collective struggles.
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Q21: What does "civic" refer to?
A: "Civic" refers to anything related to a city, community, or citizenship,
emphasizing participation in public life and the responsibilities and rights
associated with being a member of society.
Q22: What is the definition of citizenship?
A: Citizenship is the legal and social status defining an individual's
membership in a political community, encompassing rights like voting
and responsibilities such as obeying laws and participating in civic life.
Q23: How does civic engagement benefit democracy?
A: Civic engagement benefits democracy by encouraging citizens to
participate in decision-making processes, hold their government
accountable, and foster a sense of responsibility and collective action.
Q24: What did Aristotle believe about civic engagement?
A: Aristotle believed that human beings are inherently political animals
and that active participation in public life is essential for a virtuous and
fulfilled life.
Q25: What is one of the key components of the civic engagement
process?
A: One key component is "Awareness and Education," where individuals
become informed about local, national, or global issues that matter to
them and their community.
Q26: Why is identifying interests and priorities important in civic
engagement?
A: Identifying interests and priorities helps individuals focus their efforts
on issues they care about, aligning their personal values with the needs of
their community for more impactful involvement.
Q27: How can individuals connect with others for civic engagement?
A: Individuals can connect with others by joining organizations,
networking with like-minded individuals, and building coalitions to
collectively address common goals.
Q28: What are some ways people can engage in civic participation?
A: People can engage through voting, volunteering, attending public
meetings, public advocacy, and serving on local boards or committees.
Q29: What role does civic education play in engagement?
A: Civic education provides the foundational knowledge about rights and
responsibilities, inspiring individuals to become engaged citizens and
participate in governance and community affairs.
Q30: What is "digital activism"?
A: Digital activism involves using online platforms, such as social media
campaigns and online petitions, to raise awareness and mobilize support
for causes, allowing individuals to engage with issues without needing to
be physically present.
Q31: What is one major challenge to civic participation?
A: A significant challenge is the lack of awareness and education
regarding civic rights and responsibilities, which can prevent individuals
from engaging in political and social systems.
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Q32: How does political apathy affect civic engagement?
A: Political apathy leads individuals to believe that their participation
won’t make a difference, resulting in disengagement from civic activities
like voting and community organizing.
Q33: What role do time constraints play in civic participation?
A: Time constraints can hinder civic participation, as many individuals,
especially those with demanding jobs and family responsibilities, may
struggle to find time for civic activities.
Q34: How can social and economic barriers impact civic engagement?
A: Individuals from marginalized communities may face social and
economic barriers, such as limited access to resources or transportation,
which can hinder their ability to participate in civic activities.
Q35: What effect does distrust in government have on civic participation?
A: A lack of trust in government and institutions can discourage people
from participating in civic activities, as they may feel disillusioned about
the effectiveness of their engagement.
Q36: Why can the complexity of political systems be a barrier to
participation?
A: The complexity of political systems can overwhelm individuals, making
it difficult for them to understand how to engage in policy-making and
civic processes, especially for first-time participants.
Q37: How does polarization affect civic engagement?
A: Increasing political polarization can deter individuals from engaging in
discussions or debates due to fear of conflict or criticism, leading to
reduced civic participation.
Q38: In what way does limited access to information pose a challenge?
A: Limited access to accurate and timely information can prevent citizens
from staying informed, hindering their ability to participate actively in civic
life.
Q39: What is the impact of fear of repercussions on civic involvement?
A: Fear of legal or social repercussions can deter individuals from
engaging in civic participation, such as protests or organizing around
controversial issues.
Q40: What is burnout in the context of civic participation?
A: Burnout occurs when activists and engaged citizens become
exhausted from continuous participation in civic activities, leading to
feelings of frustration and helplessness.
Q41: Why is civic participation considered vital in today’s world?
A: Civic participation is essential as it allows individuals to engage in
shaping their communities, addressing complex societal challenges, and
ensuring democracy remains strong and responsive.
Q42: How does civic participation strengthen democracy?
A: Active civic participation, such as voting and public discussions,
ensures that governments remain accountable to the people and reflect
their interests, preventing power from concentrating in a few hands.
Q43: What global challenges can civic participation help address?
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A: Civic participation is crucial in tackling global challenges like climate
change, economic inequality, and public health crises by enabling
collective action and local involvement.
Q44: In what ways does civic participation promote social justice?
A: Civic participation advances social justice and equality by ensuring that
voices from marginalized groups are heard and included in decision-
making processes, often through protests and advocacy.
Q45: How does civic engagement encourage government accountability?
A: When citizens engage with their governments through voting and
public oversight, it promotes accountability and transparency, reducing
corruption and inefficiency.
Q46: What is the impact of civic participation on community building?
A: Participation in community activities fosters a sense of belonging,
builds trust among neighbors, and strengthens social bonds, enabling
communities to collaboratively solve local issues.
Q47: How does civic participation educate and empower citizens?
A: Civic participation helps individuals learn about their rights and
government processes, fostering critical thinking and understanding of
diverse perspectives, which empowers them to contribute meaningfully to
society.
Q48: How has civic participation adapted to the digital age?
A: In the digital age, civic participation has evolved through tools like
social media, online petitions, and digital advocacy, allowing for rapid
organization and mobilization of action.
Q49: Why is civic participation important for future generations?
A: Engaging in civic life helps shape policies that will affect future
generations, ensuring that decisions consider long-term impacts on the
environment, education, and social welfare.
Q50: What overarching role does civic participation play in society?
A: Civic participation is vital for fostering inclusive, fair, and sustainable
societies, empowering individuals, strengthening communities, and
ensuring government accountability.
3-Short Questions & Answers
Q1: Where did the basic concept of a state originate?
A: The basic concept of a state was initiated in Ancient Greece, where city
-states, known as "Polis States," were established.
Q2: How did the understanding of states evolve from the Roman era to
modern times?
A: During the Roman era, larger states emerged, and in modern times,
states are formed on national bases, with the people identifying as a
whole nation, referred to as a "national state."
Q3: What is the fundamental definition of a state?
A: A state is defined as a region where a permanent population lives
under a government that operates free from external pressure and
follows its principles.
Q4: How do nation and state differ?
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A: A nation refers to a group of people with common values like race,
religion, and culture, while a state is an organized political entity. A nation
may strive for freedom, but it doesn't necessarily constitute a state, as
seen in the case of Kashmir.
Q5: What are the four essential elements of a state?
A: The four essential elements of a state are:
1. Population 2. Territory 3. Government 4. Sovereignty
Q6: Why is population considered the main element of a state?
A: Population is crucial because the state is established for public
development, and without people, there can be no state. The population is
also divided into citizens with political rights and non-citizens.
Q7: What is the importance of territory in the definition of a state?
A: Territory is important because a state must have a defined
geographical area. Without permanent territory, a group cannot be
considered a state, as illustrated by the historical context of the Jews
before the establishment of Israel.
Q8: How is government defined in the context of a state?
A: Government is defined as the system that forms and enforces laws,
providing basic facilities and protection for the public. It plays a crucial
role in maintaining order and implementing state policies.
Q9: What are the types of government mentioned, and what are the three
main duties of government in a democratic system?
A: Types of government include monarchy, dictatorship, nobility, and
democracy. The three main duties of government in a democratic system
are:
1. Legislature (law-making) 2. Executive (implementing laws) 3.
Judiciary (administering justice)
Q10: What is sovereignty, and what are its two types?
A: Sovereignty refers to the authority of the state to operate
independently without external pressure. The two types are:
1. Internal Sovereignty: Authority over citizens and institutions within the
state.
2. External Sovereignty: Freedom from outside influence in making
decisions.
Q11: What is a state?
A: A state is a political entity that governs a specific territory and
population, characterized by its authority and institutional structures.
Q12: What is the significance of sovereignty in a state?
A: Sovereignty refers to the state’s supreme authority to govern itself and
make laws without external interference, encompassing both internal and
external aspects.
Q13: Why is territory considered a critical element of a state?
A: Territory is essential because it defines the geographic area where the
state exercises its authority, including land, airspace, and sometimes
territorial waters.
Q14: What role does population play in a state?
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A: A state must have people living within its territory, forming the citizenry
governed by its laws and policies, which is crucial for its existence.
Q15: How does government function within a state?
A: Government is the system through which a state operates,
encompassing institutions like the executive, legislature, and judiciary,
and it can take various forms, such as democratic or authoritarian.
Q16: What is the importance of law in a state?
A: Law is vital for regulating the behavior of the population, maintaining
order and justice within the state.
Q17: Why is recognition significant for a state?
A: Recognition by other states and international organizations is essential
for a state to achieve international legitimacy and establish diplomatic
relations.
Q18: What distinguishes a state from a government?
A: A state is a permanent institution that encompasses the territory,
population, and governance, while a government can change over time
and refers to the individuals or groups in power.
Q19: What functions does a modern state perform?
A: A modern state performs various functions, including maintaining law
and order, national defense, economic regulation, public services, and
promoting social welfare.
Q20: What is the historical theory of the state’s origin?
A: The historical or evolutionary theory posits that the state evolved from
family units through social cooperation, blood relations, and increased
political awareness, rejecting earlier notions of divine or purely forceful
origins.
Q21: What is the definition of government?
A: Government is the system or group of people that governs an
organized community, responsible for making and enforcing laws,
maintaining order, and providing public services for citizens' well-being.
Q22: What are the primary roles of a government?
A: The primary roles include creating a stable society, enforcing laws to
protect rights, managing resources, administering public services, and
ensuring national security.
Q23: How does a government typically operate in democratic systems?
A: In democratic systems, governments are elected by the people and are
accountable to them, allowing citizens to have a voice in governance.
Q24: What are the different types of government mentioned in the text?
A: The different types of government include democracies, authoritarian
regimes, and monarchies.
Q25: What significant changes have affected Pakistan's political process
since its inception?
A: Pakistan's political process has undergone changes due to military rule,
political instability, violence, and the secession of East Pakistan in 1971,
leading to a new constitution in 1973.
Q26: What are the two houses of Pakistan's Parliament?
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A: The two houses of Pakistan's Parliament are the Senate (upper house)
and the National Assembly (lower house).
Q27: How many members are there in the Senate of Pakistan?
A: The Senate of Pakistan consists of 104 members, including
representatives from each province, tribal areas, females, technocrats,
and minorities.
Q28: What is the function of the National Assembly in Pakistan?
A: The National Assembly serves as the lower house of Parliament, where
members are elected through public votes to represent the people and
pass legislation.
Q29: What powers does the Parliament hold regarding legislation?
A: The Parliament has the exclusive right to legislate on certain matters,
approve financial bills, declare emergencies, and amend the constitution,
with significant authority over national finances.
Q30: What mechanisms does the Parliament have to address public
grievances?
A: Members of Parliament act as representatives of the public,
addressing issues of their constituencies, asking questions of ministers,
and passing resolutions to highlight public welfare matters.
Q31: How are members of the provincial assembly selected in Pakistan?
A: Members of each provincial assembly in Pakistan are selected through
public votes, with seats reserved based on population.
Q32: What is the total number of seats in the Punjab Provincial
Assembly?
A: The total number of seats in the Punjab Provincial Assembly is 371,
which includes 297 general seats, 8 for non-Muslims, and 66 for females.
Q33: What role does the Speaker play in the Provincial Assembly?
A: The Speaker is a selected member of the provincial assembly, elected
by the majority of selected members.
Q34: What is one of the key powers of the Provincial Assembly
regarding legislation?
A: The Provincial Assembly can make laws on affairs listed under
concurrent affairs, and bills passed must receive the governor's approval
within 30 days.
Q35: What is the governor's role in relation to ordinances in the province?
A: The governor has the power to implement ordinances temporarily,
which must be approved by the Provincial Assembly during its next
session.
Q36: What is the primary function of the President of Pakistan?
A: The President serves as the ceremonial head of state and holds certain
constitutional powers, including the ability to dissolve the National
Assembly under specific circumstances.
Q37: How is the Prime Minister of Pakistan selected?
A: The Prime Minister is selected from the members of the winning party
in the parliamentary elections, appointed by the President.
Q38: What is the highest court in Pakistan?
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A: The Supreme Court is the highest court in Pakistan, responsible for
protecting public rights and providing justice.
Q39: What is a key feature of the parliamentary system in Pakistan?
A: In the parliamentary system, the Prime Minister and cabinet are
accountable to the legislature, which can terminate them at any time.
Q40: What role does the opposition play in a parliamentary system?
A: The opposition serves as a substitute to the government, providing
checks and balances, and can form a government if the winning party
loses in parliament.
Q41: What is the primary distinction between parliamentary and
presidential systems of government?
A: Parliamentary and presidential systems are opposite forms of
government; while both are democratic, their characteristics and
functions differ significantly, leading to unique advantages and
drawbacks for each.
Q42: How does the presidential system promote government stability?
A: In a presidential system, the president is elected for a fixed term and
cannot be easily removed, which allows them to govern confidently and
work towards a stable government.
Q43: Why are ministerial appointments viewed as more effective in a
presidential system?
A: The president selects ministers based on their qualifications and ability,
which leads to a more capable and effective government as opposed to
the limited choices available to a prime minister in a parliamentary
system.
Q44: How do public perceptions of leadership differ between the two
systems?
A: In a presidential system, the president is directly elected by the public
and represents the entire nation, whereas the prime minister in a
parliamentary system often represents only the legislature, limiting their
claim to public representation.
Q45: What are the implications of decision-making speed in a
presidential system?
A: The president can make decisions independently and swiftly, which is
crucial during emergencies, unlike in a parliamentary system where
decisions require consensus and take longer to implement.
Q46: How does civil society contribute to the safeguarding of
democracy in Pakistan?
A: Civil society acts as a guardian of democracy, advocating for
democratic values and processes, particularly during political turmoil or
authoritarian regimes.
Q47: In what ways does civil society enhance accountability in Pakistan?
A: Civil society organizations monitor government actions, expose
corruption, and promote transparency, ensuring that leaders remain
answerable to the public.
Q48: What role does civil society play in promoting electoral integrity?
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A: Civil society monitors elections and advocates for electoral reforms,
which is essential for ensuring that elections are free, fair, and reflective
of the people's will.
Q49: How does civil society advocate for human rights in Pakistan?
A: Civil society organizations focus on defending human rights and
promoting social justice, addressing issues such as gender inequality and
minority rights, thus ensuring that democracy is inclusive.
Q50: Why is political participation encouraged by civil society important
for democracy?
A: Civil society fosters grassroots political participation by educating
citizens about their rights and responsibilities, which strengthens
democracy by ensuring that diverse voices are heard in the political
process.
Q51: What is the right to vote also known as?
A: The right to vote is also known as suffrage.
Q52: Why is voting considered a vital form of political participation?
A: Voting is considered vital because it allows citizens to elect their
representatives and directly influence government policies, reflecting the
will of the people.
Q53: What are some activities included in political participation beyond
voting?
A: Political participation includes standing for election, joining political
parties, participating in campaigns, attending rallies, signing petitions, and
engaging in public discourse.
Q54: How does political participation enhance civic education?
A: Political participation encourages individuals to be informed about
political processes and their rights, leading to more engaged voters who
can make informed choices.
Q55: What role does political participation play in ensuring
accountability?
A: Active political participation holds elected officials accountable,
allowing citizens to monitor their actions and demand transparency and
reform.
Q56: Why is representation of diverse interests important in a
democracy?
A: Representation is important to ensure that various groups within
society, including marginalized communities, have their voices heard and
their needs addressed in decision-making processes.
Q57: How does political participation contribute to social cohesion?
A: Political participation fosters social cohesion by creating a sense of
ownership among citizens, reducing feelings of alienation and the
potential for social unrest.
Q58: What is the impact of political participation on public policy?
A: Political participation improves public policy by ensuring it is informed
by the experiences and needs of the population, leading to more effective
governance.
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Q59: How does high political participation affect the legitimacy of a
political system?
A: High political participation indicates a healthy democracy, while low
participation can lead to disillusionment and instability, undermining the
legitimacy of the political system.
Q60: What is the ultimate significance of political participation and
representation in democracy?
A: The ultimate significance lies in strengthening democracy by
empowering citizens, ensuring accountability, representing diverse
interests, and fostering a responsive political system.

4-Short Questions & Answers

Q1: What are rights?
A: Rights are facilities granted to individuals in society and the state,
allowing them to protect their lives and polish their skills.
Q2: Why are rights essential for individuals?
A: Without basic rights, individuals cannot safeguard their lives or develop
their talents; rights are synonymous with freedom.
Q3: How did Aristotle view the role of the state in relation to rights?
A: Aristotle believed that the state is formed to provide a better life and
must work towards fulfilling the rights of its citizens.
Q4: What significant document laid the foundation for written rights in
the West?
A: The Magna Carta, issued in 1215 by King John of England, is a
significant document that introduced written rights.
Q5: What are natural rights?
A: Natural rights are inherent rights that individuals possess by nature,
such as the right to life, liberty, and property, existing before the
establishment of society.
Q6: How do moral rights differ from legal rights?
A: Moral rights are based on human consciousness and social norms
without legal enforcement, while legal rights are established and enforced
by the state.
Q7: What are civil rights?
A: Civil rights are fundamental rights ensuring individuals can lead a
civilized life, including rights to life, liberty, and equality, protected by the
state.
Q8: What does the right to self-expression entail?
A: The right to self-expression allows individuals to articulate their
opinions and ideas freely, protected under international human rights
standards.
Q9: What is the significance of political rights in a democracy?
A: Political rights enable citizens to participate actively in the political
process, including voting, running for office, and criticizing the
government.
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Q10: What responsibilities does the state have regarding citizens' rights?
A: The state is responsible for protecting citizens' rights and ensuring
their fulfillment, including offering social protection and opportunities for
development.
Q11: What is the meaning of civic duties?
A: Civic duties refer to the responsibilities of individuals living in a society,
emphasizing their role in fulfilling obligations towards others and the
state while enjoying their rights.
Q12: How do rights and duties relate to each other?
A: Rights are the facilities granted to individuals by society and the state,
while duties are the responsibilities citizens must fulfill in return. Without
rights, individuals cannot develop their skills or protect their lives.
Q13: What historical document first outlined citizens' rights in the West?
A: The Magna Carta, issued in 1215 by King John of England, was the first
written form of citizens' rights in the West.
Q14: What are the two main types of civic duties?
A: The two main types of civic duties are moral duties, which involve
ethical responsibilities towards others, and legal duties, which are
enforced by the state.
Q15: What is an example of a moral duty in Islam?
A: An example of a moral duty in Islam is to care for the needy and
respect the rights of others, as emphasized in the teachings of the
Prophet Muhammad.
Q16: What are legal duties?
A: Legal duties are obligations imposed by the state that citizens must
perform, and failure to do so can result in punishment.
Q17: Why is voting considered a civic duty?
A: Voting is considered a civic duty because it is essential for selecting
government representatives, and citizens must prioritize the welfare of
the state over personal interests.
Q18: What is the role of taxes in civic duties?
A: Taxes are collected from citizens to fund welfare projects and
essential services provided by the state, making payment of taxes a vital
civic duty.
Q19: How does the concept of self-control relate to civic responsibilities?
A: Self-control is important in civic responsibilities as citizens should
prioritize the common interests of the state and society over personal or
family interests.
Q20: What fundamental rights are included in the 1973 Constitution of
Pakistan?
A: The 1973 Constitution of Pakistan includes fundamental rights such as
protection of life, right to property, equality, right of speech, and religious
and cultural rights.
Q21: What is civic engagement?
A: Civic engagement refers to the active participation of individuals in
public life to improve society through political, social, or community-
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based activities.
Q22: Why is informed participation important in civic engagement?
A: Informed participation is crucial because citizens have a responsibility
to make educated decisions, understand various perspectives, and
recognize the consequences of their actions.
Q23: How can citizens avoid misinformation during civic engagement?
A: Citizens can avoid misinformation by critically evaluating information
sources and refraining from spreading false or misleading information
that could harm the democratic process.
Q24: What role does respect for diversity play in civic engagement?
A: Respect for diversity ensures that all individuals have equal access to
participate, recognizes various cultures, and amplifies the voices of
marginalized groups to address their needs and concerns.
Q25: What is the importance of transparency and accountability in civic
actions?
A: Transparency and accountability are essential to maintain trust,
requiring engaged citizens to be open about their motives and to take
responsibility for their decisions and their impacts.
Q26: Why is nonviolence emphasized in ethical civic engagement?
A: Nonviolence is emphasized because peaceful participation fosters
constructive dialogue and promotes democracy, while violence can
exacerbate conflicts and undermine civic efforts.
Q27: How should civic participants balance individual and collective
interests?
A: Civic participants should consider how their actions affect others and
society as a whole, avoiding self-serving behavior and focusing on the
welfare of the community.
Q28: What is the significance of environmental responsibility in civic
engagement?
A: Environmental responsibility involves considering the ecological
impact of civic actions and advocating for sustainable practices to
benefit future generations.
Q29: How do ethical considerations address conflicts of interest in civic
engagement?
A: Ethical engagement requires avoiding conflicts of interest that could
compromise integrity and ensuring transparency in situations where
personal gain is involved.
Q30: What constitutes ethical communication in civic advocacy?
A: Ethical communication involves honest advocacy, grounded in truth,
and promoting constructive dialogue while listening to differing
viewpoints without resorting to harmful language.

5-Short Questions & Answers

Q1: How is the term ‘community’ defined in different contexts?
A: The term ‘community’ can refer to various groups, such as professional
groups (e.g., community of teachers), cultural groups (e.g., Iranian
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community), or based on geographical areas, where people share
common values and interests.
Q2: What is the difference between society and community?
A: Society is a broad and organized group that encompasses multiple
communities and provides a framework for governing behavior, while a
community is a smaller, localized group with close personal connections
and shared interests or values.
Q3: According to MacIver, what constitutes a community?
A: MacIver defines a community as a group of members who live together
and share the basic conditions of life, not just specific interests.
Q4: What are some key characteristics of a community?
A: Key characteristics of a community include a common language,
shared aims and interests, harmony in lifestyle and customs, emotional
connections, and collective struggle.
Q5: How is a rural community characterized?
A: A rural community consists of people living in small areas with deep
connections to customs and traditions, characterized by simplicity, loyalty,
and moral values.
Q6: What does community engagement mean?
A: Community engagement refers to the involvement of people in
improving their local community through collaboration to address
common issues and make decisions that benefit everyone.
Q7: What are some examples of community engagement activities?
A: Examples include volunteering for local projects, attending town hall
meetings, organizing neighborhood cleanups, and participating in
discussions about local policies.
Q8: Why is community engagement important?
A: Community engagement is important because it brings diverse groups
together, ensures that the needs of the whole community are represented,
builds trust, and empowers individuals to participate actively.
Q9: What are some salient features of community engagement?
A: Salient features include inclusivity, collaboration, empowerment,
sustainability, transparency, trust-building, active participation, and shared
ownership of problems and solutions.
Q10: How does effective community engagement respect cultural
sensitivity?
A: Effective community engagement acknowledges and respects the
cultural values and practices of the community, ensuring that
engagement methods are appropriate to the local context.
Q11: What are the core values of community engagement?
A: The core values include inclusiveness, collaboration, transparency,
respect, empowerment, accountability, sustainability, trust, cultural
sensitivity, and mutual learning.
Q12: Why is inclusiveness important in community engagement?
A: Inclusiveness ensures that all community members can participate,
especially underrepresented groups, fostering a diverse and equitable
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engagement process.
Q13: How does collaboration enhance community engagement?
A: Collaboration promotes partnerships among community members,
organizations, and stakeholders, leading to co-created solutions for
common issues.
Q14: What role does transparency play in community engagement?
A: Transparency fosters open communication, allowing community
members to access information about engagement processes and how
their input will be used.
Q15: How does empowerment benefit individuals in community
engagement?
A: Empowerment gives individuals the tools and opportunities to
influence decisions, promoting ownership and responsibility within the
community.
Q16: What does accountability entail in the context of community
engagement?
A: Accountability involves leaders taking responsibility for outcomes and
commitments made during the engagement process and reporting back
to the community.
Q17: Why is trust essential for effective community engagement?
A: Trust is crucial as it encourages open dialogue and collaboration,
enabling community members to feel comfortable sharing their thoughts
and concerns.
Q18: What does cultural sensitivity mean in community engagement?
A: Cultural sensitivity involves recognizing and respecting the diverse
cultural backgrounds of community members and engaging in ways that
honor their traditions and values.
Q19: How does community engagement strengthen democracy?
A: Community engagement promotes active participation in decision-
making, ensuring that all voices are heard and contributing to more
transparent governance.
Q20: What are some key measures for successful community
engagement?
A: Key measures include setting clear objectives, effective
communication, inclusivity, transparency, respect, empowerment,
accessibility, feedback mechanisms, capacity building, sustained efforts,
and evaluation and adaptation.
Q21: What is community development?
A: Community development refers to a process where individuals and
groups collaborate to enhance the quality of life in their local areas
through various activities and strategies focused on social, economic,
and environmental well-being.
Q22: What is the main goal of community development?
A: The primary goal is to create sustainable and thriving communities by
addressing local needs, empowering residents, and fostering
collaboration.
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Q23: Why is inclusivity important in community development?
A: Inclusivity ensures that all community segments, particularly
marginalized and disadvantaged groups, are involved, guaranteeing that
diverse voices are heard and benefits are equitably distributed.
Q24: How does empowerment play a role in community development?
A: Empowerment strengthens individuals’ abilities to take control of their
development by providing education, resources, and opportunities,
enabling them to lead initiatives and make informed decisions.
Q25: What is the significance of sustainability in community
development?
A: Sustainability focuses on creating long-term impacts that promote
environmental, economic, and social well-being, ensuring that resources
are conserved for future generations.
Q26: How does collaboration enhance community development efforts?
A: Collaboration promotes teamwork among community members,
organizations, and government entities, leveraging diverse skills and
resources to achieve common goals.
Q27: What is meant by local ownership in community development?
A: Local ownership encourages residents to manage and direct
development projects, fostering investment in their success and
sustainability.
Q28: Why is equity a core principle of community development?
A: Equity aims to address and reduce inequalities by ensuring fair access
to resources and opportunities, providing additional support to those
facing disadvantages.
Q29: How does community development contribute to improving public
services?
A: Development initiatives often enhance public services such as
transportation and sanitation, leading to better living conditions and
overall community well-being.
Q30: What role does community development play in enhancing
community resilience?
A: Community development addresses vulnerabilities and prepares
communities for potential challenges, improving their ability to withstand
and recover from crises such as natural disasters or economic downturns.

6-Short Questions & Answers

Q1: What is public discourse?
A: Public discourse is the open exchange of ideas and opinions in public
spaces, where individuals engage in discussions on matters of common
interest, particularly related to politics, social issues, and culture.
Q2: Why is public discourse important in democratic societies?
A: Public discourse is crucial as it allows citizens to express their views,
deliberate on issues, and influence decision-making processes, fostering
democratic engagement and collective problem-solving.
Q3: Who are the key participants in public discourse?
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A: Key participants include citizens, media, political leaders, activists, and
scholars, all contributing to the dialogue in various forums like public
meetings, debates, and social media.
Q4: What challenges does public discourse face in the digital age?
A: Challenges include misinformation, echo chambers, and polarized
debates that can undermine effective dialogue and hinder democratic
processes.
Q5: How does public discourse contribute to informed citizenship?
A: It promotes informed citizenship by providing access to information
and diverse perspectives, enabling citizens to make educated choices in
elections and public policy decisions.
Q6: According to J.S. Mill, what is essential for the emergence of true
public opinion?
A: J.S. Mill advocated for the free flow of public opinion in society,
believing that every opinion should be allowed to circulate to form a true
public opinion.
Q7: What is the relationship between public opinion and democracy?
A: Public opinion is the foundation of democracy; government and its
policies are based on public opinion, and officials remain in power as long
as they have public support.
Q8: What role do educational institutions play in shaping public opinion?
A: Educational institutions contribute by providing knowledge of political,
economic, and social issues, encouraging discussions that help students
form informed opinions.
Q9: How can public opinion influence legislation?
A: Public opinion serves as a major source of legislation, as laws are
often based on public demands and can only be successfully
implemented with public support.
Q10: What is the 'General Will' according to Rousseau?
A: Rousseau describes the 'General Will' as the selfless opinion of the
majority that emerges when individuals look beyond their selfish interests,
representing true public opinion.
Q11: What is a traditional method of measuring public opinion?
A: The electoral process is a traditional way of gauging public opinion,
where general elections reflect the preferences of the voting population
regarding political representation.
Q12: What are mock elections, and where are they commonly held?
A: Mock elections are simulated voting events organized by political
parties to forecast the outcomes of actual elections. They are commonly
held in the United States and European countries.
Q13: How do interviews contribute to measuring public opinion?
A: Public interviews conducted by newspapers and analysts collect data
on social issues, helping to gauge the sentiments and opinions of various
demographics.
Q4: What is the purpose of using questionnaires in public opinion
research?
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A: Researchers use questionnaires containing multiple questions to
gather opinions from a large number of people, providing a representative
view of public sentiment.
Q15: What role do Press Forums play in understanding public attitudes?
A: Press Forums bring together individuals from different professions to
discuss issues, revealing diverse viewpoints and helping leaders
understand public attitudes.
Q16: What does advocacy mean in the context of social change?
A: Advocacy involves taking action to support a specific cause or group,
especially marginalized individuals, to ensure their needs and rights are
recognized.
Q17: Name a key type of advocacy aimed at changing laws or policies.
A: Systemic or policy advocacy aims to alter broader policies and laws
through lobbying and public campaigns to address systemic issues.
Q18: How does public advocacy empower individuals?
A: Advocacy empowers individuals by providing tools and support,
enabling them to voice their needs and actively participate in societal
issues.
Q19: What is the significance of raising public awareness in advocacy?
A: Raising public awareness educates communities about pressing social
issues, mobilizing support for change and influencing public opinion.
Q20: What is one of the long-term goals of advocacy?
A: One of the long-term goals of advocacy is to create sustainable change
by addressing the root causes of social issues, rather than just the
symptoms.
Q21: What is a social action movement?
A: A social action movement refers to organized, collective efforts by
individuals or groups to bring about social, political, economic, or
environmental change in response to perceived inequalities or injustices.
Q22: What are the primary goals of social action movements?
A: The primary goal of social action movements is to create a shift in
public policy, cultural norms, or societal behaviors to address systemic
issues such as discrimination, inequality, and environmental degradation.
Q23: How do social action movements typically organize their efforts?
A: Social action movements rely on collective action, involving grassroots
participation and collaboration among individuals who share common
concerns or goals, often using various strategies including protests and
digital activism.
Q24: What distinguishes social action movements from other collective
actions?
A: Social action movements are characterized by their focus on
empowerment, justice, and raising the voices of marginalized groups,
challenging the status quo to advocate for more equitable systems.
Q25: Can you name a few well-known social action movements?
A: Examples of well-known social action movements include the Civil
Rights Movement, the environmental movement, and the feminist
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movement.
Q26: What is the definition of a social movement according to Herbert
Blumer?
A: Herbert Blumer defines a social movement as a collective enterprise
motivated by a common purpose, where individuals come together to
pursue shared beliefs and identities.
Q27: What type of social movement aims to completely overthrow
existing structures?
A: Revolutionary movements seek to completely overthrow existing
political or social structures and create a new order, such as the Russian
Revolution.
Q28: What are environmental movements focused on?
A: Environmental movements focus on issues related to environmental
protection and sustainability, such as the climate action movement.
Q29: How do social movements typically mobilize support?
A: Social movements employ mass mobilization, organizing large
numbers of people to participate in activities like protests and advocacy
campaigns to increase visibility and pressure institutions for change.
Q30: What is a salient feature of social action movements concerning
their structure?
A: Social movements generally have an organized structure, with some
level of leadership or coordination that helps mobilize resources and
strategize effectively to achieve their goals.
7-Short Questions & Answers
Q1: What is community development?
A: Community development is a process where individuals and groups
collaborate to improve the quality of life in their local areas, focusing on
social, economic, and environmental well-being.
Q2: What is the primary goal of community development?
A: The goal of community development is to create sustainable, thriving
communities by addressing local needs, empowering residents, and
fostering collaboration.
Q3: Why is participation important in community development?
A: Participation ensures that community members are actively involved in
all phases of development, fostering ownership and addressing real
needs effectively.
Q4: How does community development address inclusivity?
A: Community development emphasizes inclusivity by involving all
segments of the community, especially marginalized and
underrepresented groups, ensuring equitable benefits.
Q5: What role does empowerment play in community development?
A: Empowerment strengthens the abilities of individuals and groups to
control their development, providing education, resources, and
opportunities for leadership.
Q6: What is the significance of sustainability in community development?
A: Sustainability focuses on creating long-term impacts that promote
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environmental, economic, and social well-being while conserving
resources for future generations.
Q7: How does collaboration enhance community development?
A: Collaboration promotes teamwork among community members,
organizations, and governments, leveraging diverse skills and resources
to achieve common goals.
Q8: What does local ownership entail in community development?
A: Local ownership involves encouraging residents to manage and direct
development projects, increasing their investment in the initiatives’
success and sustainability.
Q9: Why is transparency crucial in community development?
A: Transparency builds trust by maintaining openness about goals,
processes, and outcomes, ensuring community members understand
decision-making.
Q10: What is the importance of community development for social
cohesion?
A: Community development fosters social connections and unity by
bringing people together around common goals, contributing to resilience
and stability in the community.
Q11: What is cyber ethics?
A: Cyber ethics refers to the moral principles and rules that guide
behavior and decision-making in the online world, promoting responsible
and respectful use of technology.
Q12: Why is privacy important in cyber ethics?
A: Privacy is crucial because it respects individuals' rights to keep their
personal information safe and confidential, preventing unauthorized
access to their data.
Q13: What constitutes cyberbullying?
A: Cyberbullying involves harassing or attacking someone online through
harmful comments or messages, violating the principles of kindness and
respect in online interactions.
Q14: How does intellectual property relate to cyber ethics?
A: Intellectual property ethics involves respecting the rights of creators by
not copying or stealing their work without permission, such as music,
movies, or written content.
Q15: What does digital footprint mean?
A: A digital footprint refers to the trail left by a person's online actions,
highlighting the importance of being mindful of the long-term
consequences of what is shared online.
Q16: What are the key branches of cyber ethics?
A: Key branches include privacy ethics, intellectual property ethics,
hacking and security ethics, cybercrime ethics, and freedom of speech
and censorship, among others.
Q17: How can individuals ensure responsible use of social media?
A: Individuals can ensure responsible use by thinking before posting,
verifying sources, protecting personal information, and engaging
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positively with others online.
Q18: Why is verifying sources important before sharing information?
A: Verifying sources is important to ensure the credibility of information,
preventing the spread of false or misleading content online.
Q19: What should individuals consider about the long-term impact of
their posts?
A: Individuals should consider how their posts may affect their future
opportunities, reputation, and relationships, as online content can have
lasting consequences.
Q20: What role do companies and governments play in promoting cyber
ethics?
A: Companies and governments play a crucial role by enforcing cyber
laws, fostering digital literacy, and providing tools to protect privacy and
security, contributing to a safer online environment.
Q21: What does the term "digital divide" refer to?
A: The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals who have easy
access to computers and the internet and those who do not, creating
disparities in opportunities and resources.
Q22: What are some consequences for individuals without internet
access?
A: Individuals without internet access may miss educational opportunities,
struggle to find jobs, and lack access to online services such as
healthcare.
Q23: How did the COVID-19 pandemic highlight the digital divide?
A: During the pandemic, many people could not work or attend school
from home due to a lack of technology, making the divide more visible
and pronounced.
Q24: What is the "skills divide" in the context of the digital divide?
A: The skills divide refers to the gap between those who possess the
skills to effectively use digital technologies and those who do not, often
due to a lack of digital literacy.
Q25: What impact does the digital divide have on education?
A: The digital divide exacerbates educational inequalities, as students
without access to technology miss out on online learning resources and
fall behind academically.
Q26: How does the digital divide affect employment opportunities?
A: Individuals without internet access or digital skills may find it difficult
to apply for jobs, attend virtual interviews, or compete for higher-paying
positions.
Q27: What role does economic status play in the digital divide?
A: Economic status affects access to technology; lower-income
individuals may only afford basic internet or outdated devices, limiting
their digital experiences.
Q28: What is the "geographical divide"?
A: The geographical divide refers to differences in access to digital
technology based on location, with rural areas often lacking the
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infrastructure present in urban areas.
Q29: What does the "gender divide" imply in the context of technology
access?
A: The gender divide highlights that women, particularly in developing
countries, often have less access to technology due to cultural, social, or
economic factors.
Q30: How can bridging the digital divide benefit society?
A: Bridging the digital divide can enhance educational opportunities,
improve job prospects, and foster greater social inclusion and economic
development across communities.
Q31: What does the term "digital divide" refer to?
A: The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals, households, or
regions with access to digital technologies (like the internet and
computers) and those without.
Q32: What socioeconomic factors contribute to the digital divide?
A: Socioeconomic factors include income level, education, and
employment, which can limit access to technology and digital literacy.
Q33: How does geographical location affect the digital divide?
A: People in urban areas typically have better access to high-speed
internet, while those in rural or remote areas often lack sufficient
infrastructure for reliable connectivity.
Q34: What role does age play in the digital divide?
A: Older generations may have less experience with digital technologies,
making it harder for them to engage fully in the digital world compared to
younger generations.
Q35: How can government policies influence the digital divide?
A: Government policies can either exacerbate or reduce the digital divide
through investment in digital infrastructure and regulations that either
promote or limit access to technology.
Q36: What is digital literacy, and why is it important in the context of the
digital divide?
A: Digital literacy refers to the skills required to navigate the internet and
use digital devices effectively. A lack of digital literacy can prevent
individuals from fully participating in the digital world, even if they have
access to technology.
Q37: What measures can be taken to provide affordable internet access?
A: Measures include working with internet service providers to offer low-
cost plans and expanding free public Wi-Fi hotspots in community spaces.
Q38: How can digital skills training programs help bridge the digital
divide?
A: Digital skills training programs can ensure that individuals, both young
and old, develop the necessary competencies to use technology
effectively, thereby increasing their engagement in the digital world.
Q39: What impact does the digital divide have on education?
A: The digital divide significantly affects educational opportunities, with
students lacking access to technology being unable to participate in
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online learning, which became especially apparent during the COVID-19
pandemic.
Q40: Why is advocacy for policy and legal frameworks important in
addressing the digital divide?
A: Advocating for policies that ensure affordable internet access and
protect digital rights is crucial for reducing barriers and fostering inclusive
access to online resources.
8-Short Questions & Answers
Q1: What do diversity and inclusion aim to achieve in a workplace or
community?
A: They aim to create an environment that values and incorporates a wide
range of human differences, ensuring everyone feels represented and
valued.
Q2: What dimensions of identity does diversity encompass?
A: Diversity encompasses race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age,
religion, disability, socioeconomic status, and cultural background.
Q3: How does inclusion differ from diversity?
A: Inclusion focuses on the practices and policies that ensure all
individuals feel welcomed, respected, and empowered to participate fully,
while diversity pertains to the presence of different identities.
Q4: What are some benefits of embracing diversity in society?
A: Embracing diversity promotes social cohesion, mutual respect, fosters
dialogue, breaks down stereotypes, and enhances community well-being.
Q5: What is cultural diversity?
A: Cultural diversity refers to the variety of cultural identities within a
society, including customs, traditions, languages, and artistic expressions.
Q6: What are some salient features of diversity in society?
A: Salient features include cultural variety, ethnic diversity, religious
pluralism, language diversity, gender diversity, and age diversity.
Q7: What characterizes diversity in Pakistani society and culture?
A: Pakistan is characterized by ethnic diversity, linguistic variety, religious
pluralism, and a rich tapestry of cultural traditions, cuisines, and festivals.
Q8: How does gender diversity contribute to organizations?
A: Gender diversity promotes equity in opportunities and challenges
traditional gender norms, enhancing overall organizational performance.
Q9: Why is understanding geographical diversity important?
A: Geographical diversity acknowledges how location influences
experiences and viewpoints, which is crucial for effective collaboration
and problem-solving.
Q10: What role does civic participation play in a diverse society?
A: Civic participation influences local governance, political representation,
and advocacy for rights and resources, ensuring that diverse
communities have a voice in decision-making processes.
Q11: What is the definition of development?
A: Development refers to the process of growth, progress, and positive
transformation in various aspects of society, economy, and human well-
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being.
Q12: How is economic development typically measured?
A: Economic development is measured through increases in income,
industrialization, job opportunities, and the reduction of poverty.
Q13: What does social development focus on?
A: Social development focuses on equitable access to resources,
education, gender equality, healthcare, and fostering social inclusion to
reduce inequalities.
Q14: What is sustainable development?
A: Sustainable development emphasizes growth that meets present
needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own
needs, balancing economic progress with environmental protection.
Q15: According to Karl Marx, what is development?
A: Karl Marx defines development as the movement towards the
realization of human potential.
Q16: What are some important indicators of social development?
A: Important indicators include life expectancy, literacy rate, gender
equality, access to clean water, poverty rate, and employment rate.
Q17: What role do youth play in social development?
A: Youth act as agents of change, innovators, political participants,
volunteers, and advocates for social inclusion and environmental
sustainability.
Q18: How do youth contribute to economic growth?
A: Youth contribute by entering the labor force as workers and
entrepreneurs, driving innovation and creating new employment
opportunities.
Q19: What challenges can impede development?
A: Challenges include corruption, inequality, environmental degradation,
and lack of good governance.
Q20: Why is investing in youth empowerment important for development?
A: Investing in youth empowerment is essential for achieving long-term,
sustainable development as youth drive progress in governance,
economy, environment, and culture.
Q21: What is the role of women in social development?
A: Women play a fundamental and transformative role in social
development by participating in various sectors, including education,
healthcare, governance, and the economy, leading to more equitable and
prosperous societies.
Q22: How does women's workforce participation contribute to economic
growth?
A: Women's involvement in the labor force increases productivity,
innovation, and economic growth, resulting in higher household incomes
and reduced poverty.
Q23: Why is women’s leadership important in governance?
A: Women in leadership roles shape policies that address social welfare,
education, healthcare, and gender equality, advocating for inclusive and
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equitable policies.
Q24: How do women contribute to family welfare?
A: Women, particularly as caregivers, play a key role in maintaining family
health, leading to better child-rearing practices and improved health
outcomes.
Q25: What impact do minorities have on cultural diversity?
A: Minorities enrich the social fabric through their unique traditions,
languages, and cultural practices, promoting understanding, tolerance,
and social cohesion.
Q26: How do minority groups contribute to economic development?
A: Minority groups contribute to local economies by starting businesses,
creating jobs, and stimulating economic growth through their
entrepreneurial efforts.
Q27: What role do minorities play in advocating for social justice?
A: Minorities often lead movements for equal rights, combating
discrimination and advocating for social justice, which is crucial for
societal progress.
Q28: How do women and minorities impact education?
A: Educated women and minorities enhance social development by
bringing new knowledge and perspectives, contributing to academic
research and promoting intercultural understanding.
Q29: In what ways do minorities foster peace and conflict resolution?
A: Minorities contribute to peacebuilding efforts by promoting dialogue
and reconciliation, helping to heal divided societies and fostering long-
term peace.
Q30: Why is the inclusion of women and minorities essential for social
development?
A: Their inclusion enhances the richness of social fabric, strengthens
democracy, promotes peace, and ensures a more equitable and
prosperous society for all.
Q31: What is social inequality?
A: Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources,
opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups in society,
manifesting in areas like income, education, and healthcare.
Q32: What are some dimensions of social inequality?
A: Key dimensions include economic inequality, gender inequality, racial
and ethnic inequality, educational inequality, and health inequality.
Q33: How does systemic discrimination contribute to social inequality?
A: Systemic discrimination leads to institutional biases that reinforce
inequality, making it difficult for marginalized groups to access resources
and opportunities.
Q34: What is the Gini coefficient?
A: The Gini coefficient is a widely used measure of income inequality,
ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum inequality), indicating the
disparity in income distribution.
Q35: What does "intergenerational transmission" refer to in the context
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of inequality?
A: Intergenerational transmission refers to how advantages or
disadvantages in socioeconomic status are passed down from one
generation to the next, limiting social mobility.
Q36: How can universal healthcare help reduce social inequality?
A: Universal healthcare provides affordable access to quality medical
services for all, reducing health disparities associated with
socioeconomic status.
Q37: What role does education play in addressing social inequality?
A: Access to quality education is crucial for breaking the cycle of poverty,
providing individuals with opportunities for upward mobility and better job
prospects.
Q38: What is affirmative action?
A: Affirmative action consists of policies aimed at increasing
opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups in education and
employment to correct past inequalities.
Q39: How does social exclusion manifest in society?
A: Social exclusion affects marginalized groups, limiting their
participation in political, economic, and cultural life, and further deepening
their inequality.
Q40: What are some measures to tackle global inequality?
A: Fair trade policies, international aid, and development efforts aim to
improve access to resources in developing countries, reducing the wealth
gap between nations.
Q41: What is social stratification?
A: Social stratification is the structured ranking of individuals and groups
in a society based on criteria such as wealth, power, prestige, education,
and occupation, resulting in unequal access to resources and
opportunities.
Q42: What are the key features of social stratification?
A: Key features include hierarchical structure, inequality,
institutionalization, ascription and achievement, social mobility, class
division, power and privilege, functional necessity, universality, and
intergenerational transmission.
Q43: Who are some notable theorists associated with social
stratification?
A: Max Weber and Karl Marx are notable theorists; Weber emphasized the
distribution of power based on class, status, and political influence, while
Marx focused on class division within the capitalist system.
Q44: What are the determinants of social stratification?
A: Determinants include economic factors (wealth and occupation),
education, social class, race and ethnicity, gender, age, political power,
cultural norms, family background, geographic location, and social
networks.
Q45: What is social injustice?
A: Social injustice refers to systemic inequalities and disparities that deny
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individuals or groups fundamental rights and opportunities, often
resulting in unequal treatment based on various factors such as race,
gender, or economic status.
Q46: What are some reasons for social injustice?
A: Reasons include systemic discrimination, poverty, lack of political
representation, negative social attitudes, weak legal protections, violence
and conflict, economic exploitation, environmental inequities, and
historical legacies.
Q47: What is social harmony?
A: Social harmony is a state of peaceful coexistence and cooperation
among individuals and groups characterized by mutual respect,
understanding, and shared values, allowing diverse communities to thrive
together.
Q48: What are the salient features of social harmony?
A: Salient features include mutual respect, cooperation, diversity
appreciation, conflict resolution, inclusivity, social justice, shared values,
active participation, trust building, and positive communication.
Q49: Why is social harmony important?
A: Social harmony is crucial for community cohesion, conflict resolution,
cultural appreciation, economic stability, mental well-being, social justice,
public safety, and overall quality of life.
Q50: What steps can be taken to promote social harmony?
A: Steps include encouraging dialogue, promoting inclusivity, educating
on diversity, supporting community initiatives, organizing cultural events,
developing conflict resolution programs, fostering volunteerism, and
engaging youth in community-building activities.

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According to Latest UGE Policy 2023(Year), New Curriculum of
HEC Pakistan, All Universities & their Affiliated Colleges

BASIC

CIVICS & COMMUNITY

ENGAGEMENT
WITH SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

General Education Course

GCCE-101
FOR
Undergraduate Degree (including Associate Degrees)
ADA, ADS, BS
 Civics & Community Engagement 232 BS 4 Years,
ADP/ADA/ADS
(Arts/ Science/ Commerce)

Khurram Malik
(Visiting faculty Member)
The University of Education
Town Ship Campus, LHR

Prof. Farooq Malik

Aizaz-e-Fazeelat (Presidential Award)

Khurram Books Majeed Book

Dept
40-Urdu Bazar Lhr 22-Urdr Bazar Lhr
ALL RIGHTS ARE RESERVED WITH THE
PUBLISHER & AUTHOR

General Education Course

GCCE-101
FOR
Undergraduate Degree (including Associate Degrees)
ADA, ADS, BS
(Arts/ Science/ Commerce)

BY: KHURRAM BOOKS

 Civics & Community Engagement 233 BS 4 Years,
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EDITION: FIRST

YEAR: 2024-25

NUMBER OF COPIES: 500

Price: 375/-

CHAPTER: 1
I. AN INTRODUCTION TO CIVICS AND CITIZENSHIP
Civics Nature, Concept of Civics, Definitions, Evolution
7

The Utility & Significance of Civics

9
Salient Features of Civics
11
Importance of Civics in Present Era
CIVICS OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES 13
Civics, Sociology, Geography, Ethics,
History, Economics, Political Science
CITIZEN AND CITIZENSHIP
Concept, Meaning
22

Qualities of a Good Citizen,

24

The ways of Acquiring Citizenship, Loss of Citizenship

 Civics & Community Engagement 234 BS 4 Years,
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25

TYPE OF CITIZENSHIP 27
Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship
31
Importance of Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship
33

CHAPTER NO. 2

CONCEPTS OF CIVICS & CITIZENSHIP

(Family, Individual & Society, Community, Nation & Nationality)

FAMILY

Meaning, Definitions, Kinds of Family,

35
Importance & Duties of Family,
37

CONCEPT OF MODERN SOCIETY

Definitions,
39

Characteristics of Modern Society and Citizenship

40

Aims & Objectives of Society

41
Foundations of Modern Society
44
COMMUNITY 45
Definitions, Characteristics, Kinds,

NATION AND NATIONALITY 46

Definitions, Difference between Nation and Nationality

Elements of Nationality
48

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT 49
 Civics & Community Engagement 235 BS 4 Years,
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Connection Among Civic, Citizenship and Civic Engagement
50

Process of Civic Engagement

52
Kinds of Civic Engagement
55
Hurdles & Challenges of Civic Participation
56
Steps for the Encouragement of Civic Participation
57
Historical Evolution of Civic Participation
58
Civic Participation Present Era & Its Importance
61

CHAPTER NO. 3
STATE, GOVERNMENT & CIVIL SOCIETY
STATE
Evolution of State, Definitions,
63
Essential Elements, Salient Features, Functions
The Historical Evolution of State
67
Factors Played Vital Role in the Formulation of State
GOVERNMENT 70
Structure and Functions of Government of Pakistan
Legislature
Senate, National Assembly, Speaker,
71
Powers and Functions of Parliament
Provincial Assembly, Speaker
Powers and Functions of Provincial Assembly
Executive
75
The President of Pakistan
The Prime Minister
76
Governor, Chief Minister
Judiciary
Supreme Court, High Court
Federal Shariat Court
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PARLIAMENTRY SYSTEM 77

Features of Parliamentary System

78

Merits of Parliamentary System

79

De-merits of Parliamentary System

DEMOCRACY AND CIVIL SOCIETY 82

Relationship between Democracy
and Civil Society in the Context of Pakistan
Importance of the Relationship between
Democracy and Civil Society in the Context of Pakistan

RIGHT TO VOTE

Importance of Political Participation and Representation

87

CHAPTER NO. 4

RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Civic Responsibility & Duties
Definitions, Features, Kinds of Rights
90
CIVIC DUTIES 95
Types of Duties, Duties towards State,
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT
Fundamental Rights According to 1973, Constitution
98
Ethical Consideration in Civic Engagement
99

CHAPTER NO. 5
I. COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
Meaning, Types, Salient Features,
103
Difference between Society &Community, Definitions,

Kinds of Community, 104

 Civics & Community Engagement 237 BS 4 Years,
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Meaning of Community Engagement,
Types of Community Engagement, Salient Features
105
Values of Community Engagement,
108
Principles of Community Engagement,
Importance of Community Engagement,
109
Key Measures for Successful Community Engagement
111
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 112
Meaning, Definitions,
Core Principles Community Development
114
Importance of Community Development
115

CHAPTER NO. 6
ADVOCACY & ACTIVISM
PUBLIC DISCOURSE
Definition, Importance of Public Discourse,
116
PUBLIC OPINION 118
Definitions, Importance of Public Opinion,
Formation of Public Opinion
119
The Sources of Formation and Demonstration of Public Opinion,
120
The Ways to Measure the Public Opinion.
121
ADVOCACY
Definitions, Types, Significance,
122
Steps for Public Advocacy, Salient Features,
SOCIAL ACTION MOVEMENT
Meaning, Definitions, Kinds, Features,
127

CHAPTER NO. 7
DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP AND TECHNOLOGY
DIGITAL PLATFORM
Meanings, Definitions, Types,
130
Utility & Importance of Digital Platform,
133
CYBER ETHICS & RESPONSIBLE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
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Meanings, Key Areas of Cyber Ethics,
135
Branches of Cyber Ethics,
Ensuring the Right & Responsible Use of Social Media,
137
DIGITAL DIVIDE & DISPARITIES 138
Origin, Definitions, Kinds, 139
Effects & Impacts of Digital Divide,
141
Causes of Digital Divide
143
Measures to Minimize the Effects of Digital Divide,
144
CHAPTER NO. 8
DIVERSITY, INCLUSION AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
Diversity and Inclusion
Different Shapes of Diversity, Salient Features,
147
Diversity in Pakistani Society & Culture
SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Meanings, Definitions,
151
Important Indicators of Social Development,
Role of Youth, Women and Minorities in Social Development
SOCIAL INEQUALITY & INJUSTICE IN PAKISTAN
Social Inequality, Definitions, Important Features,
155
Measurement of Social Inequality
Remedies to Reduce Social Inequality & Social Injustice,
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 165
Meanings, Definition, Important Features,
Determinants of Social Stratification
Social Injustice, Reasons for Social Injustice,
SOCIAL HARMONY & PEACEFUL CO-EXISTANCE
Meanings, Definition, Salient Features,
168
Importance of Social Harmony Peaceful Co-Existence
Steps to promote Social Harmony

Short Questions & Answer 172

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