3.

Key Concepts: Being and

1. Definition of Philosophy: Existence:
● Philosophy is about asking deep ● Being (ens): Refers to “that which
questions about reality to discover exists.” For example, when you say
the underlying principles and "the book is red," you're saying it
causes. These questions are not just has "being."
practical but also ● Existence (esse): Is the "act of
theoretical—philosophers seek being"—it is what makes something
knowledge for its own sake. real, as in "the book exists."
● It uses deductive reasoning, ○ Example: When you see a
meaning it starts from general tree, you recognize that it
principles and works down to exists (esse) and has a
specific conclusions. This approach being (ens)—a tree is a real
helps philosophers analyze broad object that you can perceive.
concepts like existence, truth, and
knowledge. Essence vs. Existence:

2. Historical Context and ● Essence is what makes a thing

what it is. For example, the
Development:
essence of a chair is that it is
● Thales: Considered the first something you sit on.
philosopher in Ancient Greece, he ● Existence is that a thing is—it is
proposed that water is the real and present in reality.
fundamental element of everything. ○ In most things, essence and
Though primitive, this idea marked existence are separate. The
the beginning of systematic inquiry chair’s essence is "being
into the nature of reality. something to sit on," but it
● Heraclitus: Believed that change is needs to exist for you to sit
constant—everything is in flux. This on it.
contrasts with Parmenides, who ○ In God, essence and
argued for an unchanging, unified existence are one and the
reality. same—God’s essence is
● St. Thomas Aquinas synthesized existence.
the views of these early
philosophers, combining Christian 4. Substance and Accidents:
theology with philosophical inquiry.
His work forms the foundation of ● Substance: The core of something
Neo-Thomism, which aims to that exists on its own. A human
reconcile faith with reason. being, for instance, is a substance
because we exist independently.
● Accidents: Properties that can
change without changing the
substance. For example, your
 weight, height, and hair color can 6. Inductive and Deductive
change, but you’re still the same Reasoning:
person. Accidents require a
substance to exist. ● Inductive Reasoning: Starts from
○ Example: When we say "the specific observations and moves
apple is red," red is an toward a general conclusion.
accident (a quality of the ○ Example: If you observe that
apple). The apple itself is the birds fly south every winter,
substance. you may induce that "birds
migrate in the winter to find
5. Levels of Abstraction: food."
○ Induction gives probable
Philosophy deals with reality at different conclusions but can be
levels: wrong if new evidence
arises.
● First Level: Focuses on the material
● Deductive Reasoning: Starts with
properties of things (like size, shape,
general principles and works down
and color). This is the level of
to specific conclusions.
physical sciences, such as physics
○ Example: "All humans are
and chemistry.
mortal. Socrates is human.
○ Example: A scientist studies
Therefore, Socrates is
an apple’s color, texture, and
mortal." If the premises are
nutritional content.
true, the conclusion must be
● Second Level: Looks at material
true.
things but from an immaterial
● Scientists often use induction to
perspective. This is the realm of
form hypotheses (testable ideas)
mathematics—abstracting
from observations, while
properties like shape or symmetry.
philosophers primarily rely on
○ Example: A mathematician
deduction to derive certain truths.
studies the geometry of a
rectangular table without
7. Principles and Causes:
focusing on its material
(wood or metal). ● Efficient Cause: The "maker" or
● Third Level: Studies immaterial "doer" of something—the cause
concepts like existence itself. This is that brings something into existence
philosophical abstraction, dealing or motion.
with questions like "What is the ○ Example: A sculptor
purpose of life?" or "What is the (efficient cause) creates a
nature of existence?" statue.
○ Example: A philosopher ● Final Cause: The purpose or goal of
asks, "What does it mean for something.
something to exist?" ○ Example: The final cause of
a seed is to grow into a tree.
 ● Material Cause: The physical
material from which something is
made.
○ Example: The material
cause of a table is wood.
● Formal Cause: The form or essence
of something—the "what it is."
○ Example: The formal cause
of a triangle is its
three-sidedness.

8. Metaphysics:

Metaphysics looks at reality beyond the

physical. Philosophers ask questions like:

● What is the nature of existence?

● What is the cause of reality itself?
● How can we know what is real?

In metaphysics, philosophers defend the

existence of God by arguing that
everything in the universe has a cause,
and that the ultimate cause must be
something whose essence is to
exist—God.
1. Nietzsche’s Approach: The Dionysian (Chaos
and Instinct):
● Nietzsche didn’t want to create a
structured, traditional philosophy. ● Dionysus is the Greek god of wine,
Instead, he preferred free-thinking revelry, and ecstatic emotion. The
and was against rigid systems of Dionysian perspective represents
thought. chaos, instinct, and wildness. It’s
● He explored how life often involves about surrendering to emotions,
illusion versus reality, especially in passions, and the raw, uncontrolled
his discussion of Greek tragedy with aspects of life.
the Apollonian (order, logic) and ● The Dionysian approach values
Dionysian (chaos, instinct) spontaneity and intensity, where
perspectives. people let go of order and embrace
the unpredictable, even destructive,
The Apollonian (Order side of existence. It focuses on
and Logic): experiences that dissolve
boundaries, such as collective unity
● Apollo is the Greek god of the sun, or intoxication.
light, and reason. The Apollonian ● In art, the Dionysian is about
perspective represents order, emotion and experience, often
structure, and rationality. It’s about chaotic and overwhelming. It
clarity, boundaries, and self-control. connects to the sublime—things
● People who follow an Apollonian that are beautiful but terrifying.
approach tend to value logic,
reason, and discipline. They seek Example: A musician improvising wildly on
to make sense of the world by stage, playing with raw emotion and energy,
organizing it and keeping things represents a Dionysian approach.
within defined limits.
● In art and life, the Apollonian is all
about creating harmony, beauty, How Nietzsche Uses These
and form. It’s connected to dreams Concepts:
and illusions that make life more
bearable and orderly. ● Nietzsche believed that both the
Apollonian and Dionysian forces are
Example: A painter who carefully plans important and should be balanced.
their work, paying attention to every detail, The tension between order
using precise shapes and proportions, is (Apollonian) and chaos (Dionysian)
following an Apollonian approach. creates powerful art and gives life
its depth.
● For example, in Greek tragedy, the
characters might struggle with chaos
(Dionysian) but the play itself is
structured and artistic (Apollonian).
This balance between the two forces
 is what makes life and art ○ Example: A king who
meaningful. confidently rules without
needing the validation of his
Simple Summary: subjects.
● Slave Morality: This is the morality
● Apollonian = logic, order, of weak people who feel oppressed.
self-control, and structure. They value things like humility,
● Dionysian = chaos, emotion, patience, and forgiveness because
instinct, and passion. it helps them survive in a world
● Nietzsche’s view: The best life (and where they have little power.
art) comes from balancing both—the ○ Example: Someone who
stability of Apollo and the wildness of values forgiveness might be
Dionysus. doing it as a way to cope with
the pain of being wronged,
rather than seeking justice or
revenge.
2. The Problem with Traditional ● Nietzsche argues that slave
Morality: morality came from the oppressed
trying to protect themselves from
● Nietzsche believed that traditional the strong.
morality (the values taught by
religion and society) makes people 4. Will to Power:
weak. He thought these values were
designed to protect the weak and ● The Will to Power is Nietzsche’s
hold back the strong from idea that all life is about striving
reaching their full potential. for power. This doesn’t just mean
● He wanted to transvaluate values, political or physical power—it’s
meaning flip the script on what is about growing, dominating, and
considered “good” and “bad.” For becoming stronger in all aspects of
example, in traditional morality, life.
kindness and humility are good, ○ Example: An artist creating a
but for Nietzsche, these qualities masterpiece, not for
keep people from being strong. approval, but to fully express
their potential, is an example
3. Master vs. Slave Morality: of the will to power.

● Master Morality: This is the morality 5. Critique of Peace and Equality:

of strong, powerful people who make
their own rules. They value things ● Nietzsche thought that ideas like
like pride, strength, and peace, equality, and forgiveness
independence. Masters create their were invented by the weak to keep
own values and don’t need approval the strong from dominating.
from others. These values go against human
 nature, which, in his view, is about 3. Will to Power is the driving force
struggle and power. behind everything—people grow by
● He believed that humans grow by striving for power.
overcoming challenges and that 4. Übermensch rises above common
conflict and domination are part of morals to create new values.
life’s natural order. 5. Life involves struggle and
exploitation, which Nietzsche thinks
6. Übermensch (Superman): is natural.

● Nietzsche’s idea of the

Übermensch (Overman or
Superman) is a person who rises
above traditional morality to create
their own values and lives beyond
the constraints of society. The
Übermensch isn’t bogged down by
conventional ideas of “good” and
“evil.”
○ Example: Think of someone
like a visionary leader or an
artist who doesn’t conform to
societal rules and instead
creates new ways of thinking.

7. Life as Exploitation:

● Nietzsche viewed life as inherently

exploitative—meaning that in
nature, the strong naturally take from
the weak. He thought this was just
how life works, and trying to stop it
(through things like peace or
equality) is going against life itself.

Simplified Key Takeaways:

1. Traditional morality keeps people

weak, according to Nietzsche.
2. There are two types of morality:
Master (strong, independent) and
Slave (weak, defensive).
1. What is Selfishness to Ayn ● She believes that altruism leads to
Rand?: a life of self-sacrifice, which
destroys personal happiness and
● In popular culture, the word makes people feel guilty for pursuing
“selfishness” is seen as negative, their own goals.
often associated with people who ● According to Rand, altruism teaches
are greedy or immoral. that it is immoral to pursue your
● However, Ayn Rand redefines own success and that you should
selfishness as something positive: feel bad for achieving anything for
simply concern for one's own yourself. She thinks this is wrong
interests. She argues that taking and unnatural.
care of your own needs and desires
is natural and moral. 4. Why Does Rand Defend
● Her philosophy, Objectivism, is Selfishness?:
based on the idea that people
should act in their own rational ● Rand argues that humans need a
self-interest—meaning they should moral code that allows them to
make decisions that genuinely flourish and survive. This code
benefit their own life and well-being, should be based on rational values
but without harming others. that help you live a good life.
● She believes that acting in your
2. Rational Self-Interest vs. own rational self-interest is the
Irrational Selfishness: only way to live morally, and that
people who act for themselves are
● Rand emphasizes that rational more likely to be independent,
selfishness doesn’t mean doing productive, and happy.
whatever you want or following
whims. Instead, it’s about acting 5. Examples from Rand:
according to rational principles that
help you achieve long-term ● An industrialist who creates
happiness and survival. wealth is seen as moral because
● Irrational selfishness, like greed or they are contributing to their own
acting on impulse, is not what Rand success and society's progress
supports. She believes that acting through productive work.
without thought or regard for ● On the other hand, a robber who
consequences is destructive and not steals is immoral, not because they
true self-interest. are selfish, but because they harm
others to get what they want. This is
3. Critique of Altruism: not rational self-interest.

● Rand strongly opposes altruism, the

idea that people should live for the
sake of others and prioritize others’
needs over their own.
6. Ethics as Necessary for
Survival:

● Rand sees ethics as a practical

guide for living. It’s not a mystical or
subjective thing, but a way to
determine how humans can survive
and thrive.
● Her version of ethics is rooted in
reality and reason, not in
supernatural beliefs or the opinions
of others.

Simplified Takeaways:

1. Selfishness (in Rand’s view) =

acting in your own rational
self-interest.
2. Rational self-interest = making
choices that help you succeed in life,
without irrational actions or harming
others.
3. Altruism = bad, because it
promotes self-sacrifice and guilt for
pursuing your own goals.
4. Rand's ethics focus on helping
individuals live better, more
independent lives by following
reason.