BIOETHICS PRELIMS

 INTRODUCTION bioethics and that spirituality and bioethics are heavily

intertwined with one another.
Bioethics is both a field of study and professional
As a healthcare provider, it is important to know and
practice, interested in ethical issues related to health
understand varying world views and religious beliefs.
(primarily). It proposes the discussion about moral
Having this knowledge and understanding can empower
discernment in society (what decisions are "good" or
healthcare providers with the ability to better treat and
"bad" and why) and it is often related to medical policy
serve their patients.
and practice, but also to broader questions as
environment, well-being and public health. KEY CONCEPTS:
- CONCEPT OF HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF
It is also concerned with the ethical questions that arise in
MAN
the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology,
- VINCIBLE AND INVINCIBLE IGNORANCE
medicine, politics, law, theology and philosophy.
- ACTS PERFORMED UNDER ERRONEOUS
And the main concern of bioethics is the individual’s CONSCIENCE
search for meaning generally known as ethics or moral EXPLAIN:
philosophy. GIVE EXAMPLE:
SINCERITY AND HONESTY WITH ONE’S REASON,
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
CONCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE WILL DETERMINE
The discipline of bioethics has addressed a wide layers of THE DEGREE OF ONE’S CULPABILITY &
human inquiry; ranging from debates over the boundaries INCULPABILITY OR RESPONSIBILITY AND NON
of lifestyles (e.g. abortion, euthanasia), surrogacy, the RESPONSIBILITY.
allocation of scarce health care resources (e.g. organ ETHICAL POSTULATES
donation, health care rationing), to the right to refuse ► MEANING
medical care for religious or cultural reasons. ► 3 P0STULATES
❑ HUMAN FREEDOM
The scope of bioethics has expanded beyond
biotechnology, and while including topics such as cloning, ❑ THE IMMORTALITY OF THE
gene therapy, life extension, human genetic engineering, SOUL
it can also include astroethics and life in space, and ❑ GOD
manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA etc. DICUSSION AND ASSIGNMENT
These (and other) developments may affect future TYPES OF ETHICS
evolution and require new principles that address life at GENERAL
its core.  All the diverse and ethical formulations of general
and universal concepts and principles that serves
PRINCIPLES as the foundations of morality.Which acts are
The fundamental principles namely, respect for persons, good and which are evil based on a particular
beneficence and justice as well as non-maleficence, system of values and principles of conduct.
human dignity, and the sanctity of life as well as APPLIED
autonomy.  BIOETHICS – ethics of life. (Knowledge in
biology, philosophy, theology, medical, legal,
Spirituality and understanding one another as spiritual psychology, sociology,)combined to settle certain
beings and moral agents is also an important aspect of moral dilemmas.
Why is bioethics important? Deontological – is an ethical theory that uses rules to
EVOLUTIONARY PHASES OF ETHICS distinguish right from wrong, that ethical actions follow
► Man as social being universal moral laws, such as “Don't lie. Don't steal. It is
► Medical ethics believed that humans possess the ability to reason and
Hippocrates understand universal moral laws that they can apply in all
Hippocratic Oath situations. Unlike many other ethical theories, deontology
Percival’s code of ethics does not focus on the consequences of individual actions.
► Research ethics Teleological ethics- focuses on the end goal or outcome
Nuremberg Code of an action and determines morality based on whether
► Public Policy the outcome is good or bad.
the participatory aspect of decision making concerning Deontological ethics evaluate the morality of an action
formulation of public policies for the benefit of all. based on its inherent rightness or wrongness, regardless
How is participatory decision making arrived at? of its consequences.
“Rule ethics and act ethics”
DOMINANT THEMES IN BIOETHICAL INQUIRY
► Principle of Beneficence – Do good and avoid B. Ethical Relativism – no universal or absolute moral
harm or do no harm and do good. principles. Standard of right or wrong are always relative
► Principle of Autonomy – individual freedom and to a particular culture or society
responsibility ► Strength – every culture has its own norm and
► Principle of Justice – the rendering of what is moral actions. Example
due or merited or which is due or merited.(this is ► Objections – “Holocaust” “Do unto others as you
justice in general) for bioethics the equal would like them to do unto you”
distribution of harm and benefits, burden and ► medical context – will the doctor consent to
comfort, goods and services for those who need refuse tx. to a patient?
them. Ethical relativism is inconsistent and self contradictory
types: comparative – the need is determined by since the relativist suggest that moral principles and
the gravity of the condition and non-comparative – is precepts are not binding or valid for everyone yet they
determined by certain standard “first come, first served” insist that their theory is legitimate and proposes that
everyone must accept it.
ETHICAL SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
A.Teleological and Deontological Ethics: C. Situation ethics – moral norm depends upon a
Teleological or consequential ethics – stresses the situation but always act in the name of Christian love.
end result, goal, or consequences as the determining 3 approaches to morality:
factor of its rightness or wrongness. Legalism, antinomianism, situationism
Two examples of consequentialism are: Legalism – use laws or norms to judge, determine and
1. Utilitarianism judges consequences by a “greatest settle the rightness and wrongness of human decisions.
good for the greatest number” Antinomianism – freedom from moral law or precepts as
2. Hedonism, on the other hand, says something is guide in making decisions.
“good” if the consequence produces pleasure or avoids Situationism – the decision will depend on a given
pain. situation but always guided by Christian love.
However, it can be difficult, or even impossible, to know
what the result of an action will be ahead of time. Indeed, TYPES OF LOVE
no one can know the future with certainty. Also, in certain Eros, Philia, and Agape
situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that ► Eros – is mostly of sexual kind between
are objectionable, even though the consequences are individuals
arguably good. ► Philia – or filial an affection that binds a parent to
their children or love between siblings. It can also
be among equals, like friends, or community.
 ► Agape – refers to one’s care, concern and ► Ideas are also instruments of action and
kindness towards others. instrument for solving problem and so
Agape is not primarily an emotion or affection but an pragmatism is also known as instrumentalism. If
active determination of the will, hence it can be ideas prove to be effective instruments it is true;
commanded, while feelings cannot. otherwise they are false. Thinking is an
instrument- people think and judge for a purpose.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHRISTIAN CONSCIENCE: ► Pragmatism is also reconstructionism – an idea
▪ The nature of love – love is the only thing that is used for the reconstruction of experiences.
is intrinsically good nothing else. Reconstructing and relating human experiences
▪ Reduces all value to love – love is the ultimate to one’s own enables one to learn.
norm in Christian decisions, nothing else ► It is also progressivism – an idea becomes
▪ Equates love and justice – justice is love legitimate if it allow one to progress, grow, and
distributed. develop intellectually and morally through its own
▪ Frees love from sentimentality – to love experiences and self-activity.
someone even if you do not like her/him. Knowledge therefore is a process of experiencing, doing,
Loving and liking are not identical. understanding and progressing.
▪ The relation between means and ends – only
the end justifies the means nothing else. Utilitarianism – the rightness or wrongness of actions is
▪ Validates every judgment within its own determined by the goodness and badness of its
context – decisions ought to be made consequences.
situationally, not prescriptively. Based on the above ethical concept no action
IN MEDICAL CONTEXT seemed to be intrinsically right or intrinsically wrong, nor
Situation ethics combines love and justice in treating does the goodness or badness of an act depend upon the
patients. Health personnel should not only be fair to motive, intention, or past action of the doer. Only its
patients but also show loving care and concern for them. consequences, effects, results or outcome.
No preferential treatment, not motivated by kinship, In Medical context: one ought to choose the action that
favouritism, etc. medical treatment must be extended produces the most benefits at the least cost or pain or
regardless of creed, race, color etc. even an enemy unhappiness. However some unhappiness may result so
deserves medical care. It makes moral decisions flexible we have to balance unhappiness over happiness for all
and adaptable to varying situations. individuals affected.
However, it may be used to legitimized personal interest The calculus of pleasure and pain in Utilitarianism consist
and ulterior motives in certain instances. Medical misuse of:
and abuse may be SECRETLY committed. Some may be 1. Intensity – the more intense the pleasure the
prudent enough to weigh the circumstances but it does better.
not guarantee an objective and impartial judgement. 2. Duration – the longer it last
3. Certainty – the more certain it will happen
D. Pragmatism is more of a theory of knowledge, truth 4. Propinquity – the nearer, closer, or more often it
and meaning rather than of morality. occurs
The characteristics of true knowledge are: 5. Fecundity – the greater the chance for more
1. Practical – can be practiced and produce practical pleasure
results. 6. Purity – the purer the pleasure
2. Workable – can be put to work, can be worked out, 7. Extent – the greater the number of people
one that works. benefited.
3. Beneficial – benefits people.
4. Useful – can be used to attain good results. Act utilitarianism – utilitarian principle to shd. be applied
Pragmatism is also known as experimentalism bec. truth to a particular act in particular situation or circumstances
must always be verified and tested by experiments. This on a case - by – case basis.
will determine whether an idea is true or false.
Rule utilitarianism – the principle shd. be used to test feel, think, and act about the concepts of “good”
moral rules then decide on which moral judgement is and “bad” are all parts of our morality.
right or wrong under the circumstances.

Act utilitarianism takes into account the possible results of

each particular act while rule utilitarianism considers the
possible results in light of a rule.

Utilitarianism in medical context provide a system of

formulating, testing, and evaluating hospital policies and
regulations and the results of the above can give rise to
the enactment of laws, directives, guidelines and code of
conduct.

Both act and rule utilitarianism enable one to recognize

that some actions and moral decisions are not
necessarily good per se.

Morality is the belief that some behaviour is right and

acceptable and that other behaviour is wrong. ...
standards of morality and justice in society. ... an effort to
preserve traditional morality.
Key Differences Between Ethics and Morality:
► Ethics are usually based on logical reasoning
and a shared set of values, while morality is often
based on gut instinct or religious beliefs. Ethics
tend to be more objective, while morality is often
subjective. Ethics are universal, while morality is
often culture-specific.
► Morality is the set of standards that dictate what
is right and wrong in terms of behavior and
beliefs. Examples of morality include being
honest, treating others with respect, helping
those in need, and adhering to laws and social
norms.
► Morality helps us distinguish between right and
wrong; it helps us understand how to live a good
life based on the values we hold sacred. It
enables us to see the consequences of our
actions, and it motivates us to do what is right.
► Morality directs people to behave in certain ways
and avoid behaving in other ways. It evaluates
behavior as right or wrong and may involve
measuring the conformity of a person's actions to
a code of conduct or set of principles.
► Morality is an inner sense of rightness about our
behavior and the behavior of others. How we