MOLECULAR ELCETRONICS

A Seminar Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of

BATCHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
by

MANCHALA ANKITHA SAI

(20211A04C6)

Under the esteemed guidance of

Dr. Pavan Kumar Bikki, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
Department of ECE

B V Raju Institute of Technology

(UGC Autonomous, affiliated to JNTUH, Accredited by NAAC with A+Grade & NBA),
Vishnupur, Narsapur, Medak, Telangana State, Indian, 502313.
2022-2023

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Seminar Report entitled “MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS” is being

submitted by Manchala Ankitha Sai (20211A04C6) in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award

of the degree of B.Tech in Electronics and Communication Engineering by Jawaharlal Nehru Technological

University (JNTU), Hyderabad is a record of bonafide work carried out by him/her under my guidance and

supervision from 2022 to 2023.

The summary and findings presented in this Seminar Report have been verified and found to be

satisfactory.

INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Dr. Pavan Kumar Bikki, Ph.D. Dr. B. R. Sanjeeva Reddy, Ph.D, MIEEE
Assistant Professor Professor & HOD.
Department of ECE. Department of ECE.

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 CENTER FOR VLSI DESIGN
Dept of Electronics and Communication Engineering
B.V Raju Institute of Technology
Vishnupur, Narsapur, Medak Dist.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the following student of B.V. Raju Institute of technology
have undertaken the project titled “MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS” at the Center
for VLSI Design (CVD) under the esteemed guidance of “Dr. Pavan Kumar Bikki,
Ph.D.” from to and have completed the project successfully.

TEAM MEMBER: REGISTER NUMBER:

Manchala Ankitha Sai 20211A04C6

The results presented in this mini project have been verified and are found to be
satisfactory.

COORDINATOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Mr. U. Gnaneshwara Chary, M. Tech (Ph.D.) Dr. Sanjeeva Reddy, Ph.D., MIEEE
Assistant Professor Professor & HOD
Department of ECE Department of ECE

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to express our indebt gratitude to the persons who contributed for our work, for

being our inspiration and guide which led to the successful completion of the Seminar Report.

We are grateful towards our College Management and our beloved Principal Dr. Sanjay Dubey, Ph.D., for

providing us the necessary infrastructure and facilities that ensured smooth and satisfactory execution of the

Seminar Report.

We would like to express our profound gratitude to our head of the department Dr. B R. Sanjeeva Reddy,

Ph.D., Professor & HOD, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, for his

encouragement, inspiration, close monitoring and guidance he gave me during the execution of the Seminar

Report.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. Pavan Kumar Bikki, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, our

guide, for his valuable suggestions and motivation in successful completion of the Seminar report. We also

wish to express our thanks to all the faculty members and laboratory staff that were helpful both directly and

indirectly for the completion of our Seminar Report.

Regards
Manchala Ankitha Sai(20211A04C6)

iv
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the Seminar entitled “MOLECULAR ELCETRONICS” submitted to B V Raju

Institute of Technology, affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University (JNTU), Hyderabad, for

the degree of Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) in Electronics and Communication Engineering (ECE) is a

result of original project work done by us/me.

It is further declaring that the Seminar Report on any part, therefore, has not been previously submitted to

any University or institute for the award of degree or diploma.

Manchala Ankitha Sai

(20211A04C6)

v
 ABSTRACT

Molecular electronics represents a burgeoning frontier at the intersection of nanotechnology,

chemistry, and electronics, focusing on harnessing individual molecules as functional components for
electronic devices and circuits. This cutting-edge field explores the unique properties of molecules, such as
their size, structure, and electronic behavior, to innovate and fabricate miniaturized and highly efficient
electronic systems at the nanoscale. Molecular-scale components, including molecular wires, switches,
diodes, and transistors, promise transformative advancements in computing, sensing, and energy storage.

The pursuit of molecular electronics seeks to overcome the limitations posed by traditional semiconductor-
based technology. By leveraging molecular diversity and exploiting quantum effects at the molecular level,
researchers envision revolutionary electronic components offering unparalleled computational density,
reduced power consumption, and potential biocompatibility. These advancements hold promise for
applications in nanoelectronics, quantum computing, wearable technology, and biomedical devices.

However, the field encounters challenges in precise assembly techniques, understanding electron transport
within molecules, and integrating molecular-scale components into scalable and practical devices. Despite
these hurdles, the potential for molecular electronics to reshape electronics as we know it, fostering smaller,
faster, and more energy-efficient devices, propels ongoing research and positions it at the forefront of
technological innovation. As advancements continue, molecular electronics holds the promise of
transforming various industries and catalyzing the development of next-generation electronic technologies.

vi
 CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE II

SPECIAL LAB CERTIFICATE III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV

DECLARATION V

ABSTRACT VI

CONTENTS VII

LIST OF FIGURES VIII

INTRODUCTION 01

LITERATURE SURVEY 02

CHAPTERS:

1. MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS 03

2. METHODOLOGY 04

3. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS 06

4. REGIMES FOR TRANSPORT IN MOLECULAR JUNCTION 08

5. MOLECULAR ELECTRONIC DEVICES 09

6. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES VS MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS 11

7. WHY USE MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS? 13

8. APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS 14

9. DISADVANTAGES 15

vii
10. CONCLUSION 16

11. REFERENCES 17

viii
 INTRODUCTION

Molecular electronics stands at the frontier of scientific exploration, merging disciplines like
nanotechnology, chemistry, and electronics to revolutionize the landscape of electronic device fabrication.
This groundbreaking field delves into leveraging individual molecules as building blocks for creating novel
electronic components and circuits at the molecular scale. By harnessing the distinctive properties of
molecules – their size, shape, and electronic behavior – researchers aim to transcend the limitations of
conventional silicon-based technology.

At the heart of molecular electronics lies the aspiration to craft ultra-miniaturized, high-performance
electronic systems that hold the promise of unmatched computational power and energy efficiency.
Molecular-scale components, including switches, wires, diodes, and transistors, herald a new era of
electronic devices capable of operating at the nanoscale.

However, realizing the full potential of molecular electronics requires overcoming challenges in
precise molecular assembly, understanding electron transport within molecules, and integrating these tiny
components into scalable and practical devices. Despite these obstacles, the prospects of molecular
electronics remain incredibly promising, driving ongoing research and paving the way for transformative
advancements in electronics, computing, and various industries reliant on technological innovations.

1
 LITERATURE SURVEY

S.NO PROJECT TITLE PUBLISHED AUTHORS OBSERVATIONS

DATE
Introducing molecular 1 February 2002 Mark A Observed the working
1. electronics Ratner principle of molecular
electronics.
2. Molecular Electronics. August 26, 2000 James M. Observed how
Synthesis and Testing of Tour synthesis and testing is
Components done for the molecular
electronic devices
compared with
semiconductor devices.
3. Molecular Electronics with July 31, 2002 Phaedon Learnt how nanotubes
Carbon Nanotubes Avouris are designed using
Molecular electronics.

4. Electrical Measurements in August 31, 2004 Dustin K. Observed how current

Molecular Electronics James and voltages are
And James measured in molecular
M. Tour electronic devices.

5. A brief history of molecular 05 june 2003 Mark Ratner Learnt how molecular
electronics electronics was
invented.

6. Molecular electronics: an 2010 JC cuevas, E Learnt the molecular

introduction to theory and scheer electronics working
experiment principle and their
applications.
7. Advances 2018 P T Mathew Studied what are the
in molecular advances and future
electronics: a scope of molecular
brief review electronics in present
world.

CHAPTER-1
MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS
2
 Molecular Electronics is also called as Moletronics. Molecule is small particle of chemical element
or compound that has the chemical properties of that element. Molecular electronics is a branch of applied
physics which aims at using molecules as passive or active electronic components. These molecules will
perform the functions currently performed by semiconductors.

Molecular electronics is a multidisciplinary field at the intersection of nanotechnology, chemistry,

physics, and materials science, focusing on the design, fabrication, and utilization of individual molecules as
functional building blocks for electronic devices, circuits, and systems. It involves studying the electrical
properties, behaviors, and interactions of molecules at the nanoscale to create novel electronic components
such as switches, wires, diodes, transistors, and memory elements. The goal is to exploit the unique
electronic characteristics of molecules to develop ultra-compact, high-performance, and potentially
biocompatible electronic devices that could surpass the limitations of conventional semiconductor-based
technology.

Molecular electronics involves the designing of molecular systems that are capable of long-distance electron
transport through donor-bridge-acceptor (D-B-A) systems. In these systems, charge transport has been
extensively studied with different bridge molecules such as DNA, proteins, porphyrins, and saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Three scientists, namely Alan Heeger, Hideki Shirakawa, and Alan MacDiarmid have made noteworthy
contributions to the growth in electric conductive polymers and were also awarded the Nobel Prize
in Chemistry for their significant work in the field of molecular electronics. Many interesting areas, for
example, molecular switches, molecular rectifiers, DNA electronics, and negative differential-resistance
junctions have also been described in molecular electronics, but it is still uncertain whether these can find
commercial-level applications or not.

3
 CHAPTER-2
METHODOLOGY

The methodology of molecular electronics involves several key steps and approaches:

1. Molecule Design and Synthesis:

This phase involves designing and synthesizing molecules with specific electronic properties
suitable for various electronic functionalities. Researchers design molecules considering factors like
size, shape, conductance, and energy levels to meet desired electronic characteristics.

2. Characterization and Analysis:

Characterizing synthesized molecules through various techniques such as scanning tunneling
microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and spectroscopy methods to understand their
electronic behavior, structure, and properties.

3. Assembly Techniques:
Developing methods to assemble individual molecules into functional electronic components and
circuits. Techniques may include self-assembly processes, nanolithography, and chemical deposition
to precisely position molecules in desired configurations.

4. Device Fabrication and Testing:

Utilizing the assembled molecules to fabricate prototype electronic devices like diodes, transistors,
or switches at the molecular level. Testing these devices to evaluate their performance, conductance,
and functionality.

5. Integration and Scaling:

Integrating these molecular-scale devices into larger systems or circuits, aiming for scalability and
compatibility with existing technology while maintaining functionality and performance.

6. Optimization and Improvement:

Iterative processes to optimize device performance, energy efficiency, and reliability. Continuous
refinement of molecular designs and assembly techniques to enhance device functionality.

4
 7. Theoretical Modeling and Simulation:
Employing computational models and simulations to predict and understand molecular behavior,
aiding in the design and optimization of molecular-scale components and devices.

This multidisciplinary approach involves collaboration between chemists, physicists, materials scientists,
and engineers to advance the field of molecular electronics, aiming to create ultra-miniaturized, high-
performance electronic systems with potential applications in various industries.

5
 CHAPTER-3
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS

When a molecule or molecular wire structure contacts a metal, one deals with a mix of continuous
energy states in extended structures (the macroscopic electrodes) and discrete energy levels in nanoscale
structures (the molecule). After contact, a single common Fermi level will be defined, such that states with
energies below that Fermi level will be occupied, and states above will be empty (at zero temperature). The
molecular eigenstates, the energy levels that describe the isolated molecule, will shift and broaden as they
come into equilibrium with the metal.

Figure 1

From Figure 1 Schematics of (a) a molecular light emitting diode (LED) and (b) a molecular wire junction
(MJW). The continuum electrodes are the same for each, and in each there is an interface problem labeled
by IC at the cathode and IA at the anode end. In the MWJ, the molecule can pass current, and that current
can be modulated either by an external gating potential (noted G) or by binding a substrate molecule
(denoted by S). In the LED structure, the light is emitted from a molecular structure labeled em, and the
holes and electrons pass through specific organic transport layers HTL and ETL, respectively. MA and MC
are respectively thin modulation layers at cathode and anode, which substantially change the character and
balance of the photoemission structure.

6
 Figure 2

From Figure . 2 Energy level diagrams for the simple MWJ of Fig. 1b. The continuous hemispherical
structures are metallic bands, with the Fermi level indicated by the solid dark line. In (a), the lines represent
atomic orbitals within the molecular wire, and the double headed arrows are potential Hamiltonian
interactions between these localized orbitals. In (b), the molecular Hamiltonian has been diagonalized, and
the energy levels correspond to the molecular orbitals.

Figure 2a is an energy level diagram showing local energy levels along the molecular wire that mix
with one another and with the continuous levels of the electrodes (here indicated as hemispherical band
structures). The Fermi level separating the occupied and unoccupied levels of the metal lies between the
highest energy molecular orbital and the lowest unoccupied molecular level. If an electron were placed in
one of the unoccupied orbitals in Figure 2b it would have a finite lifetime, before relocalizing in the metal.

The lifetime associated with the molecular states is equivalent to the mixing of those molecular states
with the electrode. Since that process will mediate electron transfer between the discrete molecule and the
continuous electrode, knowledge of the self-energy is equivalent to knowledge of the electronic
mixing/injection. This is important, because work on metal/molecule binding self-energies is called
Molecular electrons. A given molecule will have different energy levels, denoted by Es . A given interface
will be characterized by the mixing matrix τ. Generally, Hm(described by an electronic structure model
Hamiltonian) describes not an isolated molecule, but ‘an extended molecule’ that incorporates several
surface atoms. This is necessary because the covalent bonding and charge transfer at the interface must be
described with great accuracy. Self-consistency must be attained between electrode and molecule – both
charge flows and potential must be equilibrated. Geometric change upon forming the molecular junction
may be very significant. In MWJs with thickness less than a few nanometers, such injection cannot occur. In
molecular optoelectronic devices, characteristic dimensions are substantially larger (nanometers to microns),
and injection processes will dominate.
7
 CHAPTER-4
REGIMES FOR TRANSPORT IN MOLECULAR JUNCTION

Transport in molecular junctions can manifest in various regimes due to the distinct electronic properties of
molecules and their interactions with electrodes. Some different regimes include:

1. Ohmic Transport Regime:

In this regime, electron transport through the molecule proceeds similarly to metallic conductors,
where the energy levels of the molecule align with the Fermi level of the electrodes. The transport is
characterized by linear current-voltage (I-V) behavior and is governed by low-resistance pathways.

2. Off-Resonant Tunneling Regime:

Here, the energy levels of the molecule are far from the Fermi levels of the electrodes, leading to
weak coupling between them. Electron tunneling occurs with a low transmission probability, resulting in a
sharp decrease in current with increasing voltage.

3. Resonant Tunneling Regime:

In this regime, the molecular energy levels align with the Fermi levels of the electrodes, enabling
resonant tunneling of electrons through discrete molecular states. It results in sharp peaks in the current-
voltage characteristics corresponding to resonances in the molecular energy levels.

4. Coulomb Blockade Regime:

This regime occurs when charging energy or Coulomb interactions significantly affect the transport
properties of the molecular junction. Charging and discharging of the molecule due to the addition or
removal of single electrons result in discrete conductance steps in the I-V curve.

5. Nonlinear Transport Regime:

This regime involves complex transport behavior, often arising due to strong electron-electron
interactions, molecular conformational changes, or multi-step transport processes. It leads to non-linear
current-voltage characteristics, deviating from Ohmic behavior.

Understanding and characterizing these different transport regimes are crucial for designing and optimizing
molecular electronic devices and exploring their diverse applications in fields like nanoelectronics, sensing,
and quantum computing.

8
 CHAPTER-5
MOLECULAR ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Molecular electronic devices encompass a wide range of devices where individual molecules or
molecular assemblies serve as functional elements or building blocks. These devices utilize the unique
electronic properties of molecules to perform specific functions. Some notable examples include:

Figure 3: Molecular electronic devices

1. Molecular Wires:
Single molecules or chains of molecules that act as conductive pathways for electron transport,
forming the basis of molecular-scale wires in nanoelectronics.

2. Molecular Diodes:
Devices based on asymmetric molecular structures that enable the preferential flow of electrical
current in one direction, analogous to semiconductor diodes but at the molecular scale.

9
 3. Molecular Transistors:
Utilizing individual molecules or molecular assemblies as the active elements for amplification,
switching, or controlling electron flow in electronic circuits, resembling the functionality of traditional
semiconductor transistors.

4. Molecular Sensors:
Sensing devices employing specific molecules or molecular structures to detect and respond to
external stimuli such as light, gases, or biomolecules. These sensors find applications in healthcare,
environmental monitoring, and chemical analysis.

5. Molecular Memories:
Non-volatile memory devices utilizing molecular-scale properties to store and retrieve information,
offering potential advantages in data storage density and energy efficiency.

6. Molecular Machines:
Nanoscale devices or machines constructed from molecular components that perform mechanical
tasks or logic operations. These could include molecular motors, switches, and logic gates operating
at the molecular level.

7. Molecular-based Quantum Devices:

Devices exploiting quantum properties of individual molecules for quantum information processing,
quantum communication, and quantum computation, potentially enabling revolutionary
advancements in these fields.

Research and development in molecular electronics aim to exploit the unique properties of molecules to
create ultra-small, high-performance, and energy-efficient electronic devices. These devices hold promise
for a wide array of applications in various fields, ranging from traditional electronics to quantum computing
and biotechnology.

10
 CHAPTER-6
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES VS MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS

Semiconductor devices and molecular electronics represent two distinct approaches to electronic device
fabrication, each with its unique characteristics:

Semiconductor Devices:
1. Materials:
Semiconductor devices are typically fabricated using crystalline materials like silicon, germanium, or
compound semiconductors (such as gallium arsenide).
2. Scaling:
They operate at a larger scale, using microscale or macroscale structures, allowing for the integration
of millions to billions of transistors on a single chip.
3. Manufacturing:
The manufacturing process involves lithography, doping, etching, and deposition techniques in
cleanroom environments, following well-established semiconductor fabrication processes.
4. Properties:
They exhibit stable and predictable electronic behaviors, offering high performance, reliability, and
well-understood characteristics, enabling the foundation for modern electronics.
5. Applications:
Widely used in conventional electronics for various applications, including computers, mobile
devices, sensors, and power devices.

Molecular Electronics:
1. Materials:
Molecular electronics utilizes individual molecules or molecular assemblies as functional components,
exploiting the unique electronic properties of molecules.
2. Scaling:
Operates at the molecular or nanoscale, allowing for the creation of highly compact and potentially
more energy-efficient electronic components.
3. Manufacturing:
Involves techniques like self-assembly, molecular deposition, and nanolithography to assemble and
manipulate individual molecules to create devices.

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 4. Properties:
Molecules offer diverse electronic properties, enabling the design of customizable, energy-efficient,
and potentially highly functional electronic components.
5. Applications:
Still in research stages, molecular electronics hold promise for future applications in quantum
computing, nanoelectronics, biosensors, and other novel technologies.

While semiconductor devices have dominated the electronics industry for decades due to their scalability,
reliability, and established manufacturing processes, molecular electronics offer exciting possibilities for
highly miniaturized, energy-efficient devices with potential applications in emerging fields such as quantum
computing and nanotechnology. Both approaches contribute to advancing electronic technology, each
catering to specific needs and exploring different frontiers in device fabrication and functionality.

12
 CHAPTER-7
WHY USE MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS?

Molecular electronics offers several compelling reasons for its utilization:

1. Speed:
Molecular electronics, operating at the nanoscale, potentially enable faster operations due to the
shorter distance electrons need to travel within molecular circuits, leading to reduced propagation
delays.

2. Power:
Molecular electronics, leveraging reversible and quantum-compatible properties, may dissipate
minimal energy, contributing to reduced power consumption and dissipation compared to traditional
semiconductor-based electronics.

3. Size:
The small size of molecules allows for ultra-compact electronic components and circuits at the
nanoscale. This potential miniaturization enables higher device density and the ability to pack more
functionalities within a smaller space.

4. Low Manufacturing Cost:

While initial research and development costs may be high, the potential for using simpler fabrication
techniques, such as self-assembly or bottom-up assembly processes, could lead to cost-effective
manufacturing of molecular-scale components.

5. Ease of Manufacturing:
The potential use of self-assembly and bottom-up techniques in molecular electronics could simplify
manufacturing processes compared to the complex and costly procedures involved in traditional
semiconductor fabrication. This might lead to more streamlined and cost-effective production
methods.

6. Miniaturization:
Molecules are inherently small, enabling the creation of ultra-compact electronic components and
circuits at the nanoscale, potentially surpassing the limitations of conventional semiconductor-based
technology in miniaturization.
13
 CHAPTER-8
APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS

1. Quantum Computing:
Leveraging molecules' quantum properties for qubits and quantum information processing.
Molecules could offer advantages in maintaining quantum coherence, enabling advancements in
quantum algorithms and computing.

2. Nanoelectronics and Miniaturization:

Creating ultra-compact electronic components and circuits at the nanoscale, allowing for higher
device density and potentially increased computational power in smaller spaces.

3. Biosensors and Biotechnology:

Molecular-scale devices for detecting and analyzing biomolecules, enabling advancements in
healthcare, disease diagnosis, and biological research. These sensors could offer high sensitivity and
specificity for detecting biological markers.

4. Flexible and Wearable Electronics:

Utilizing molecular-scale components in flexible and stretchable electronics, leading to wearable
devices with enhanced functionality, conformability, and biocompatibility.

5. Energy Storage and Conversion:

Employing molecular materials in energy storage devices (such as batteries and capacitors) and
energy conversion technologies (such as solar cells) for improved efficiency and performance.

6. Molecular-scale Machines and Robotics:

Creating nanoscale machines, motors, switches, and actuators using molecular components, paving
the way for advanced robotics and nanotechnology applications.

7. Photonics and Optoelectronics:

Incorporating molecular materials in photonics and optoelectronic devices for improved light
emission, sensing, and optical communication.

These applications showcase the broad potential of molecular electronics in revolutionizing various
industries, from electronics and computing to healthcare, energy, and environmental sustainability.
However, the practical realization of these applications requires addressing technological challenges and
advancing research in molecular assembly, integration, scalability, and reliability.

14
 CHAPTER-9
DISADVANTAGES

1. Fabrication Challenges:
Precise assembly and fabrication of molecular-scale components into functional devices at scale is
extremely challenging.
2. Stability and Reliability:
Ensuring the stability and reliability of molecular devices, especially under varying environmental
conditions, remains a significant hurdle.
3. Molecular electronics must still be integrated with Silicon.
4. The transition from traditional silicon-based technology to molecular electronics may face resistance
and require substantial retooling in existing industries.
5. Integration with Existing Technology:
Integrating molecular-scale components into existing semiconductor-based technologies may require
significant modifications and compatibility issues, impacting widespread adoption.

15
 CHAPTER-10
CONCLUSION

Molecular electronics represents a frontier of immense potential, poised to revolutionize the

landscape of electronic devices and circuits. Despite challenges in manufacturing, stability, and integration,
its unique characteristics offer a pathway towards ultra-miniaturization, energy efficiency, and diverse
functionalities. The field's promise spans quantum computing, biosensing, flexible electronics, and beyond,
heralding advancements with profound implications across industries.

Continued research and development are crucial to overcoming current limitations and realizing the
transformative potential of molecular electronics. Collaborative efforts in molecular assembly techniques,
interface engineering, and understanding molecular behaviors will pave the way for practical applications.
With sustained innovation and strategic advancements, molecular electronics holds the promise of reshaping
the future of electronics, offering highly efficient, versatile, and miniaturized devices that could redefine the
boundaries of electronic engineering.

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 CHAPTER-11
REFERENCES

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[3] Ratner, Mark. "A brief history of molecular electronics." Nature nanotechnology 8.6 (2013): 378-381.
[4] Carroll, R. Lloyd, and Christopher B. Gorman. "The genesis of molecular electronics." Angewandte
Chemie International Edition 41.23 (2002): 4378-4400.
[5] Flood, Amar H., et al. "Whence molecular electronics?." Science 306.5704 (2004): 2055-2056.
[6] Cuevas, Juan Carlos, and Elke Scheer. Molecular electronics: an introduction to theory and experiment.
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17