IndIan foreIgn polIcy

Introduction

A foreign policy is also known as an external policy. It is a collection of strategies that guide a country's interactions
with other countries and international organizations. All sovereign countries have their foreign policy. India also has
its foreign policy. The term foreign policy refers to the interest, objectives and principles that a country promotes
while interacting with foreign countries

Even though there are some basic features of a foreign policy, they are not permanent. The changing international
conditions result in changing the foreign policy of a country

India’s history, culture, economy, and geography are some major factors influencing Indian foreign policy. Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru, our first Prime Minister, gave proper shape to India’s foreign policy

Background of Indian Foreign Policy

The story of the evolution of India ‘s foreign policy begins with the pre-independence period when Indian National
Congress decided in 1932 to have a foreign policy department under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

It was idealist rather than the Realist perspective of international politics has been at the core of India‘s foreign
policy during its early phase.

objectIves of IndIan foreIgn polIcy

1. Space for Strategic Autonomy: India seeks the freedom to make independent decisions and pursue its
national interests without undue external influence.

2. Stability, Both Within and in the Neighbourhood: India aims to promote stability within its borders and in its
neighbouring regions to foster peace and security.

3. Strength – Economic, Military, and Soft Power: India seeks to bolster its economic, military, and soft power
capabilities to safeguard and advance its interests on the global stage.

deterMInants of IndIan foreIgn polIcy

Geographical factors

• Geographical factors are important in determining foreign policy, which is called geopolitics. India occupies a
central position in Asia and occupies the largest area in South Asia. In such a situation, any big incident in the whole
of Asia affects India. The Himalayas are like sentinels of India which play an important role in determining relations
with other Himalayan countries such as Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar.

• Along with this, India has a natural edge in the Indian Ocean. India's dominance over the Indian Ocean is necessary
At present, the Indian Ocean region is an important route of trade and communication for the whole world. Hence, it
also plays an important role in determining the foreign policy of India.

Population

• India is currently the most populous and youngest country in the world, so India is becoming a consumption-
oriented country, in such a situation it will fulfill the need of a big market for all the producing nations, which is the
determinant of foreign policy. But with such a large population, problems like hunger, poverty are evident on India's
foreign policy.

Government System
• India has a democratic governance system that inspires many countries of the world to accept Indian ideology, for
example, ASEAN countries plagued by China look towards India because India's democracy follows the principle of
peaceful coexistence.

Economic Development

• Economic sovereignty is of utmost importance in determining foreign policy. Like its policy, India had to open its
markets in 1991, but after that India has become very strong financially. India's economic growth has attracted many
countries. Today, India is an important energy consumer, with countries like Turkmenistan, Iran Russia having
economic alliances with India. But still the negative trade balance with China remains India's main problem.

Culture

• History and culture can be seen as important in the formulation of India's foreign policy. Kautilya's theory of a
powerful kingdom with the ideals of Buddha and Gandhi shows the path of India. India's civil-civilian religious
relationship is well established from many countries of the world where there are Hindu, Islam, Christian, Buddhist
majorities. The basis of India-Israel relations is somewhere in the policy of all religions of India.

Regional Environment

• Regional events are also important in determining foreign policy. For example, in 1971, the alliance of China, US
and Pakistan brought a crisis situation for India, then India got inclined towards Russia. At present, the increasing
dominance of China is also a reason for intensification of India-US relations. India has increased India's capacity and
power with Look East to Act East policies and China's rise in ASEAN.

Military power

• Today India is the third most powerful country in the Army, fourth in the Air Force and sixth in the Navy. At the
same time, India is rich in nuclear power. Everyone knows India dominance in space. In such a situation, they play an
important role in the foreign policy making of India.

Evolution since 1947 and recent developments

jaWaHarlal neHrU is considered to be the architect of modern India. Apart from his careful handling of India's
domestic situation in the years immediately after the Independence, Nehru's major contribution lies in the field of
foreign policies. In fact, Nehru determined India's international profile to a great degree in the post-independence
years, in his capacity as the foreign minister of India. Jawaharlal Nehru's foreign policy has been made subject to
much controversy and debate, like his economic policies.

Socialism can be said to be one of the greatest international influences on Nehru, but Gandhi's ideals of Satyagraha
also influenced him to a great degree. But he committed himself to neither point of view in framing his foreign policy.
Nehru's foreign policies were characterized by two major ideological aspects. First, he wanted India to have an
identity that would be independent of any form of commitment to either power , the USA or the Soviet.

Secondly, he had an unshaken faith in goodwill and honesty in matters of international affairs. The first policy led
ultimately to the founding of the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM). His second faith was terribly shaken by the
Chinese attack of 1962, openly disobeying all the clauses of the Panchsheel or five-point agreement.

The Founding Principles of Nehru's Foreign Policy: Nehru saw war and violent insurgency from very close quarters as
a freedom fighter, and he believed in neither. In his foreign policies, Nehru tried to guide India in such a way, so as to
stay away from any form of violence and militarism. He rightly believed that a newly decolonized nation must invest
all its economic and logistic resources towards development and not defence and armament. Nehru wanted to
bring in a healthy level of pragmatism in his dealings of India's foreign affairs as well.

Nehru and the Non-Alignment Movement: The greatest success of Jawaharlal Nehru's non-committal international
politics was the formation of the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM). Nehru found allies in Tito, Nasser, Soekarno, U
Nu and Nkrumah at a later stage in his formation of this new alliance. An alliance of newly independent and long
colonized nations was not taken seriously in the beginning, either by the Eastern or the Western bloc. However, the
importance of the alliance was soon felt, and initially led to a great degree of international pressure from both parts
of the globe. It was great test for his courage and it was soon found out that the NAM was not merely a passive
platform of neutral and inactive nations. It had clear objectives that included the gradual decolonization of the
world, and a strong statement that the member countries were not party to the ever escalating tension of the Cold
War. On many occasions, NAM met with success, often under the leadership of Nehru. Whoever supported its cause
was an ally and a friend. Nehru preached a policy of issue based alliance and not one based on political and
economic factor. He was proud of being an Asian, and wanted Asian nations to be the primary determinants of their
political fate, not always guided by Western forces.

Nehru's unshaken belief in the force of international brotherhood was attested with his decision to continue with
India's Commonwealth status. He was made subject to much criticism back home because of the support he
extended towards the Commonwealth, particularly after the complication of the independence issue by the British
government in the post-World War II years, leading to the unwanted partition. However Nehru, always the believer in
peaceful alliances and solution of international affairs based on discussions, went on with his ideals.

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) held significant importance for India for several reasons:

1. Independent Decision-Making: NAM allowed India to make international decisions independently, based on
the merit of each case. This ensured that India’s interests were prioritized in its foreign policy.

2. Balancing Superpowers: It provided India with the ability to balance relations with the two superpowers, the
USA and the USSR. This meant that neither could exert undue pressure on India or take it for granted.

3. Assertion of Sovereignty: NAM reflected the ideology that any sovereign state, regardless of its size or global
standing, has the right to pursue an independent foreign policy based on its own assessment and
requirements.

4. Call for Democratization of International Institutions: It highlighted the need to democratize global
institutions. This demand is still relevant today, especially as emerging countries seek a greater share in
international bodies like the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and World Bank.

Jawaharlal Nehru’s adherence to the non-alignment policy continued even in the face of conflicts with China and
Pakistan, as well as significant shifts in regional dynamics. Whether during the formation and dissolution of the
United States-Pakistan alliance, the strengthening of relations between India and the USSR, or the complexities of
Sino-Indian relations, India maintained its commitment to non-alignment and its pursuit of global peace.

Nehru and the Kashmir Problem: Nehru's Foreign policies did not go well when it came to deal with the neighbors.
Kashmir was a problem, and he failed to reach any successful negotiation regarding Kashmir with the neighbor
Pakistan. Nehru had belief in honest fellow-feeling and political generosity. He tried to force a negotiation with the
Pakistani government through the United Nations. But the Pakistani military rulers denied any peaceful agreement.
The offer of a possible plebiscite was also taken off in 1950. The Kashmir problem remained unresolved, and not even
Nehru's diplomatic expertise could give any positive direction to the problem. It still continues to be the one of the
key international problems in South Asia.

Nehru and the China Crisis: Nehru's foreign policies concerning China have been made subject to much criticism.
However, even in this case, it was Nehru's faith in transparency in the handling of International relations that is seen
to be the root of all problems. Nehru was intent on a very warm and mutually beneficial relationship between India
and China. The five-point agreement or the Panchsheel between New Delhi initiated in 1954 was a result of these
negotiations. However, China started patrolling certain parts of the Indian border from 1955 onwards. Delhi started
negotiations to solve the problem in a peaceful way. India, under the leadership of Nehru wanted to take one issue at
a time and begin the discussions. The Chinese government, under Chou En-lai wanted to treat the border issue in its
entirety at one go. It was violation of the five-point agreement. The Chinese denial for the arbitration from the
International Court of Justice complicated the problem

The term ‘pancHsHeel’ originally referred to the ‘five taboos’ followed by Indian monks in their personal conduct,
as outlined in ancient Buddhist scriptures. Under Nehru’s leadership, this concept was elevated to a central theme
governing international relations, particularly between India and China. The Panchsheel agreement, formalized in a
trade pact between the two nations concerning Tibet, encapsulated the following five principles:

Mutual Respect for Territorial Integrity and Sovereignty:

Both nations agreed to recognize and uphold each other’s territorial boundaries and sovereignty.

Mutual Non-Aggression:

India and China pledged to refrain from any form of military aggression against each other.

Mutual Non-Interference:

They committed to not interfere in each other’s internal affairs, respecting the principle of national self-
determination.

Equality and Mutual Benefit:

The nations aimed for balanced, mutually beneficial relations without one party exploiting the other.

Peaceful Co-Existence:

India and China sought to maintain harmonious relations, resolving any disputes through peaceful means rather than
resorting to force.

These principles, initially intended to govern Sino-Indian relations, later came to guide their interactions with other
countries as well. The Panchsheel agreement was viewed as a foundation for global peace and security, offering a
voice to newly independent nations and reducing the likelihood of conflict worldwide.

The principles of Panchsheel gained further international recognition also.

In essence, Panchsheel advocates for non-violence, tolerance, and peaceful coexistence, allowing nations to
collaborate towards peace and prosperity while preserving their distinct identities. These principles remain
influential in shaping India’s foreign policy to this day.

sHastrI’s era
Lal Bahadur Shastri was the Prime Minister of India from 1964 to 1966.

• The Indo-Pakistan War of 1965: This conflict arose from long-standing tensions between India and Pakistan
over the disputed region of Kashmir.

o The Tashkent Declaration: In the aftermath of the War of 1965, the two leaders met in Tashkent,
USSR (now Tashkent, Uzbekistan) and signed the Tashkent Declaration, which called for an end to
hostilities and the restoration of diplomatic relations between the two countries.

• India-Soviet Union relations: The Soviet Union was a key source of foreign aid and military assistance for
India during this time.

• Public Law 480 (PL 480) program: Under the PL 480 program, the USA provided food aid to countries on a
concessional basis. India received food aid from the United States under the PL 480 program in the 1960s
 IndIra gandHI

Indira Gandhi, one of the most prominent political figures in Indian history, left an indelible mark on the country’s
socio-economic landscape through her visionary policies and leadership. As the Prime Minister of India from 1966 to
1977 and again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, Gandhi implemented a series of ambitious socio-economic
initiatives aimed at uplifting the masses and accelerating the nation’s development. Her policies encompassed a wide
range of areas, including poverty alleviation, agricultural reform, industrial growth, and social justice, fundamentally
reshaping India’s socio-economic fabric. Through her assertive and sometimes controversial approach, Gandhi sought
to address the pressing challenges facing the country while advocating for a more equitable and inclusive society. The
stated aims of the foreign policy of the Indira Gandhi premiership between 1967 and 1977 include a focus on
security, by fighting militants abroad and strengthening border defences. During this phase, she implemented bold
reforms, confronted opposition, and reshaped the contours of power, setting the stage for a tumultuous yet dynamic
era in Indian politics.

1. Transformational Leadership: Indira Gandhi is remembered as one of India’s most powerful leaders. She
played a pivotal role in reshaping the socio-political and economic landscape of India during her tenure.

2. Socio-Political Reforms: Her leadership saw significant strides in various sectors including agriculture,
technology, social security, and poverty eradication. She worked towards realizing the goals outlined in the
Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution.

3. Elevating India’s Global Standing: Indira Gandhi’s tenure also saw India’s international prestige rise
significantly. She played a key role in establishing India as a prominent player on the world stage.

4. Tenure as Prime Minister: Indira Gandhi served as India’s Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and then again
from 1980 until her assassination in 1984. Her tenure was marked by both significant achievements and
controversial decisions.

5. Election and Leadership Struggles: After the untimely demise of Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, there was a
competition for leadership within the Congress party. Indira Gandhi emerged as the party’s leader, though
the decision was not unanimous. This election showcased the democratic process within the party.

6. Controversies and Challenges: Indira Gandhi’s leadership was not without controversy. Her decision to
impose a state of emergency in 1975, which lasted for nearly two years, remains a contentious period in
Indian political history.

7. Economic Policies: During her tenure, Indira Gandhi pursued policies aimed at economic self-reliance. This
included nationalization of key industries, banks, and insurance companies.

8. Foreign Policy: Indira Gandhi played a significant role in shaping India’s foreign policy, including the handling
of relationships with neighboring countries and participation in international forums.

9. Legacy: Indira Gandhi’s legacy is complex, with supporters lauding her for her decisive leadership and critics
pointing to authoritarian tendencies. Her contributions to Indian politics and society continue to be a subject
of extensive analysis and debate.

Overall, Indira Gandhi’s leadership left an indelible mark on India’s history, with a range of policies and decisions that
continue to influence the country’s trajectory.

Indira Gandhi's time as Prime Minister wasn't all smooth sailing. Here are some of the big challenges she faced on
the world stage:
 • Balancing Act: During the Cold War, the US and USSR were locked in a major competition. India wanted to
stay friendly with both superpowers, but it wasn't always easy. Getting too close to one side risked angering
the other.

• Keeping the Peace: India has a complicated history with its neighbors, especially Pakistan. Indira Gandhi had
to deal with wars and tensions, all while trying to create a peaceful region for India to thrive in.

• Helping Others, Helping India: India became a champion for developing countries fighting for independence.
But supporting these movements sometimes put India at odds with other powerful nations.

• Making India Strong: Indira Gandhi wanted India to be respected on the world stage. This meant building a
strong military and developing its nuclear program, which some countries weren't happy about.

Non-Alignment

The policy of Non-Alignment is the bed-rock of India’s foreign policy, it was also followed by Indira Gandhi as her
predecessors, Nehru and Shastri did. In the 1950s and 1960s, several African countries had gained independence
from colonial rule. Indira Gandhi realized the political and economic importance of these countries. Indira Gandhi
boosted the NAM summit in New Delhi in 1967 to strengthen the unity and co-operation among Afro-Asian countries

Relations with Foreign Countries

Indo-US Relations

On invitation from the US President Lindon B. Johnson, Indira Gandhi visited the US on 28 March 1966. During her
visit, the Indo-US Education Foundation was formulated, but could not materialize due to strong opposition in India.
Indira Gandhi impressed on the US President the need for American aid in terms of food and foreign exchange.
America had suspended aid to India in 1965 at the time of the Indo-Pak war. However, Johnson promised three
million tons of food and nine million in aid.

The Indo-US relations touched the base when India signed the treaty of peace, Friendship and Co-operation with
Russia in 1971. America ordered complete stoppage of economic assistance and supply of defence equipment to
India. The Pokhran Test had driven a wedge in the Indo-US relations.

Indo-Soviet Relations

Indira Gandhi visited Moscow in September 1966, with a view to strengthen India’s ‘special relations’ with Russia. But
India was discouraged when the Soviet Union decided to supply arms to Pakistan in July 1976. When Russia was
dissatisfied with Pak’s pro-china attitude, she started improving Indo-soviet relations, which led to the signing of a
historic treaty of peace with the country.

On 9 August 1971, India and the Soviet Union signed the treaty of peace, Friendship and Co-operation. The impact of
the treaty:

1) Discourage Pak threat to India’s security.

2) Check the possible Sino-Pak collusion against India.

3) Neutralise the growing Washington-Pindi-Beijing entente.

4) Help indirectly to make a decisive contribution towards the formation of Bangladesh.

5) assure Soviet support during the Bangladesh War

6) prevent the adoption of the US-China sponsored anti-India moves in the U.N. Security Council
Indo–Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation (1971-1991): It was a treaty of friendship and cooperation
between India and the Soviet Union. It was signed in the amidst of the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971.

o The treaty reaffirmed the close political and economic ties between the two countries. It included
provisions for mutual defense and assistance in case of an external threat to either country.

• India's nuclear test, 1974: In 1974, Indira Gandhi's government surprised the world by conducting India's
first nuclear test. This move, codenamed "Smiling Buddha," had two main goals. Firstly, it demonstrated
India's growing scientific and military power, deterring potential threats. Secondly, some argue it was a way
to show India wouldn't be pressured by other countries into giving up its nuclear ambitions. However, the
test was criticized by some nations who worried about the spread of nuclear weapons.

• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): She also played a key role in the establishment
of the SAARC in 1985, which sought to promote cooperation among the countries of South Asia.

1971, Indira Gandhi's foreign policy faced a major test with the Bangladesh Liberation war

For years, people in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) felt ignored and discriminated against by the West Pakistani
government. They wanted more autonomy and rights.

• India Gets Involved: Millions of refugees flooded into India to escape violence in East Pakistan. Indira
Gandhi's government sympathized with their plight and provided support to the Mukti Bahini, the
Bangladeshi rebel group.
• War with Pakistan: Tensions escalated, and in December 1971, a full-scale war broke out between India and
Pakistan. The Indian army, along with the Mukti Bahini, fought for Bangladesh's liberation.
• Bangladesh is Born: The war ended quickly with a decisive Indian victory. In just nine months, Bangladesh
emerged as a new nation.
• India's New Role: Supporting Bangladesh solidified India's position as a powerful force in South Asia.
However, the war also strained relations with Pakistan and raised concerns about India's growing influence.

This event marked a turning point in Indira Gandhi's foreign policy. It showcased India's willingness to take a more
assertive stance on regional issues

Indira Gandhi's foreign policy was a balancing act between superpowers and regional challenges.

• Soviet Union (USSR): Facing threats from China and Pakistan, India tilted closer to the USSR. They signed a
friendship treaty in 1971, securing Soviet military aid crucial for the Bangladesh Liberation War. However,
India never became a full Soviet ally and maintained its independence.
• United States (US): The US tilt towards Pakistan during the Bangladesh War strained relations. Indira
Gandhi did work to improve ties later, but suspicion lingered.
• China: Relations with China remained tense after a border war in 1962. While there were some attempts to
thaw relations, deep mistrust persisted.
• Pakistan: The relationship with Pakistan was the most complex. The Bangladesh War led to a decisive Indian
victory and the creation of Bangladesh. Tensions remained high throughout Indira Gandhi's rule, with
occasional skirmishes and disagreements.

Overall Strategy: Despite these challenges, Indira Gandhi tried to navigate the Cold War by:

• Maintaining friendly relations with both the US and USSR to avoid dependence on any one power.
• Supporting decolonization movements and emerging nations to build allies.
• Focusing on India's regional security and emerging as a dominant power in South Asia.

Indira Gandhi's foreign policy was a mix of idealism and pragmatism. She faced criticism for getting close to the
USSR and for India's nuclear ambitions. However, she's also credited with strengthening India's global standing and
playing a key role in the creation of Bangladesh
P.V. Narasimha Rao, Prime Minister of India from 1991 to 1996, is best known for ushering in a new era of
economic reforms. But his impact extended beyond the economy. He also played a key role in reshaping India's
foreign policy for a world that was undergoing dramatic changes.

Moving Beyond Cold War Alliances

Until the early 1990s, India's foreign policy was heavily influenced by the Cold War. It leaned towards the Soviet
Union, mainly due to shared security concerns against China and Pakistan. However, with the fall of the Soviet Union,
this alliance became less relevant.

Rao recognized the need for a more pragmatic approach. He understood that India's future success depended on
engaging with all major powers, not just one.

Building Bridges with the West

Rao actively pursued stronger ties with Western nations, particularly the United States. This was a significant shift, as
relations had been strained during the Cold War. He believed that improved relations with the West would open doors
for trade and investment, crucial for India's struggling economy.

Look East Policy: A Focus on Southeast Asia

Rao also initiated the "Look East Policy," a strategic move to build stronger relationships with Southeast Asian
countries like Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam. This policy aimed to:

• Boost Trade and Investment: Southeast Asia's booming economies offered new opportunities for Indian
businesses.
• Counter China's Influence: A stronger India in Southeast Asia could act as a balance to China's growing
power.
• Security Cooperation: Collaboration with Southeast Asian nations could help address shared security
concerns, like piracy in the Indian Ocean.

It refers the re-establishment of strategic and commercial connections with Southeast Asia.

India worked hard to establish ties with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) under Narasimha Rao's
leadership (ASEAN). This action also helped India's role as a regional counterweight to China's geopolitical might. At
that time, India had good working relationships with the leaders of Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam
during his visits to these countries.

The fall of the Soviet Union, one of India's most important economic partners, and a domestic Balance of Payments
problem prompted the Narasimha Rao administration to make significant changes to the country's foreign policy

Normalization of Relations with Israel

Another significant move was the normalization of relations with Israel. While covert ties existed for years, Rao
formally established diplomatic relations in 1992. This move recognized Israel's growing importance in technology
and security, and offered India access to valuable expertise.

Balancing Act with Russia and China

While India's relations with the West improved, Rao ensured India didn't completely abandon its traditional allies. He
maintained open communication with Russia, a crucial source of military equipment. However, he also recognized the
need to diversify India's defence partnerships.

With China, Rao pursued a cautious approach. He understood the need for cooperation on some issues, while
remaining firm on border disputes.

Non-Aligned Movement: A New Role

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), a group of countries unaffiliated with major power blocs, had been a
cornerstone of India's foreign policy. Rao recognized that the Cold War's end had changed NAM's role. He focused on
using NAM to address global issues like poverty and disarmament, while still promoting India's interests on the world
stage.

The Legacy of Rao's Foreign Policy

P.V. Narasimha Rao's foreign policy reforms had a lasting impact on India's global standing. He successfully
navigated a complex international landscape, forging new partnerships while maintaining important existing
relationships. He helped India transition from a Cold War-era foreign policy to one focused on economic growth,
strategic partnerships, and a more prominent role in the world order.

Here are some key takeaways from Rao's foreign policy:

• Pragmatism Over Ideology: He prioritized India's national interests over rigid ideological alignments.
• Engagement with All Major Powers: He built bridges with both the West and the East.
• Economic Focus: He recognized the importance of foreign policy in boosting India's economic development.
• Strategic Partnerships: He forged alliances to address security concerns and promote regional stability.

Rao's legacy reminds us that a well-crafted foreign policy can be a powerful tool for national progress. He helped
India step onto the world stage with greater confidence and ambition, paving the way for its rise as a major global
player. Thus, the Narasimha Rao Government holds an important role in the eventful history of the Indian Democracy,
in which the name of the Prime Minister, for his will power to introduce the Economic Reforms of 1991, will always
be enshrined.

During the 1990s

During the 1990s, India's foreign policy was characterized by a focus on economic liberalization and strengthening
relationships with the United States and other Western countries.

• LPG (Liberalization Privatization and Globalization) reforms: The main changes that resulted from the
LPG reforms were increased emphasis on economic diplomacy. It resulted in opening up to foreign
investment and trade, the government also focused on strengthening economic ties with other countries
through trade agreements, investment deals, and other initiatives.
• Gujral Doctrine: It was a set of five principles to guide the conduct of foreign relations with India’s
immediate neighbours in South Asia.
o Non-reciprocity with neighbours.
o Territory should not be used against the interest of another country.
o Non-interference in internal affairs.
o Respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
o Settle all disputes through peaceful bilateral negotiations.
• Look East Policy: In 1991, India launched its "Look East" policy, which aimed to strengthen economic and
political ties with countries in Southeast Asia.
• Nuclear Tests of 1998: India conducted a series of nuclear tests, which led to international sanctions and
strained relations with the United States and other countries.
• WTO Participation: Another important event was India's participation in the World Trade Organization
(WTO), which it joined in 1995. This allowed India to liberalize its economy and increase its trade with other
countries.

NDA-I (1998-2004)

The NDA-1, led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, was in power from 1998 to 2004.

• The Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998: It led to international sanctions against India but also solidified India's
status as a nuclear power.
• Kargil War 1999: India and Pakistan engaged in a military conflict in the Kargil region of Jammu and
Kashmir. The conflict ended with a ceasefire and the withdrawal of Pakistani forces from Indian territory.
 • India-US Relations: The visit of President Bill Clinton to India in 2000 marked a significant improvement in
relations between the two countries.

UPA-I and II (2004-2014)

The UPA government, led by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, was in power from 2004 to 2014.

• Indo-US 123 Agreement: India and the USA signed a nuclear deal in 2008, which ended India's nuclear
isolation and paved the way for cooperation with the US in the civil nuclear sector.
• India-China Relations: The increased engagement with China, including the establishment of a strategic and
cooperative partnership in 2005 and the signing of a border defense cooperation agreement in 2013.
• Land Border Agreement with Bangladesh: The resolution of the long-standing boundary dispute with
Bangladesh in 2014 involved the exchange of 162 enclaves between the two countries.
• Look East Policy: The Government pursued a "Look East" policy, which focused on strengthening ties with
countries in Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region.
• The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement: In 2010, India signed a free trade agreement with the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which aimed to boost trade and investment between the
two regions.
• UN Security Council Reforms: The government made a strong push for India to be given a permanent seat
on the UN Security Council as part of its efforts to increase India's global influence.

NDA-II (2014-Present)

India's foreign policy under the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government, led by Prime Minister Narendra
Modi, has been marked by a focus on deepening ties with countries in the Indo-Pacific region, as well as efforts to
strengthen relations with traditional partners such as the United States and Russia.

• Neighbourhood First Policy: The government's "Neighbourhood First" policy aims to strengthen relations
with countries in South Asia and the Indian Ocean region.
• Act East Policy: It aims to enhance economic and strategic ties with countries in the Indo-Pacific region,
including through increased trade and investment, cultural exchanges, and infrastructure development.
• SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) Membership: India and Pakistan were admitted as full
members to the SCO, a regional security organization comprising China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
• The India-US Strategic Partnership: It has progressed in recent years and includes cooperation on various
issues, including defence, counterterrorism, trade, and energy.
• Sustainable development commitments: India's participation in the Paris Climate Agreement and its
commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing the use of renewable energy has been a
significant step in India’s foreign relations.