As a result of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the 1895 Treaty of
Shimonoseki was concluded between China and Japan.[225] It stipulated the abolition
of subordinate relationships Korea had with China, in which Korea was a client
state of China since the Imo Incident in 1882.
In 1897, Joseon was renamed the Korean Empire, and King Gojong became Emperor
Gojong. The imperial government aimed to become a strong and independent nation by
implementing domestic reforms, strengthening military forces, developing commerce
and industry, and surveying land ownership. Organizations like the Independence
Club also rallied to assert the rights of the Joseon people, but clashed with the
government which proclaimed absolute monarchy and power.[226]
Russian influence was strong in the Empire until being defeated by Japan in the
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). Korean Empire effectively became a protectorate of
Japan on 17 November 1905, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated
without Emperor Gojong's required seal or commission.[227][228]
Following the signing of the treaty, many intellectuals and scholars set up various
organizations and associations, embarking on movements for independence. In 1907,
Gojong was forced to abdicate after Japan learned that he sent secret envoys to the
Second Hague Conventions to protest against the protectorate treaty, leading to the
accession of Gojong's son, Emperor Sunjong. In 1909, independence activist An Jung-
geun assassinated Itō Hirobumi, former Resident-General of Korea, for Ito's
intrusions on the Korean politics.[229][230] This prompted the Japanese to ban all
political organizations and proceed with plans for annexation.
Japanese rule (1910–1945)
Main articles: Korea under Japanese rule and Provisional Government of the Republic
of Korea
Sup'ung Dam under construction. (July 1942)
In 1910, the Empire of Japan effectively annexed Korea through the Japan–Korea
Annexation Treaty. Along with all other previously signed treaties between Korea
and Japan, the annexation treaty was confirmed to be null and void in 1965. While
Japan asserted that the treaty was concluded legally, Korea disputed the legality
of the treaty, because the treaty was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as
required and it violated the international convention on external pressures
regarding treaties.[231][232] Many Koreans formed the Righteous army to fight
against Japanese rule.[233]
Korea was controlled by Japan under a Governor-General of Chōsen from 1910 until
Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945. De jure
sovereignty was deemed to have passed from the Joseon dynasty to the Provisional
Government of the Republic of Korea.[229]
After the annexation, Japan set out to suppress many traditional Korean customs,
including eventually even the Korean language itself.[234][233] Economic policies
were implemented primarily for Japanese benefit.[235][236] European-styled
transport and communication networks were constructed across the nation in order to
extract resources and exploit labor. However, much of the built infrastructure was
later destroyed during the devastating Korean War.[citation needed] The banking
system was consolidated and the Korean currency abolished.[237]
The Japanese removed the Joseon hierarchy and gave the census register to the
baekjeong and nobi who were not allowed to have the census register during Joseon
period,[238] The palace Gyeongbokgung was mostly destroyed, and replaced with the
Government-General of Chōsen Building.[239]
the March First Movement in 1919
After Emperor Gojong died in January 1919, with rumors of poisoning, independence
rallies against the Japanese colonizers took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the
March First Movement). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000
persons were killed by Japanese soldiers[note 4][240] and police.[241] An estimated
2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies, although Japanese
records claim participation of less than half million.[242] This movement was
partly inspired by United States President Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919,
declaring support for right of self-determination and an end to colonial rule after
World War I.[242]
The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in Shanghai,
China, in the aftermath of the March 1 Movement, which coordinated the liberation
effort and resistance against Japanese rule. Some of the achievements of the
Provisional Government included the Battle of Chingshanli of 1920 and the ambush of
Japanese military leadership in China in 1932. The Provisional Government is
considered to be the de jure government of the Korean people between 1919 and 1948.
The legitimacy of the provisional government is enshrined into the preamble of the
constitution of the Republic of Korea.[243]
So far as primary and secondary education in Korea were classified as being for
"those habitually using the Korean language", and for "those habitually using the
Japanese language". Thus, the ethnic Koreans could attend the schools primarily for
Japanese, and vice versa.[244]
As of 1926, the Korean language was taught for 4 hours a week for the first and
second year of a common school having a six-year course, 3 for the rest of the
course. Both Japanese and Koreans paid school-fees, without exception. The average
fee in a common school was about 25 cents a month. The educational assessment
levied by District educational bodies, paid by the ethnic Koreans, averaged about
20 cents in 1923, per capita of the Korean population, that levied by school
associations, paid by the ethnic Japanese, averaged about 3.30 dollars per capita
of the Japanese population comprised within all the school associations in Korea.
[245]
The literacy rate of Korea reached 22% in 1945.[246] The school curriculum was
radically modified to eliminate teaching of the Korean language and history.[229]
The Korean language was banned, and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names,
[247][note 5][248] and newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean.
Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.[249] According
to an investigation by the South Korean government, 75,311 cultural assets were
taken from Korea.[249][250]
Korean Liberation Army alt text
Korean Liberation Army
Some Koreans left the Korean Peninsula for exile in China, the United States, and
elsewhere. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun
(Liberation Army); they would travel in and out of the Sino-Korean border, fighting
guerrilla warfare with Japanese forces. Some of them would group together in the
1940s as the Korean Liberation Army, which took part in allied action in China and
parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined the People's
Liberation Army and the National Revolutionary Army.
The expulsion of the Japanese in 1945 removed practically all administrative and
technical expertise. While the Japanese only comprised 2.6 percent of the
population in 1944, they were an urban elite. The largest 50 cities contained 71
percent of the Japanese but only 12 percent of the Koreans. They largely dominated
the ranks of the well-educated occupations. Meanwhile, 71 percent of the Koreans
worked on farms.[251]
Division and Korean War (1945–1953)
Main article: Division of Korea
Liberation of Korea
American Marines climbing a sea wall in Incheon during a decisive moment in the
timeline of the Korean War
At the Cairo Conference on November 22, 1943, the US, UK, and China agreed that "in
due course Korea shall become free and independent";[252][253] at a later meeting
in Yalta in February 1945, the Allies agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship
over Korea.[254] On August 14, 1945, Soviet forces entered Korea by amphibious
landings, enabling them to secure control in the north. Japan surrendered to the
Allied Forces on August 15, 1945.
The unconditional surrender of Japan, brought about the liberation of Korea.
However the fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology in post-war World
led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones, effectively starting on
September 8, 1945. The United States administered the southern half of the
peninsula and the Soviet Union took over the area north of the 38th parallel. The
Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to American belief that it was too
aligned with the communists.[255] This division was meant to be temporary and was
intended to return a unified Korea back to its people after the United States,
United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a single
government.
In December 1945, a conference convened in Moscow to discuss the future of Korea.
[256] A five-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission
was established. The commission met intermittently in Seoul but members deadlocked
over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no
solution in sight, the United States submitted the Korean question to the United
Nations General Assembly. On December 12, 1948, the General Assembly of the United
Nations recognised the Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea.
[257]
On June 25, 1950, the Korean War broke out when North Korea breached the 38th
parallel line to invade the South, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for
the time being. After the war, the 1954 Geneva conference failed to adopt a
solution for a unified Korea. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean
War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the
Vietnam War, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War-era. In
addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war.[258]
[259][260][261][262]
Modern Korea (1953–present)
Main articles: History of North Korea and History of South Korea
Beginning with Syngman Rhee in 1948, a series of autocratic governments took power
in South Korea with American support and influence.
With the coup of Park Chung Hee in 1961, a new economic policy began. In order to
promote economic development, a policy of export-oriented industrialization was
applied. President Park developed the South Korean economy through a series of
highly successful Five-Year Plans. South Korea's economic development was
spearheaded by the chaebol, family conglomerates such as Samsung, Hyundai, SK Group
and LG Corporation. The chaebol received state-backing via tax breaks and cheap
loans, and took advantage of South Korea's inexpensive labor to produce exportable
products.[263] The government made education a very high priority to create a well-
educated populace capable of productively contributing to the economy. Despite
occasional political instability, the Korean economy subsequently saw enormous
growth for nearly forty years, in a period known as the Miracle on the Han River.
The unparalleled economic miracle brought South Korea from one of the poorest
states in the world after the Korean War into a fully developed country within a
generation.
South Korea eventually transitioned into a market-oriented democracy in 1987
largely due to popular demand for political reform, and then hosted the 1988 Summer
Olympics, the second Summer Olympic Games to be held on the Asian continent, in the
following year.
Moving on from cheap, lower-value light industry exports, the South Korean economy
eventually moved onto more capital-intensive, higher-value industries, such as
information technology, shipbuilding, auto manufacturing, and petroleum refining.
Today, South Korea is a leading economy and a technological powerhouse, rivaling
even countries such as the United States in information and communications
technology. South Korean pop culture has also boomed abroad in recent years, in a
phenomenon known as the Korean Wave.
Due to Soviet Influence, North Korea established a communist government with a
hereditary succession of leadership, with ties to China and the Soviet Union. Kim
Il Sung became the supreme leader until his death in 1994, after which his son, Kim
Jong Il took power. Kim Jong Il's son, Kim Jong Un, is the current leader, taking
power after his father's death in 2011. After the Soviet Union's dissolution in
1991, the North Korean economy went on a path of steep decline, and it is currently
heavily reliant on international food aid and trade with China.
On 27 April 2018, both North and South Korea signed the Panmunjom Declaration on
ending the conflict between the two countries to reunify Korea in the future.
