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Geographic characteristics
Which are the two main islands that are part of the British Isles?
Ireland and Great Britain
What is the difference between the British Isles, the United Kingdom, and Great Britain?
United Kingdom is a political term, a country that includes Scotland, England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
The British Isles are Great Britain (Scotland+England+Wales), Ireland and a group of smaller islands within
the archipelago.Great Britain is sometimes referred as a geographical term (not a country) that refers to the
largest island among the British Isles; however, it is mostly a political term used as an identity that
transcends English, Welsh and Scottish, uniting all peoples in a common loyalty.
When was Wales annexed to England?
Wales was legally united with England in the 16th century, forming the Kingdom of England and Wales.
When did England, Wales, and Scotland unite to form Great Britain?
In 1707 and formed the new Kingdom of Great Britain.
When was the United Kingdom founded?
It was originally the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, founded in 1801. But in 1922 it became
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
What countries are part of the island of Ireland?
Northern Ireland and The Republic of Ireland.
What is the capital city of the United Kingdom?
London

Physical features
What are the main geographic features of Britain?
It is an Island with not many large rivers, a mountain rage in the North and West and a low coasts in the
East and South. It is well endowed with minerals (tin, lead, iron and coal). There is also widespread
woodland and marsh (swamps).
Where are the highlands located? What are their main characteristics?
In the north west (Wales, Scotland, northern England and southwestern England). The highland zone is
defined by being over 200 meters above sea level. They are marked by a greater emphasis on pastoralism,
as they have mostly chalky soil and are too wet and cold for successful agriculture. They are also much
less densely populated.
Where are the lowlands located? What are their main characteristics?
In the south and south east of England. It is a more fertile area.
What is the climate of Britain like? Why?
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The climate is very wet, and rainfall is pretty evenly distributed and frequent. Despite Britain’s position in
the northern latitudes of Europe—the same distance from the equator as the southern parts of the cold
countries of Norway and Sweden—the presence of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream makes the
archipelago much warmer than the corresponding areas in North America or Scandinavia.
Why was England prone to invasions from the southeast in early times?
Because of their greater agricultural productivity. Also, the extension of power from lowlands to highlands
was a difficult challenge due to the difficulty of the terrain.
Why was England a tempting target for invaders?
Temptation lay in: minerals such as gold, pearls and tin; its fertile soil; and the fauna of the island.

Geographic position
Which was England's position with respect to Europe and the rest of the world in early times? Which were
the main routes of trade and which was the main centre of commerce before 1492? Did England
participate in international trade? Did she use the sea for economic purposes? Why (not)?
The Mediterranean was the main center of civilization. The main line of trade was between the
Mediterranean and Asia. We can see that Britain is rather far from the “maritime silk road”, depicted in
orange on the map, so their maritime trade was not very active. England's relationship with the sea until
1492 was ''passive and receptive'' since they only received trades from Western Europe and, due to the
island's position, they were cut off from the main routes of Commerce: the Mediterranean ports and the
Levant; and because they only received invaders.

Which was England's position with respect to Europe and the rest of the world in modern times?
Which were the main routes of trade and which was the main centre of commerce after 1492?
Did England participate in international trade? Did she use the sea for economic purposes? Why (not)?
The Discovery of America and new alternative ocean routes changed Britain's position to the world. The
fact that Britain was in the centre of the new maritime movement was a turning point for its economy and
history. It was not until the discovery of America and the Ottoman conquest of areas of the Mediterranean
that Britain came to a more favourable position. After those two watershed events, the relation of Britain
with the sea became ''active and acquisitive'' (active from the economic point of view because she stated
trading with other parts of the world, and acquisitive because she started acquiring colonies and territories).
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Who were the first inhabitants of the island?

The earliest inhabitants entered Britain (which was physically attached to the continent) following the last
retreat of the ice after the glacial epoch. Later on, Britain was invaded by Iberians.
Who were the different peoples that invaded Britain from the early Stone Age until 1066?
The Iberians, Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Scots (Irish of the north) and Vikings.
Where did most of the invaders first land? Why? Who were the exception?
The main area of contact between Britain and the Continent was the English Channel, which was used by
most invaders (who first landed in the south). But another area was the North Sea, which was an area of
contact between Britain and western Scandinavia (Norway and Denmark) In this area, the distances were
much greater, so some Anglo-Saxons (Angles who arrived at Northumbria) and the Danes (who landed in
the north; they were the exception) had to wait for the development of improved shipping in order to
invade.

Where did most of the invaders settle? Why? What usually happened to the settlers of the region with
every new invasion?
Owing to the geographic features of Britain, the same phenomena of tribal invasion were repeated again
and again on the same general scheme. Invaders settled on the rich lowlands, killed or subjected many of
the older inhabitants and drove the rest into the mountains of the north and west or into the barren and
remote peninsula of Cornwall.

When did England begin to build an empire?

The history of Britain as a leader in the world's affairs begins with the reign of Elizabeth (16th century).
To what extent is the sea key to the history of Britain?
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Britain has always owed her fortunes to the sea. Long before she aspired to rule the waves she was herself
their subject, for her destiny was continually being decided by its invaders. Successive tides of colonists
came from the sea to inhabit her, or to instill their knowledge and spirit into the older inhabitants. The
centuries later, the englishman commanded the sea and became explorer, trader, and colonist to every
shore in the two hemispheres. So, in early times the relation with the sea was passive and receptive, while
in modern times active and acquisitive.
"History is governed by geography" Apart from the importance of the sea, one can say that if England had
been all lowland, each successive invasion would have rapidly overrun the whole island and no racial
difference might today be discernible (mountain ranges generally forced pursuers to a halt). So, owing to
these geographic features, the same phenomena of invasion were repeated again and again. Another
example is the geographic coincidence of the London’s bridge and the river Thames made the greatness
of London (Trevelyan).

TIMELINE
Iberians Celts Romans Anglo-Saxons Danes Normans

Stone and Bronze Iron age 43 - 410 middle V onward IX century (first) 1066
ages VI B.C.E - 43 C-E X century (second)

Early Inhabitants

Iberians Celts Romans

Period Stone and Bronze
Ages
Iron age (from VI
century B.C.E. until 43
I to V century (actual conquest
took place in 43 C.E by
C.E) emperor Claudius)

Origin North Africa North Western Rome

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Germany and
Netherlands

Purpose of To settle in a new

place
To settle in a new place
(they slaughtered,
To add new territory to the
Empire (fame and wealth for
invasion subdued or chased politicians); to settle the unrest
across the island the in Gaul that was caused by
Iberians and also those British meddling; to exploit
of their own kinsfolk as agricultural and mineral
had preceded them; wealth; to get slaves; and to
those pursued found govern by right of superior
refuge in mountains). civilization.

Areas of Southern and

eastern regions of
South and East
England.
The Romans never conquered
the entire island of Britain; in
settlement England, especially fact, the frontier of the Empire
near Stonehenge was eventually established at
and Avebury Hadrian’s Wall. So they had
because there was permanent settlement
less forest there. in modern England and
Military settlement in
modern Wales.
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Main Hunter-gatherers
and users of flints
Fighting: they were
warriors perpetually
Building bridges, forts and
cities (walled towns linked up
activities or bronze, then at war with one by military roads), extensive
shepherds also. another (war-like commerce with the continent
and religion Became skilled in culture) (London became a big
crafts, weaving commercial centre- exported
and, agriculture. Skillful in ironwork, arts tin, skins, slaves, pearls and
Skilled in and crafts, hunting, grain), agriculture grew
metalwork and fishing, herding, waving, (because of some
long-ship building. bee-keeping, deforestation and draining) but
metalwork, and did not change much (only new
As they exhibited carpentry. crops).
different cultural
traits, there was Agriculture The Romans extirpated the
not a single progressed slowly Druids (who leaded anti-
identity and there (small acreage). Roman forces), but the
were various worship of British gods was
religions. There were growing not eliminated. Among the
economic connections elites, native beliefs were
with the Mediterranean, replaced by Roman cults such
since Britain´s metal as the cult of the emperor.
resources attracted Many new gods were
traders. The most introduced, not only official
civilized regions (south- Roman ones but also some
east) built ports and brought from all parts of the
shipped overseas with empire (Roman army was
the Mediterranean ethnically mixed).
traders. Around 200 C.E Christianity
began to grow slowly in Britain.
They were polytheists, Once it became the official
venerated animals and religion of the empire (4th
plants. An important century by Constantine), the
feature was Druidism church started stamping out
(druids were political other religious practices (but it
and intellectual leaders took several centuries to
with skill and training). stamp out Paganism).
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Political At first they were

organized in small
They developed larger
communities.
The government was far from
being a rigid and uniform
and social tribes but then Organized in tribes or bureaucracy. Municipalities
developed a higher clans, bound together
organizatio political by sentimental ties of
enjoyed self-government and
had jurisdiction over a rural
organization (more kinship. The Kings were
n stratified society). tribal chiefs and justice area. There were five such
was imparted clan by governing cities; the rest of
clan. Smiths (worker of Britain was divided into
iron) had a high status cantons answering to Celtic
and were even tribal areas and bearing tribal
represented among the
names (tribalism was not
gods. There were
strong class divisions stamped out but used as a
(warrior aristocracy means of government while
ruling over a undermining its spirit by
peasantry). A common contact with the Roman´s
form of settlement was more “attractive”civilization).
the hill fort (built on top
of a hill to dominate The upper classes were mostly
surrounding territories). “Romanized”, while there was
little Roman influence on lower
classes.

Racial Consisted of many

different races.
Tall, light-haired.
Warrior-like image
X

features Most of them were

dark-haired, and
some had blue
eyes.

Significance It was the first step

towards civilized
Important for the
development of Irish,
They were not important for
the development of English
life in Britain. It is Scottish and Welsh culture, because they failed to
significant for language and culture permanently Latinize England
Welsh and Scottish since they were also (Latin life disappeared with the
cultures but not slaughtered and Saxons). However, the
really important for forced to move north occupation was significant at
English culture by other peoples. the time since they brought
because they were civilization and progress to the
slaughtered by island (improved living
other peoples. conditions, education,
sanitation, city life, and public
baths).
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Legacies Stonehenge on
Salisbury Plain
Many Celtic sculptures
and crafts
They left behind Welsh
Christianity (which made its
(one of the great (archaeological way back to all Britain later
stone megalithic importance). Many of on), Roman roads (no more
circles; dates the artifacts that roads made until eighteenth
about 3000 B.C.E), survive are related to century) and the importance of
Avebury (built war. certain new city cites (cites not
around the same cities themselves, which were
time), and Maiden destroyed), especially that of
Castle (near London (their junction of roads
Dorchester) with rivers ensured ultimate
greatness of London and its
commercial revival after the
Saxons). More on this in pages
51, 52 and 53 Trevelyan.

Extra useful information

1. The Homo Sapiens were the first inhabitants of the island and the Iberians, the first invaders.
2. The most advanced regions of the Celt civilization (which lay in the south and south-east) were in close
political intercourse with their brethren of Northern Gaul and when they learnt the Romans were about
to subdue the north Gallic tribes, the Britons sent over ships and men to fight against Caesar (one of the
causes of his invasion of Britain.
3. Legacies: 1) London was never completely abandoned, its re-establishment as a Saxon town although
on a more modest scale followed very soon. It was soon again spoken of as an important center of
commerce. The concentration of the road system at that point in the navigable Thames made London´s
commercial revival certain. 2) Roman roads were important because nobody made any more hard roads
until the 18th century. During medieval times, these stone highways still traversed the island, which
would have otherwise relapsed to disunion and barbarism. They also increased the speed of the
following invasions and aided both Saxons and Normans in uniting England as one state and making the
English nation. 3) Welsh Christianity survived because after the Romans departed, missionaries of the
religion kept coming back to encourage the Welsh to take their religion. The Welsh came to regard
Christianity as their distinguishing mark in the 5th and 6th centuries, and they felt superior to Saxon
savages. Later on, the whole island would be Christianized.

Roman occupation
Period: I to V century (actual conquest took place in 43 C.E by emperor Claudius)
Origin: Rome
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Purpose of invasion: To add new territory to the Empire (fame and wealth for politicians); to settle the
unrest in Gaul that was caused by British meddling; to exploit agricultural and mineral wealth; to get
slaves; and to govern by right of superior civilization.
Areas of settlement: The Romans never conquered the entire island of Britain; in fact, the frontier of the
Empire was eventually established at Hadrian’s Wall. So they had permanent settlement in modern
England and Military settlement in modern Wales.

Main activities and religion: Building bridges, forts and cities (walled towns linked up by military roads),
extensive commerce with the continent (London became a big commercial centre- exported tin, skins,
slaves, pearls and grain), agriculture grew (because of some deforestation and draining) but did not
change much (only new crops).

The Romans extirpated the Druids (who leaded anti-Roman forces), but the worship of British gods was
not eliminated. Among the elites, native beliefs were replaced by Roman cults such as the cult of the
emperor. Many new gods were introduced, not only official Roman ones but also some brought from all
parts of the empire (Roman army was ethnically mixed). Around 200 C.E Christianity began to grow
slowly in Britain. Once it became the official religion of the empire (4th century by Constantine), the
church started stamping out other religious practices (but it took several centuries to stamp out
Paganism).

Political and social organization:The government was far from being a rigid and uniform bureaucracy.
Municipalities enjoyed self-government and had jurisdiction over a rural area. There were five such
governing cities; the rest of Britain was divided into cantons answering to Celtic tribal areas and bearing
tribal names (tribalism was not stamped out but used as a means of government while undermining its
spirit by contact with the Roman´s more “attractive”civilization). The upper classes were mostly
“Romanized”, while there was little Roman influence on lower classes.

Significance: They were not important for the development of English culture, because they failed to
permanently Latinize England (Latin life disappeared with the Saxons). However, the occupation was
significant at the time since they brought
civilization and progress to the island (improved living conditions, education, sanitation, city life, and
public baths).

Legacies: They left behind Welsh Christianity (which made its way back to all Britain later on), Roman
roads (no more roads made until eighteenth century) and the importance of certain new city cites (cites
not cities themselves, which were destroyed), especially that of London (their junction of roads with rivers
ensured ultimate greatness of London and its commercial revival after the Saxons). More on this in pages
51, 52 and 53 Trevelyan.
1) London was never completely abandoned, its re-establishment as a Saxon town although on a more
modest scale followed very soon. It was soon again spoken of as an important center of commerce. The
concentration of the road system at that point in the navigable Thames made London´s commercial
revival certain. 2) Roman roads were important because nobody made any more hard roads until the 18th
century. During medieval times, these stone highways still traversed the island, which would have
otherwise relapsed to disunion and barbarism. They also increased the speed of the following invasions
and aided both Saxons and Normans in uniting England as one state and making the English nation. 3)
Welsh Christianity survived because after the Romans departed, missionaries of the religion kept coming
back to encourage the Welsh to take their religion. The Welsh came to regard Christianity as their
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distinguishing mark in the 5th and 6th centuries, and they felt superior to Saxon savages. Later on, the
whole island would be Christianized.

Romans:
Which was their method of conquest?
In 55 B.C.E Caesar made his first expedition to invade Britain, which was not successful. Although the
following year they succeeded, Caesar was forced to leave to face other more important problems (in Gaul).
However, because of this expedition, the relationship between Britain and the empire began to flourish
(because of trade and diplomatic relations) and the British aristocratic lifestyle became increasingly
Romanized. This is why the actual Roman conquest, which took place under Claudius in 43 C.E, was more
feasible.
As regards their method of conquest, Romans did not achieve their conquest by slaughter and destruction,
displacement of older inhabitants, nor by the erection of private castles (unlike other invaders). Their
method of conquest was to make military roads, planned on system for the whole island and to plant forts
garrisoned by regular troops. This way they were able to subjugate and hold down the Welsh mountaineers;
they didn't Romanize Wales but made an effective military occupation. It was a peaceful penetration
because Roman culture started penetrating the island since the first expeditions (national resistance was
out of the question among chiefs already half romanized). The real difficulty lay in the north, where
Brigantes and Caledonians were not submissive. The Romans thus failed in Scotland and marked the final
limit of the northern frontier at the Hadrian Wall.
When did the occupation come to an end? Why?
From the second century on, the empire was in a time of economic decline and in the fifth century (410)
Roman rule in Britain effectively ended when the emperor refused to send help to the British ruling class
because he was preoccupied with problems closer to home.
Could the Romans conquer Caledonia (modern Scotland)? Why (not)?
They couldn't conquer Caledonia because the Celts in the highlands offered the toughest opposition and
also, the Romans were not very interested in conquering the poor and mountainous lands of the north.
Which were the purposes of building Hadrian's Wall?
In order to create an effective system of military control to stop tribes from the north from descending and
raiding inhabitants of the cities.

Extra information:

★ They induced, not forced, their subjects to assimilate Latin life in all its aspects.
★ In cities, even the most common workmen talked Latin and were educated enough to read and write
it.
★ The Roman army was a long-service force, held together under strict discipline all year round.
★ Pax Romana: The only people trained to fight were the regular soldiers of the army. Romanized
Britain fell so easy a prey to the invader (Saxons) because the Celts had given up fighting habits and
become peaceful. Since the Romans brought peace and order to the Celts, it was easier for the Anglo-
Saxons to conquer them later when the Legions left Britain in 410 A.C because the Celts lay unprotected.
Also, the countryside was sprinkled by Roman villas, which were not fortified or even protected by a moat
(because Pax Romana was very real), which was another reason Britain fell easy prey.
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★ Geographic factors account as one of the main reasons why the Romans failed to permanently
Latinize Britain. There were two sharply contrasted regions, the Latinized South and East and the barbarian
North and West. In the north and west Iberian tribalism survived. Owing to this cultural distinction between
regions, the districts destined to be overrun by Anglo-Saxons were the ones which held the Latin
influences. On the other hand, Wales and Cornwall, where Celtic life survived the coming of the Saxons,
were the districts least altered by Romanization. So Roman influence was permanent in no part of the
island. Another more general reason was Britain's being far from the Mediterranean. Another, more
general reason, was the fact that Britain was too far from the Mediterranean. Britain was a distant and
isolated outpost.
★ The late empire suffered an increasing problem with land and sea raids from the Picts of the north
(or Caledones) and sea raids from the Irish. Also, it was a time of economic decline.There was less use of
coinage and participation in inter-regional trade. In the third and fourth century there was a rise of the villa-
economy (power moved from cities into landowners). More than a century before the final downfall of
Roman rule in the island, most cities had fallen into decay and beyond the cities, Roman civilization had
petered away into regions of Celtic tribalism.
★ Beyond the wall: Celtic languages, more reliant on livestock and less urbanized but somehow
transformed by contact with the Roman economy.
★ Transition: sub-Roman period between Romans and AS. Landowners taking up defence against
barbarians, economy decline, increasingly dominant barter economy, decline of urban life, Britain became
less ROman in culture and Latin died out as a spoken language outside the church.

Anglo-Saxons
One of the most important sources of information for historians studying the history of the early Anglo-
Saxon people is the Ecclesiastical History of the English People written by an English monk named
Venerable Bede (673-735).
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★ They were less influenced by Rome and the Mediterranean than other Germanic peoples because
they were from northern Germany and Denmark rather than the southern regions that had prolonged
contact with the Roman Empire.

Period From the middle of the fifth to the end of the sixth century.

Origin As all Nordic peoples, they came from the shores of the Baltic, specifically from
the coast of modern Denmark and Germany on both sides of the mouth of the
Elbe (Germanic people).

Purpose For those who were farmers, they seeked richer ploughlands than those of the
north European shore. For bloody-minded pirates, they were accustomed to
follow their chiefs on expeditions along the coasts and rejoiced to destroy a
higher civilization than their own.

Racial Germanic type: tall, fair-haired, with a white complexion, strong, vigorous.

features

Areas of They landed at the eastern parts of Britain, adjacent to the North Sea and settled
the greater part of Britain from the Forth (around Edinburgh) to the borders of
settlement Cornwall (border of Wessex), and the Jutes settled Kent and the Isle of Wight
(most Britain outside Wales, the far southwest, and the north). They dominated
lowland Britain because it was more valuable and easier to conquer than the
highlands.
Celtic culture remained strong in several areas of the old Rome province such
as Cornwall and Wales and also in Scotland.

Main Fighting and agriculture. Some Anglo-Saxons were farmers but others were
fishermen, seal-hunters and whalers. There was a development of English
activities agriculture and they introduced the use of the heavy plow. Trade did not play an
important role in their lifestyle since they had no mercantile instincts except for
selling slaves overseas, which they stopped doing to pay more attention to farm
lands.The Anglo-Saxon economy was mainly agricultural, based on the open
field system.They were very skillful craftsmen, especially as regards iron-work.
They made arms and helmets, which shows they were warlike people. They also
made pieces of jewelry (bracelets show the typical Celtic pattern legacy for
decorating pieces of craft).
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Religious and Religion:

First: pagan gods (Odin, Thor, etc)
social org. Then: they were converted to Roman Christianity.

Social organization:
On their continent of origin, in the political field, they followed an Autocratic
kingship, where the tribal chief ruled the clan (one monarch with unlimited
power) and tribalism (strict tie of kinship and the bond of mutual aid to be
rendered between all members of a clan). In England they developed social
feudalism, which was personal or man-to-man relationship based on two
principles: loyalty to one's Lord (a stronger bond than family ties) and duty to
one´s kin. In case of a clash between the principles, the duty to the Lord
prevailed. They also had social classes: The thanes (or earls), the Churls, and
the slaves.

Language The Anglo-Saxons spoke the language we now know as Old English, an ancestor
of modern-day English. Its closest cousins were other Germanic languages such
as Old Friesian, Old Norse and Old High German.

Significance They altered the civilization and racial stock far more than any other Nordic
invasion (and with permanent results). They brought Old English (an ancestor
of Modern English). They paved the way for political unity (Heptarchy and
Bretwalda). They took the first steps towards democracy and the Parliament
(Witan).

Legacies Names of the week; names of some places; language; epic poem Beowulf;
legend of King Arthur.

Anglo Saxon Settlement

When did the Anglo-Saxons invade the island? The first raids date
before 300 A.D but the traditional date is 449. The Anglo-Saxon
takeover took two centuries, slowed by resistance and limited
numbers of AS who could arrive by ship. Their invasions were more
a matter of small groups of settlers than vast armies.

Who led the successive waves of invasions? Who followed them?

The spearhead of the invasions were chiefs, who organized the
expeditions, and their followers, who were bands of warriors. Later
on, once the battles had been fought, they were followed by their
families (women and children) and by farmers looking for fertile
land.

Why do we speak of the Anglo-Saxon “settlement”? Find out the

difference between a “settlement” and an “occupation”. There are two different types of colonies: settler,
or settlement colonies; and colonies of occupation. The main difference between the two is that settlers
stay permanently in settlement colonies. The settlers invade the land of the indigenous people, replace the
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people living there or manage their immersion into their own community. They perform all the necessary
activities needed to make the land their home; they cultivate the land, establish traditions and create
religious centers.

Anglo-Saxon system of cultivation: open field system

What was the Open-field system of farming? Why was it called “open”? The open-field system of
agriculture typically involved three large fields which were divided into a patchwork of long narrow strips.
These fields were the property of the lord of the manor but were managed communally, their organisation
being regulated by the manor court. It is called “open” because the arable fields were unfenced. Only during
seed-time and harvest was the land protected by temporary enclosures (once the harvest was reaped,
fences were removed and the village cattle could stray and graze there).

How did the Open-field system work? How was the arable land of a village divided into? How was the land
worked? The arable land was generally divided in three parts (there was also a two-field system). Two of
these three parts were cultivated (one with spring crops and the other with winter crops), and a third part
was left fallow for the land to recover its fertility (three-field system). This arable land was divided in smaller
strips of land, which were shared among the members of a community. Each person in the Anglo-Saxon
received certain strips of the arable land according to their social standing. Intermixed ownership (strips
owned by one person were dispersed among those of other owners) was devised in the interest of the
community as a whole and it meant to secure equality (everyone was given a share alike of good and bad
soil, and near and far soil).

Who were the owners of the land? How many strips of land did the members of a community hold? Who
owned the plough? Most of the strips belonged to the Lord. Each member of the community was entitled a
number of hides according to their social position. Only a few rich landholders had enough horses and oxen
to make up a ploughing-team of six to eight oxen or horses, so sharing among neighbours was essential.

Was farming an individual or a communal chore? Communal work: Economically, AS had a cooperative
structure (all leading operations were carried out in common; there was cooperation for purposes of
production). They worked together and shared the implements of production (tools). Although they worked
as a community they had some feeling of individualism, yet it was not as strong as feudalism (no sharing
out the produce, only productive cooperation).

Apart from the arable land, there were other areas of land. What was each of these fields used for?
Wastelands: These lands were not partitioned and there was no individual ownership. This is where the
villagers would graze their livestock throughout the year. Pastures/meadows: They were divided into strips,
which were annually re-alloted among tenants. Here they grew hay to feed the animals. Then they were
used for livestock grazing when fallowed or after the grain was harvested (fallowed: ploughed and harrowed
but left for a period without being sown in order to restore its fertility or to avoid surplus production).
Woodlands: They were also common lands used for pigs and timber.
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What does all this tell us about the Anglo-Saxons’ lifestyle? Were
they city-dwellers or country-dwellers? They were country-
dwellers. They settled in large rural “townships.” They destroyed
Roman cities and villas, and lived in log houses grouped around
the log hall of their lord, which were made of forest timber.

Anglo-Saxon society

The Anglo-Saxons strongly valued family ties; the kinless man

was an object of pity. If an Anglo-Saxon was killed, it was the duty
of their family to attain either vengeance or a monetary payment,
known as wergild, from the killer. Wergilds varied by social class
and gender. Kinship practices differed from those of the Christian
British.

What was the social structure of the Anglo-Saxon society?

Identify and characterize the social classes in the Anglo-Saxon
society. There were three main social classes under the kings: Thanes (earls- they held a specified
quantity of land, usually five hides, the land necessary to support a family); Churls (independent freemen
who owned less than a thane did; the churl’s wergild might be as little as one-sixth of the thane’s); and
slaves (they had no wergilds, although if a slave was killed by a person other than the owner, compensation
was owed as in other cases of the destruction of property; slaves had certain rights to be supported, and
the church generally promoted humane treatment of slaves and even their manumission).

Which was the chief mark that distinguished one class of society from another? The wergild. Thanes had
the highest wergilds and slaves had none.

Was there any kind of social mobility in the Anglo-Saxon society? Was it possible for a person to climb up
the social ladder? If any, who could do that? What requisites were demanded? Yes, there was social
mobility. A churl could become a thane if he acquired the amount of land required to be one (5 hides). If the
churl was a sailor, he could become a thane if he crossed the channel with his ship three times. Slaves
could become “free” through the ritual of manumission (but they were still bound to their lords). Finally, if a
thane lost his lands he became a churl.

On what principles was the Anglo-Saxon society organized? Explain how these principles functioned and
their implications. What happened when these principles came into conflict? Which one prevailed? Why?
At the time of their coming to England they had both kinship and aristocracy. The two principles that ruled
their society were “loyalty to one’s lord” and “duty to one’s kin”.The Anglo-Saxons strongly valued family
ties; however, even before the migration to Britain, tribalism (ties of kinship and bond of mutual aid rendered
between all members of a clan) was yielding to individualism, and kinship was being replaced by the
personal relation of the warrior to his chief, which is the basis of aristocracy and feudalism. This tendency
was greatly increased when parts of the tribe migrated from their home under leaders who had engaged
the personal service of warriors of different clans. These two principles sometimes came into conflict. E.g:
the payment of compensation or composition: money that the family of the killer had to pay to the family
of the one that was killed. The amount of money depended on the wergild (the “value” of the person), which
relied on the social status. When one person was killed, the principle of loyalty to one’s lord prevailed, so
the lord received the compensation.

Anglo-Saxon government
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In Anglo-Saxon England, whose hands was the government in? The government of England was in the
hands of an elective sovereign assisted by a General Council or Witan of wise men. The Anglo-Saxon form
of government was autocratic Kingship, exercised by a member of the royal family supposed to be
descended from the gods. Such autocracy was limited by the custom of the tribe, by the temper of the
armed tribesmen and by the personal qualities of the King himself.

What position did the monarch enjoy? Could he be deposed? The witan acted as the “High Court of
Justice”, the king sitting as the supreme judge. He decided on the laws (which were then given consent by
the witan) and received taxes. The “Witanagemot” elected the king and could depose him in case of
misgovernment.

How did the coming of Christianity affect the position of the monarch? Why? The early adhesion of all
English Kingdoms to the Roman system of religion gave a great impetus to the movement towards kingly
and feudal power, systematic administration, legislation and taxation, and territorial as against tribal
politics. This greater centralization led the way towards political unity under a single King. The
administration of the church became the model for the administration of the senate. Also, churchmen, being
the only learned men, became the chief advisers of the Crown, which made new Roman ideas pass easily
from the sphere of the Church into the sphere of the State. Kingship gained a new sanctity and a higher
claim on the loyalty of the subject (by clerical theories of sovereignty).

Who assisted the monarch in the affairs of government? Who made up this body? What was the
qualification to be its member? The Witan (Witanagemot). This body consisted of the chief men of
each kingdom, acting on behalf of its people. Wisdom was the qualification to be its member.

To what extent was this assembly a democratic body representative of the Anglo-Saxon people? It
represented the people although it was not a collection of representatives.

What functions did this body perform? Was it a governing body? It made grants of public lands; it gave
its consent to the king's laws and taxes and approved the election of his ministers; and it acted as the “High
Court of Justice”, the king sitting as the supreme judge. After the consolidation of the different English
kingdoms into one, the “Witanagemot” expanded into the National Council. It was a governing body, but it
started to be called “Parliament” in the reign of Henry III.

What is the significance of this institution in the process of democratization of England? In it we see the
true beginning of the Parliament in England.

Heptarchy: In the course of the sixth century, a chain of separate but contiguous Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
grew up, which were constantly shifting their frontiers.

In English history, what does the term Heptarchy refer to? The Heptarchy is a collective name applied to
the seven kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England (East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and
Wessex). They were periodically at war with one another and with the wild Welsh.

What were the most powerful kingdoms in the Sixth, Seventh and Eighth Centuries? In the 6th century
Kent – King Aethelbert. In the 7th century Northumbria – King Oswy. In the 8th century Mercia – King Offa

What kingdom gained supremacy over the others in the Ninth Century? Wessex.
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Who was the monarch? What did he achieve? How was he thence called? Under king Egbert, Wessex
acquired supremacy over all the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Egbert was recognized as the overlord or
Bretwalda (9th century). For the first time England was united, and for this reason Egbert is recognized as
the first English monarch.

Why was this event significant in political history of England? It paved the way for the future political unity
of the country.

Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature

What language did the Anglo Saxons speak? The Anglo-Saxons spoke the language we now know as Old
English, an ancestor of modern-day English.

What kind of alphabet did they use? They had a Runic alphabet, which would serve for charms on swords
or names on stones but not to take down annals or to transcribe epics.

How did Anglo-Saxons influence the English language? The victory of the Anglo-Saxons marks the
beginning of the history of the English people and language and the establishment of a unique culture in
England and lowland Scotland differentiating itself from the speakers of Celtic languages in other parts of
the British archipelago. The dominant literary language was Latin (it had an innate authority, it was the
language of the Church) but in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, the vernacular language (English) emerged as a
literary language from the end of the 9th century onwards.

What kind of literature did the Anglo-Saxons produce? Their literature mirrored the age: heroic lays recited
by professional bards. Anglo-Saxon poetry is pagan in tradition. The principal virtue spraised in the Saxon
epics were the loyalty of the warrior to his lord, the readiness of men to meet death in battle, the courage,
courtesy, and magnanimity of the lord himself.

What is the oldest surviving and the greatest Anglo-Saxon poem? Longest poem and major epic: Beowulf,
tells the story of an exiled hero who fights monsters, dragons and inhabitants of a pre-Christian mental
world.

Anglo-Saxon Religion

What were the Anglo-Saxons’ religious beliefs? The pagan religion of the early Anglo-Saxons was marked
by a strong sense of fatalism and doom, but Anglo-Saxons also believed that humans could manipulate
supernatural forces through spells and charms. Their grand old mythology inculcated or reflected the
virtues of the race-manliness, generosity, loyalty in service and in friendship, and a certain rough honesty.
Lies and cowardice were despised. It taught people not to be afraid of death. Fellowship of gods and men
in feasting, victory, danger and defeat. Importance of fate (gods were also in the hands of fate).

What gods did they worship? They worshiped the same gods as other pagan Germanic peoples, and many
of the royal houses boasted of descent from Woden (or Odin), chief of the gods. Also Thor.

Did they believe in an afterlife? The Anglo-Saxons were oriented not to an afterlife, although they may have
believed in one, but to glory. They only presented a vague and poetical version of popular superstitions
about the next life.
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What did they do with their deads? They avenged them or attained a monetary payment called “weregild”.
The dead were either cremated and their ashes placed in urns, which were then buried, or they were buried
directly in cemeteries or barrows. Whatever the method, the body was always accompanied by grave goods,
particularly if the individual was of a high status. It is thought that the Saxons buried the objects so the
deceased would be able to use them in the afterlife. A common ritual was to put the dead in a ship and set
it on fire.

What was the role of religion in the Anglo-Saxon culture? The pagan religion was a warrior culture, and it
had a big influence on the character of the people, who were very brave and did not fear death.

The coming of Christianity (VII century)

Which two waves spread Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons? Irish Christianity or Church of Iona (The
religion of Columba and Aidan) and Roman Christianity or Church of Canterbury (the religion of Gregory and
Augustine).

Where did they each originate? Where did they each start the path of conversion from? The Irish wave was
started by Columba in the monarchy of Iona (founded in the Hebrides). They started the path of conversion
from the Celtic peoples of the north. The Roman wave originated from the papacy in Rome and started in
the southern part of the island, closest to the European continent.

Who were the missionaries of each Church in charge of conversion? What areas of the island were
converted to Christianity by each of them? Columba carried Irish Christianity from Ireland to Western
Scotland, and from Scotland Aidan converted Northumbria. Augustine converted Kent into Roman
Christianity (through the agency of a Christian wife) and founded the see of Canterbury, which became a
solid base for the spread of Roman Christianity over the island. Paulinus (Roman Church) converted King
Edwin of Northumbria (also through the agency of a Christian wife).

What were the characteristics of each of these Churches? (dogma, organization, celebrations, dates for
festivities, religious observances) Were there any significant differences between the two? The two
churches had the same dogma, but there were some difference regarding celebration, organization, dates
for festivities and religious observances. Irish Christianity was tribal, not parochial, nor episcopal in the
roman sense (although there were some bishops). It was monastic. The normal Irish monastery was
connected with a single tribe and acknowledged no ecclesiastical superior capable of controlling its abbot.
They had differing dates for the celebration of Easter and differing tonsures from the ones of the Roman
Church.The organization of the Roman Church was not monastic but hierarchical with the pope as the main
head.

Where did the two missions eventually meet? What happened? What was the conflict about? What issues
was the conflict between them centered on? The Irish and Roman missions met in Northumbria. There was
a conflict between them centered on the issue of when to celebrate Easter (and also minor issues such as
differing tonsures -way of shaving clerics). However, behind these trivialities lay far more important
differences of spirit and organization.

Who solved the clash between the two? Where? How? What did he summon to settle the matter? What
decision did he take? In favour of which Church did he pass his final judgement? Whose victory did it
mean? The wife of Oswy King of Northumbria undermined her husband's faith in the orthodoxy of the
Church of lona. Oswy summoned the Synod (council to decide on the issue) of Whitby in 664 and he gave
his own judgement in favor of the Roman Church. The men of Iona, rejected in the house of their
Northumbrian friends, could no longer maintain the struggle in England. Some accepted the new order of
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things, others retired back into the Celtic wilderness. The victory of the Roman position in Northumbria was
followed by its imposition on the whole of England by the archbishop of Canterbury. The English church
became particularly devoted to the papacy, to which it credited its conversion. In the course of
generations, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland gradually came into line with the rest of Western Europe.

What was the significance (political, religious, cultural) of his choice in the development of the English
history and culture? The period after Whitby was marked by a flowering of English Christianity and the first
organization of an institution for all Anglo-Saxons, the English church. Much of this was due to the
leadership of Archbishop Theodore of Tarsus, who organized the new hierarchy and brought all monastic
and episcopal England under the dominion of Canterbury. Numerous monasteries were founded and
England (until then rather isolated) was opened to a variety of foreign influences.

The early adhesion of all the English Kingdoms to the Roman system of religion also gave a great impetus
to the movement towards racial unity, kingly and feudal power, systematic administration, legislation and
taxation, and territorial instead of racial policies. The choice at Whitby may have been prompted in part by
a desire to get away from Celtic and tribal things. It also led to the political unity under a single King, and
the administration of the Church became the administration of the Senate. The Church also brought about
advances in the arts, architecture, leisure, learning and civilization. It elaborated legal and learning aspects
of daily life promoting the feudal system based on territorialism, distinction of classes and unequal
distribution of earth and freedom.

Significance: The settlement of the Nordic peoples in our island is the governing event of British history
(Trevelyan): the racial character of the country was fundamentally altered; they had larger permanent results
than other conquests because it was secured on a general displacement of the Celtic in the richest districts
of the island.

To what extent were the Anglo-Saxons significant for the development of the English culture? Anglo-
Saxon language, tradition and history have been fundamental to the shaping of a distinctively English
people.

Extra info:

★ The rivers were the main routes by which they penetrated the interior of the country, so it was by the
side of rivers and not by roads that they made their first settlements.
★ Major cultural differences between Britons and AS; British Christians despised AS Paganism, and in
turn AS despised British weakness. Eventually AS converted to Christianity and their values converged.
British culture and society became more warrior-dominated.
★ There was continuity in rural England but not in cities, since they were further deurbanized and many
Roman foundations were abandoned.
★ The conversion of the English to Christianity followed a top-down pattern (converting king, queen
and top nobles first).

Settlement in England They set up the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia (Angles), Kent
(Jutes), Wessex and Sussex (Saxons).

Language They spoke various dialects which eventually evolved into Old English.
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Days of the week They gave us the names for weekdays based on their gods

Bad Neighbours They slaughtered the Britons when they arrived

Metal workers They created beautiful artefacts of gold and jewels

King Arthur The legend of King Arthur (stories of him and his knights) are today
classics throughout the world, and it can be traced back to the Anglo-
Saxon invasion.

Missionaries After being converted to Christianism, many missionaries from Britain

travelled to the continent to spread the gospel.

Creation of England They created the English nation (Angle land), Alfred came up with the
idea of one nation with one king under one god.

Mercenaries Mercenaries: soldiers who fight for any country that pays them. After
being defeated by the Normans, many left Britain to fight for the
Byzantium Empire.

Last Anglo-Saxon King The last Anglo-Saxon king was buried in 1984 because King Edward´s
(975) bones were found in 1931 and reburied.

The Danish Invasions

Who were the Vikings? Where did they come from? The Vikings were the Scandinavian peoples. The
Scandinavians were divided into three main groups: Swedes (Sweden), Danes (Denmark), and
Norwegians (Norway).

Where did they first land? Why? What lands did they raid? The first recorded encounter was around 790,
when a small group landed in Dorset. Viking attacks initially focused on eastern and northern Britain (areas
closest to the North Sea). They sacked and temporarily ruled London and Canterbury. They also marked the
end of the kingdom of Northumbria. They sacked monasteries and churches (in many areas they caused
the destruction of monastic life), for example Iona and Lindisfarne (generally unfortified and full of precious
things). These raids were particularly shocking to the British Christians as they usually respected the
property and personnel of the church and the saints in their wars with each other.

In British history, why did the Vikings come to be known as Danes? British peoples did not usually
distinguish between different Vikings since the Danes were the initial leaders in attacks on southeastern
England.

According to Burns (2010), “The Scandinavian impact on Britain took place in three phases” (p.43). Which
were these three phases? When did each phase take place? 1. At the end of the eighth century, it began
with smash-and-grab Viking raids by single ships or small groups of ships. Small bands of a thousand
warriors. 2. At the beginning in the mid-ninth century, the Scandinavians formed larger groups for bigger
projects; a fleet of 350 ships arrived on the Thames near London in 851. They developed permanent bases,
began to winter over in England, and sometimes even formed small kingdoms. 3. The last was the invasion
by military forces of Scandinavian kings, both Danish and Norwegian. This led to an entanglement of
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Scandinavian and British politics that lasted until the late 11th century in England and into the 15th
century in Scotland.

★ The AS were mostly independent farmers serving as soldiers part-time, and they were not as committed
or as skillful as the Scandinavian professional warriors.

Why did the Danes invade England? They initially went in search of loot and slaves (for personal exploitation
and for sale in the Mediterranean) to take back to Scandinavia.

Where did they settle? Why? Scandinavians from Denmark settled mostly in the north and northwest, the
area of the old kingdom of Northumbria (and also north western islands). First, because this region was
closest to the North Sea, and second because highlands had little to attract looters and were difficult to
attack.

To what extent were the Danes similar to earlier groups that invaded England? They had many cultural
(body of epic poetry celebrating common racial heroes, common art for decorating objects of daily use,
common customs of war and agriculture), religious (religion of Thor and Woden), and linguistic (Germanic
languages) similarities to the Anglo-Saxons. Also, all Nordic invasions come from the shores of the baltic
sea (same geographical origin).

What did the Vikings look like? (physical traits) Germanic type: tall, fair-haired, with a white complexion,
strong, vigorous. Blue eyed.

What ethnic group did they belong to? Germanic people

What were they like? (character): They were bloody-minded pirates (rejoicing to destroy a higher
civilization) and Pilgrim fathers (who came to settle on the land and till it themselves, not as mere exploiters
and slavemasters but as honest husband-men).

Which were some of their main activities? Seafaring (travelling on ships), fighting (warriors), and
agriculture.

What can you infer about the Vikings’ religion? What was the role of religion in their culture? They were
pagan warriors who adored many gods. They worshipped Odin and Thor (such as the Anglo-Saxons). Old
mythology inculcated the virtues of manliness, generosity, loyalty and honesty. It was a warrior's religion
and they despised cowardice, desertion and dishonourableness. It taught people not to be afraid of death
and their heroes were loyal and fearless. The pagan religion was a warrior culture, and it had a big influence
on the character of the people, who were very brave and did not fear death.

Why were ships an important part of Viking society? What was unique about the Viking longship? Because
they were sea raiders (which is the meaning of Viking). Vikings were the dominant seafarers of the North
Atlantic. One of the keys to their success was the ability to navigate skillfully across the open waters and
they invaded England directly through the North Sea. They characteristic ship was the longship, which had
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a new method of propulsion (sail instead of oars) that made them able to travel faster and to cover long
distances overseas with far less manual effort.

What did the Vikings use ships for? Did trade play an important role in their society? Why (not)? They
raided different lands in search of loot and slaves. Trade played an important role in their society. Some of
the slaves were sold in the Mediterranean slave markets.

When did the Danish policy of conquest and settlement of

England begin? Raids evolved into permanent Danish
settlements; in 866, the Vikings seized York and established their
own kingdom in the southern part of Northumbria. They also
overcame two other major Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, East Anglia
and Mercia. Finally, in 870 the Danes attacked the only remaining
independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom, Wessex.

Which was the most important Anglo-Saxon kingdom at the

time? Wessex.

In what battle were the Danes finally defeated? In May 878,

Alfred's army (of Wessex) defeated the Danes at the battle of
Edington.

What Anglo-Saxon king led the recovery from the Danish

Invasion? The English recovery from the Viking invasions was led
by King Alfred of Wessex (849–899), who was eventually
accepted as king of the English.

What treaty settled the disputes between Anglo-Saxons and Danes? When was it signed? Which were its
provisions? Realising that he could not drive the Danes out of the rest of England, Alfred concluded peace
with them in the treaty of Wedmore (878/9) which agreed on the bounds of the territories of Wessex (Alfred
gained control of areas of West Mercia and Kent which had been beyond the boundaries of Wessex) and
Danelaw (Danish settlement in the northeast). King Guthrum (Danish leader) was converted to Christianity
with Alfred as godfather.

Which were the most important consequences of the first Danish invasion? Alfred’s efforts, the political
unification of the Anglo-Saxons, and the awareness of differences between Anglo-Saxons and
Scandinavians would all contribute to the creation of a common Anglo-Saxon, or English, identity. In both
England and Scotland, native resistance to Scandinavian invaders eventually forced territorial compromise;
the integration of Scandinavian settlers and native populations; and stronger, centralized kingdoms. By the
late 10th century the English kings were strong enough to claim hegemony over Great Britain.

When did the Danes begin to attack England again? There were renewed Viking attacks in the 980s and
990s that raided and ravaged England.

Who was the English King? Aethelred “the Unready” (King Aethelred II; 966-1016)

What measure did he take to stop the Danes from invading the country? To what extent was this measure
successful? He payed money to the Scandinavian forces in order to avoid further attacks. The Scandinavian
attacks on England resumed despite the payment, and each year they asked for more money. In order to
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

collect the money needed, Aethelred created a tax named Danegeld, which continued to exist in English
history for a long time (in fact, William also used it, although it was for other purposes). Because he could
not cope with the situation, by late 1013, Æthelred was forced to flee to Normandy.

By the end of 1013, who was accepted as king of England? Why? Swein (Viking) was accepted as king
because the Anglo-Saxons were disillusioned with AEthelred’s government.

Which were the consequences of the Second Danish Invasion? They paved the way for the Norman
conquest. In order to prevent Normandy (along the northern coast of France) from providing bases for
Scandinavian raiders, there was an increased contact with them, and also for the sake of the wool trade.
These connections were strengthened by the royal intermarriage (aethelred) and the fact that the next-to-
last English king of England, Edward the Confessor (ca. 1003–1066), spent much of his youth in exile at
French courts. When Edward became king of England in 1042, he returned with Norman warriors and
churchmen, the beginning of the Norman presence that would overwhelm England after Edward’s death.

When did Canute become king of England? He became king of England in 1016.

Who invited him to rule the country? The witan (a council created by the Anglo-Saxons to advise the king),
who feared a disputed succession more than Scandinavian rule.

To what extent did he respect the English laws and customs? Canute ruled England as an English king
through English nobles and English bishops and following English law and customs. His reign saw a partial
blending of English and Scandinavian culture (favored by the conversion of Denmark and Norway to
Christianity in 10th and 11th centuries, which diminished their cultural distance).

How did he govern the country? Since he was not only king of England but also of Denmark and Normandy,
this meant that many times he was not around and could not concentrate on issues of England alone. So
he divided England into 4 earldoms (Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and Wessex) and appointed an earl
to rule each one in his name.

Which was the most important earldom? Who was the most powerful Earl? By the end of the Anglo-Saxon
kingdom, the earls of the house of Godwin, who ruled Wessex in south-central England, were more powerful
than the king himself. One of them, Harold II Godwinson, even seized the throne in 1066, becoming the last
Anglo-Saxon king of England.

Who succeeded Canute as king of England? Who chose him as king? On what grounds was he chosen as
king? Edward the Confessor, who was appointed by the witan because Canute had died and had not had
children, and Edward was Aethelred´s son.

Explain to what extent the Danes were significant for the development of the English culture. Most
importantly, their invasions contributed to the political unity of the country and the growth of the English
culture. They led to the creation of a common Anglo-Saxon, or English, identity that would lead to the
creation of stronger, centralized kingdoms and, by the late 10th century, the English kings were strong
enough to claim hegemony over Great Britain.

Also, they had a particular impact on language in England and lowland Scotland (since Scandinavian was
Germanic and English could easily adopt many loanwords). The Vikings brought back to the island those
seafaring habits which the Saxons had lost; it was due to them that a vigorous town life revived in England
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

for the first time since the departure of the Romans (the Saxons had never developed town life, except to a
slight extent in London); and they also brought back the importance of trade.

Culturally, the racial stock was not changed because the A-S were not expelled by the Danes. Although they
mingled with the A-S, they had racial similarities. Economically, they introduced the commercial spirit into
the English idiosyncrasy, for they were mainly traders. England became mainly commercial. Politically, they
contributed to the achievement of the political unity of the country (the Heptarchy, the South and the
Danelaw, Swyne, Canute and Edward) They contributed to the legal system; the word “law” is Danish.

★ History of Scottish and Welsh kingdoms in pages 48-50 Burns.

★ History of Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of England: Alfred´s son and daughter advanced his goal of creating
a unified England and founded the Kingdom of England in 927, when Alfred´s grandson Athelstan
subjugated the Danish and English parts of Northumbria. The kingdom had a national army, the fyrd; a
monopoly on coinage; a centralized tax, the danegeld; the writ, a letter from the king carrying the force
of a command; all of which put the kingdom under the king's authority. The king had a council, the
witan, which advised the king when he sought their counsel. Administratively, England was divided
into shires with royally appointed sheriffs. Shires were further divided into units called hundreds.
The most powerful nobles were the ealdormen or earls, who were originally royal officials assigned
big territories. By the late 10th century, English kings could claim hegemony over GB. Scandinavian
attacks persisted through the 11th century but the English state was no longer endangered.

Norman conquest

Invasion

The conquest of England in 1066 by the Duke of Normandy marked a decisive turning point in the nation's
history. This is one of the most well-known dates in English history as it changed the face of England and
Western Europe forever. The Duke’s subsequent crowning as king of England effectively severed England's
traditional ties with the Scandinavian world (Denmark and Norway) that had existed since the 9th century
and connected the country to Normandy and Europe. A new period had begun.

★ The Bayeux Tapestry is a medieval embroidery depicting the Norman Conquest of England in 1066.
It is a remarkable work of art and an important source for 11th-century history.

What problem did Edward The Confessor's death cause? Why? When Canute (or Cnut) died in 1035, and his
sons died shortly after, the Witan chose Edward, one of Anglo-Saxon AEthelred's sons, to be king. Edward -
so called “The Confessor” due to his reputation for personal holiness - became king of England in 1042. He
was the last monarch of the Anglo-Saxon royal line. Edward died childless in 1066 thus prompting a
succession crisis that had a dramatic effect on the course of English history. His death precipitated the
overwhelming arrival of the Normans in England.

Who claimed to be the rightful successor to the English crown? On what basis? William of Normandy (a
distant cousin of Edward) claimed that Edward had recognized him as the successor and that Harold II
Godwinson (the king's brother in law) had accepted his claim in 1064.

Who was finally appointed the new king of England? By whom? In a meeting of the witan in January, Harold
II was elected king.
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What conflict did this appointment trigger off between these two claimants to the throne? Why? William
began making plans to invade because he did not agree with the voting of the council.

In the meanwhile, what other problem did the Anglo-Saxon monarch have to cope with? How successful
was he in sorting out this matter? Meanwhile, the king of Norway, Hardrada, was also making plans to seize
the English throne. On September, Harold's troops won the battle against Hardrada at Stamford Bridge in
the north. But the English forces were weakened for their confrontation with William.

Where and when did the two armies-Anglo-Saxon and Norman-finally meet? The decisive battle took place
on October at Hastings in Sussex (south), where Harold and most of the aristocracy were killed in battle
and William was crowned king.

Who supported and followed William in his military campaign against England? Why?
William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal approval. Pope Alexander II considered Harold to
be an oath breaker, and argued that the state of England had descended into a near barbarous condition.
He thought that only by the appointment of a of King who was a God fearing only by the appointment of a
of King who was a God fearing would England be restored into the brotherhood of the Christian World.
Papal support in the form of the Papal Banner, a Relic and a Papal Blessing were issued

What happened to Harold during the Battle of Hastings? Did it mean the end of fighting? Harold was struck
in the eye by chance by a Norman arrow and was killed but the battle raged on until all of Harold´s loyal
bodyguards were slain.

Who finally won this great battle? Explain the reasons for the losers’ defeat. The Normans won the battle
because they fought with Continental military technology against the old-fashioned, infantry-dominated
army of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom. The Normans had more than 10000 men (against 7000 English men),
which were a mix of cavalry, infantry and archers and crossbowmen.

What did this victory mean for the winners? And for the defeated ones? About 2000 invaders and about
4000 English men died.

Did the victory mean the immediate submission of the losers’ leaders to the winners? Why? After his
victory at Hastings, William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead,
Edgar the Atheling was proclaimed king. Therefore, William marched to London (arriving from the north-
west). Having failed to muster an effective military response, Edgar´s leading supporters lost their nerve
and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted.
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After the defeated finally surrendered, who was proclaimed the new king of England? When and where
was he crowned? William was crowned on 25 December 1066, in Westminster Abbey.

How did William cope with Anglo-Saxons’ rebellions in the following years? How successful was he?
Despite the submission of English nobles, resistance continued for several years. These rebellions rapidly
collapsed as William moved against them, building castles and installing garrisons. By around 1072, the
Norman hold of the kingdom was firmly established. To control his new kingdom, William gave lands to his
followers and built castles commanding the military strong points throughout the land.

Map of William´s possessions in 1087

Conquest

We speak of a Norman Conquest and not settlement because a conquest implies:

AIM: to dominate, to take control of (not to annex new territories nor settle with your family)
Use of force: fighting
Central organization: official, national enterprise (William was the head; different from AS or Danes who
came in different groups)
Achieved by a military group: the aristocracy
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A permanent stay
No wholesale national migration
Not a settlement: no displacement of previous inhabitants (subjugated)

The Norman civilization

Over the time, the Normans assimilated into the medieval European world and developed a vigorous
civilization of their own founded on the basis of the Latin and French ones. They gave up paganism and
adopted Christianity. As Burns states, “ (…) by the late 11th century the Normans were entirely French in
identity” (54). Although the Normans are best remembered for their military achievements and cavalry, they
also displayed remarkable skills and abilities in different fields.

Who were the Normans? They were a people that settled in Northern France in the 900s. Normans proved
adaptable to their newly settled life. They married Frankish women, adopted the French language, and soon
started converting from Norse paganism to Christianity. But though they adapted, they maintained the
warrior tradition and conquering spirit of their Viking forebears. Before long, ambitious Norman knights
were looking for new challenges.

Where did they originally come from? The Normans that invaded England in 1066 came from Normandy in
Northern France. However, they were originally Vikings from Scandinavia. Two hundred years before the
conquest, the Vikings began to settle on the shores of northern France as part of a great Scandinavian
exodus across northern Europe. The French locals called these invaders Normans, named for the direction
they came from. Eventually, Charles, the king of the Franks, negotiated peace with the Viking leader Rollo in
911, granting him a stretch of land along France’s northern coast that came to be known as Normandy.

What ethnic group did they belong to? The Normans were originally a Nordic, Viking people. They are called
Norman-French, word that means “men from the North”. They were Germanic people.

Where did they settle? Why?

They initially settled in England but by the end of the 12th century, they had further expanded into Wales,
Scotland and Ireland.

Norman skills

Architecture (secular and ecclesiastical)

The art of building castles was not a Norman invention, but the Normans became masters in the use of the
simple yet enormously effective motte-and-bailey castle—a mound (motte) topped by a timber palisade and
tower, surrounded by a ditched and palisaded enclosure (bailey). These little fortifications, which were
complementary to the warfare conducted in open country by small units of cavalry, became the hallmark of
Norman penetration and conquest.

Christianity
Forced to come to terms with other French dynasties and to adopt Christianity as their religion, they quickly
became missionaries and proselytizers of the civilization that they had attacked and that had ultimately
absorbed them.

Shipping
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All the vessels shown in the Bayeux Tapestry are Viking-style 'longships'.From the spring until the late
summer of 1066, the Normans built ships as fast as they could. Every great man must build his quota for
the invasion, from the hundred or more ships provided by the richest barons to the single ship contributed
by an abbey. William's own flagship, the 'Mora', is a present from his wife Matilda.

Military tactics and warfare- Cavalry

They abandoned sea roving for Frankish cavalry warfare. Although the Normans were at first novices and
imitators in the practice of fighting on horseback, they soon became masters of cavalry warfare as it was
then practiced in continental Europe. Mounted on much the same breed of war horse as his opponent,
wearing the heavy mail hauberk that was standard among the warriors of northwestern Europe, protected
by a conical helmet and a kite-shaped shield, and armed with a long, broad-bladed sword and a slender
lance, the Norman cavalryman proved on countless occasions that he could outfight and overwhelm the
most powerful forces brought against him. To some extent, no doubt, this was due to the importance which
the Norman knightly class attached to the training of young warriors. They eagerly adopted the carefully
fostered cult of knighthood which had grown up in the old Carolingian empire in the 10th and 11th centuries.
They also made the first recorded heavy cavalry charge with couched lances, a devastating tactic that soon
became standard in medieval warfare.

Languages: French and Latin

The Normans spoke a rural dialect of French with considerable Germanic influences, usually called Anglo-
Norman or Norman French, which was quite different from the standard French of Paris of the period, which
is known as Francien. While Anglo-Norman was the verbal language of the court, administration and culture,
though, Latin was mostly used for written language, especially by the Church and in official records.
(Domesday Book was written in Latin=

Scholarship: Learning
In the century or so after 1050 developments in western Europe 'opened a new era in intellectual life and
education'. Teachers based themselves around the cathedrals, which already had schools and libraries, and
this was particularly so in northern France.
The Norman conquest had two main effects on education: a) Norman kings, bishops, and lay magnates
became involved in founding or reorganising cathedrals, minsters, and monasteries in England, with
consequences for the teaching that went on in such places. b) Legal and documentary effect: Anglo-Saxon
England had long known the charter, a grant of lands or privileges made by a king, bishop, or nobleman to
clergy or laity. No charter survives from before 1066 that deals with education, but after the Conquest we
begin to encounter ones that refer to schools as distinct activities or institutions. Education gained a more
formal and public status.

Territorial organization: Feudalism

They quickly grasped the principles of Carolingian feudalism, and Normandy became in the 11th century
one of the most highly feudalized states in western Europe.

Law: legal system

The customary law (established pattern of behavior that can be objectively verified within a particular social
setting) of Normandy was developed between the 10th and 13th centuries. Norman customary law was
transcribed in two customaries in Latin by two judges for use by them and their colleagues in the 1200s.
The Normans didn’t destroy anything of the Anglo-Saxons, they “improved” it, including the Parliament
(witan) and the legal system.
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Impact on Anglo-Saxon society

How was the Anglo-Saxon society affected by the arrival of the Normans?
How did England change after the Norman conquest?
What transformations took place in the country? In what cultural aspects?

In England the Normans similarly brought their own brand of feudalism and their own ideas of strong
personal government and fiscal institutions. But there too they adopted many of the existing institutions
and customs. Even at the end of Henry I’s reign (1135) in England the whole structure of royal government
remained fundamentally Anglo-Saxon—monarchy, king’s council, royal seal and writing office, the shire
system and the sheriffs, the twofold revenue system consisting of the produce of royal estates
compounded into annual cash payments and a direct tax levied on the landowning class, all originated
before the Norman Conquest. But under Norman direction, and with a number of Norman innovations such
as the exchequer, the itinerant justices, and the sworn inquest, this system worked much more efficiently
after 1066 than before, and, a fact of equal importance, England was made safe from foreign invasion.
Norman influence on the church in England also worked powerfully in the direction of better organization
and discipline. The role of the Normans in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries may be summarized in
saying that by their fierce energy and enterprise, they extended the practice of centralized authoritarian rule,
feudalism, cavalry warfare, and religious reform.

Economic aspect:
Feudalism can be defined as a system of land tenure according to which land was held in return for services
rendered. But in fact, Feudalism meant much more than an economic system, it was also a political and
social system prevailing in western Europe during the early Middle Ages. In short, Feudalism implied a way
of life.

How did William I organize the new territory? How did the change in the ownership of land help William
increase his control over the country? The conquest was followed by a massive redistribution of land,
the greatest in all English history, and power along with it. The richest single landowner was the king,
who by the end of the century owned about 18 percent of the land. William wanted to prevent the
development of large, semi-independent territorial lordships, so he dispersed the lands of the great
feudal lords in smaller parcels (not huge blocks of territory as in the Anglo-Saxon earldoms) to avoid
accumulation of power. Owning so much land helped him increase his control over the territory.

Define and characterize the Feudal System under the Normans. Define Feudalism from the economic,
social and political point of view. Explain how it worked and its main characteristics.
The Feudal system imposed by William the Conqueror on England differed from the one that prevailed on
the Continent (Europe) due to a number of measures William took to consolidate his power that resulted in
a special kind of Feudalism in England: Norman Feudalism.

“Feudalism was the social and political domination of a military and land owning aristocracy.” Lipson

Characteristics of feudalism in the continent:

● Man-to-man relationships: There is a prevalence of bonds between lords and free dependents
(vassals), which were forged by the lords’ bestowal of property called “fiefs” and by their reception
of homage from the vassals.
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● Clear differentiation of social classes (and thus of functions and services): Feudal society
contemplated three social strata: nobility, clergy, and serfs . The clergy were responsible for
cherishing the spirituality of the feudal community. The nobility was composed by the king and the
nobles. The serfs constituted the greater part of the peasant community and were generally farm
workers. There was no mobility between social classes.
● Presence of a powerful aristocracy: Ruling group who owned land and were very wealthy
● Presence of a powerful church: The Catholic Church was the most powerful feudal institution. It
exerted great influence on the economic scene of the fief due to the fact of owning many lands. This
influence was reflected in the thinking of the people, who considered that the priests established a
connection between God and men.
● Weak sense of nationality: The idea of nationality didn’t exist. People were not aware of
nationalism. The powerful authority to the villain was his lord, the monarch was not a strong figure
to him
● Little sense of individualism: rural society was not yet split apart into separate economic and social
worlds. The basic element in society was not the individual, but rather the patriarchal family which
acted as a unit.
● Weak monarch: In the absence of forceful kings and emperors, local lords expanded the territory
subject to them and intensified their control over the people living there.
● Corporate structure of society: Most activities were performed in a communal way (open-
field,universities, monasteries, guilds).

Did William I introduce feudalism in England?

The Normans improved the Feudal system, but they didn’t start it: the Anglo-Saxons did. When William
conquered England, he confiscated all the land from the Saxons who owned it, and distributed it amongst
the barons who had supported his invasion. Thus, historians said, England became a 'perfect' feudal
government. However, a form of the feudal system existed in Anglo-Saxon times even before the Norman
Conquest. In England the land was granted to the earls and barons, approved by the Witan. Each area of
land was administered by the earl who ensured laws were enforced. The earl was given the full right to
govern as he saw fit. Later on, William imposed a very tight feudal structure where all lords swore
allegiance to the king and all land was held feudally, that is, in return for military services

What was the main difference between Anglo-Saxon feudalism and Norman feudalism?
In Anglo-Saxon times, feudalism was based on two principles: duties to one’s kin and loyalty to one’s lord.
After the Norman Conquest, Normans imposed the characteristics of feudalism on the continent: It became
territorial. Under territorial feudalism (system of production based on land tenure and land as its means
of production), land is held in return for military services rendered. It became a system of land
possession. Land was the most important means of production and the pillar of the economy. It was
the most important source of wealth and production.

Characteristics of Norman Feudalism: William’s measures

As stated before, Feudalism imposed by William the Conqueror on England differed from the one that
prevailed on the Continent (Europe) due to a number of measures/ methods by which he contrived to make
his authority supreme over his dominions and which resulted in the so-called Norman Feudalism. The
immediate outcome was that William strengthened his own position as a monarch. That’s why feudalism
in England resulted in a different kind of feudalism.
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As a result of William’s imposition of territorial feudalism in England and the methods of control he resorted
to, the political power was centralized in his hands. Thus, under the Conqueror's reign, the political unity of
the country - weakly achieved in times of the Anglo-Saxons - strengthened.

Measure Field Purpose/description

Land possession Economy Free village communities were transformed
(manors) into manorial communities. Manors were
estates owned by a lord and occupied by a
population of dependent cultivators.

Distribution of land Economy The king was the owner of all the land. He
granted estates to the barons and nobles who
were bound to fight for the king. To weaken
their power, he granted them small pieces of
land scattered all over the country, not in the
same shire.

Feudal dues Economy Feudal duties were the set of reciprocal

financial, military and legal obligations among
the warrior nobility in a feudal system. Sheriffs
were sent to control that these dues were paid
to the monarch.

Domesday book Economy It is a written description or inventory of all the

productive land in the kingdom. It recorded the
population and ownership of every piece of
land in England. It was used to record and
control the possessions of barons.

Bailiffs, Sheriffs Administration/ Bailiffs were in charge of administering the

justice monarch’s possession of land. They were royal
commissioners who represented the royal
authority and controlled his possessions.
Sheriffs were officials who enquired into the
wealth of each manor. They represented the
monarch, travelled across the
country and kept and economic record of
William’s possessions and the value of those
possessions. They also controlled baronial
courts.
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Castle building, Defense The feudal system rested on a new military

strongholds technology of castles and mounted knights.
The Normans put up hundreds of castles all
over England, and these became the new
nobility’s military strongholds. They held only
the lord, his family and his troops. They
contained wooden towers (later on stone)
located on mottes (artificial hills surrounded by
a palisade). He didn’t allow the members of the
aristocracy to build castles for themselves.
Only the barons who lived on the borders were
allowed to build strongholds for protection.
These barons always kept family ties with the
monarch.

Oath of Salisbury Defense William I summoned 'landowning men of any

account' to attend at Salisbury and swear
allegiance to him and to be faithful against all
other men. It was an act of loyalty by which
barons and knights swore to protect and
support the king in first turn, in case of
attack. If any baron rebelled against him, the
king would get the knights to fight for him.

Extra info about Norman feudalism

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The King granted land to the Barons or Greater tenants-in-chief, who, in turn, granted lands to knights or
Mesne Tenants, who, in turn, granted land to villeins. In return for the land they held, they provided military
services.

The basis of Anglo-Saxon feudalism was the man-to-man relationship between the lord and his followers.
This relationship began when tribalism gave way to individualism. In Norman times, feudalism became
territorial. The lord gave land in return for services, but there was still a man to man relationship:

★ The King gave land to barons in return for military services

★ The barons gave lands to knights in return for military services
★ The villeins had a relationship with either of them (king-baron-knight) depending on who he
served.

In Norman feudalism there was no middle class: the King was above the social structure. On top of the
pyramid was the aristocracy (barons were the higher aristocracy and knights the middle aristocracy). There
was no middle class, and all the Anglo-Saxons were the lowest class. It didn’t matter if you were a thegn,
churl or slave: all Anglo-Saxons became villeins.

Social aspect:
What was the impact of the Feudal System upon the Anglo-Saxon social class structure?
The changes effected in the structure of society were far-reaching. England came to be organized in
manorial communities and household slaves were settled on the land and absorbed into the ordinary villein
stock (slavery as such disappeared).

How was society organized now? What new social classes emerged?
There was a rise of a military aristocracy because the Anglo-Saxon militia (peasant cultivators) could not
cope with the raids of Northmen, so a professional force was created.
The lord (or tenant in chief) was the legal proprietor of all the estate but retained only a portion of it in his
own hands (demesne), the rest was held by the tenants.
The peasant class was at the bottom of the new social hierarchy. Tenants held a virgate or yardland (bundle
of strips), which was hereditary and descended to the eldest son. They could be free (money rent) or unfree
(labour service). The free tenants performed nominal services (not week-work): they carried out boon-work
and payed rent. The villeins were personally unfree, subject to a lord and bound to the soil (but serfs were
not slaves, they were not property and had rights). Their obligations to the lord were working on the
demesne (week-work), boon-working in harvest times and made contributions in money and kind. The
cottage tenants (younger sons of villeins and former slaves) had the same legal condition as the villeins
but their economic situation was poorer. They had smaller holdings and proportionately less obligations.
They were used for boon-work and to increase their resources they worked for hire upon holdings of the
lord or wealthier villeins.

What happened to the Anglo-Saxon social organization? How was it affected? Was this new position in
the social hierarchy positive or negative for them? Why?
The English ruling class was replaced by Norman, Breton and French nobility (process facilitated by high
death toll and exile of Anglo-Saxon nobility). Also, the Anglo-Saxon society had been organized in free village
communities of peasant proprietors who owned the land they occupied. When manorial communities
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began to appear, the numerous class of freeholders were degraded into villeinage (they had obligations to
the lord and legal restrictions).

Impact of Norman Conquest on other aspects of Anglo-Saxon culture

The arrival of the Normans meant the influence of a highly advanced culture upon the Anglo-Saxon society.
William's victory cut off England's links with Scandinavia, bringing the country instead into close contact
with the Continent, especially France. Thus, with the Norman conquest, England's bonds with Europe and
the Latin civilization were re established and strengthened.

Language:
What language did the Normans speak? Norman French.
How many languages were spoken in England in Norman times? Who spoke them? Why? For what
purpose? Latin displaced Anglo-Saxon as the language of government in the first few years. The
aristocracy mostly spoke French but had some fluency in English. Norman French became the language
of the new royal court. Some of the new language worked its way down to the lower classes, where
English was marginalized as a written language. However, many commoners continued to speak Anglo-
Saxon and French remained mostly an aristocratic language.
How did the Norman Conquest influence and affect the English language? Normans brought their
language with them, adding a massive amount of French and Latin vocabulary to the English language
previously spoken by Anglo Saxons (these two languages merged into a new English).The combination of
Norman French and Anglo Saxon is called “Old English” (which belongs to the Germanic language family).

Political and administrative institutions: the law

Did the Normans do away with the Anglo-Saxon political and administrative institutions and legal
system? During William's reign, many English governmental institutions (writs, royal control over coinage
and national taxation) remained. The royal household was still at the centre of royal government.
However, by the end of his reign, all important administrative officials were Norman, and their titles
corresponded to those in use in Normandy. In local government the Anglo-Saxon shire and hundred courts
continued to function as units of administration and justice, but with important changes. Bishops and
earls ceased to preside over the shire courts. Bishops now had their own ecclesiastical courts, while earls
had their feudal courts.
William further centralized power and the country became more unified. There was a development of
English law and judicial procedures and in 1215, the Magna Carta was created, a charter that stopped the
king´s abuses and guarded the baronage´s rights. Later on, the Anglo-Saxon Witan evolved into the Great
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Council and later on the Parliament (1264), which was and advisory body made up of elected burgesses,
knights, barons and bishops.

Architecture: castle building, churches, abbeys, monasteries

Why did William build many castles and strongholds? In order to discourage any attacks by the English,
William ordered a number of castles to be built as military strongholds. These castles not only protected
William, but also the Norman lords and William's supporters.

Christian Anglo-Saxon Church:

How did William change the character and structure of the Anglo-Saxon Christian Church? What
measures did he take regarding the English Church?
The Norman Conquest changed the church. The higher levels of the church were Normanized (monks
from the continent, new ideas and new books). The church was feudalized with the imposition of military
obligations and tighter organization under archbishops of Canterbury. Bishops and abbots were required
to furnish troops to the king. When William of Normandy conquered England, he believed that it was
important for the churches to come under Norman control, and for priests to take a lead in transforming
the country into an Anglo-Norman territory. The Normans built larger stone churches, and constructed
basilicas in major towns.

Trade:
How important did trade become now for the Anglo-Saxons under the Norman rule? Why?
Under the Norman control trade increased and the number of towns and size of towns gradually
increased. Trade increased because the Norman Lords had greater link with mainland Europe. Trade links
with France were strengthened at the expense of Scandinavians links. The dominant English export was
now wool for the clothiers of Flanders (France), and continued to be the most important until the
Industrial Revolution. Other trading items were salt and metalwork. The stability in trade led to the
development of many towns.

Racial stock:
Did the Normans' arrival in the country bring about any changes in the Anglo-Saxon racial stock?
Why/Why not? The racial stock did not change because Algo Saxons and Vikings came from the North,
and even though Normans came from france they were originally Vikings from the North too.

Significance
How significant was the Norman Conquest for the development of the English Culture?
★ Language: Norman-French and Anglo-Saxon words make up the English language we use today.
★ Scholarship and learning: their influence was remarkable with the arrival of French and Norman
scholars such as Lanfranc appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, a scholar with a lot of intellectual
experience.
★ Relationship with the continent: The conquest linked England more closely with Continental Europe,
and made Scandinavian influence less important. Trade was thus given more importance. The arrival
of the Normans in England meant the influence of a highly advanced Civilization upon the English.
★ Arts: As regards architectural legacies, great cathedrals, huge monasteries and castles were built.
These included Windsor Castle, the Tower of London, Colchester Castle, and the Rochester Cathedral.
★ Feudal system: Although feudalism had already been developing since Anglo-Saxon times, William
imposed a new type of feudalism: territorial feudalism, and thus feudalism was consolidated in this
period. This meant a restructuring of society (free village communities into manorial ones), economy
(new system of production and further development of agriculture) and politics (William created a
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different type of feudalism from the one in the continent and centralized the power on the king,
instead of an extremely powerful aristocracy; this led to the reinforcement of the kingdom´s unity).
★ Religion: the Christian Anglo-Saxon Church underwent considerable transformation in its character
and structure.
★ City revival: revival of European urban life

The Decay of Feudalism

How does Lipson characterise the process of change? Human society is never completely static.
Sometimes the process of change is so gradual and imperceptible that it creates a delusive appearance
of absolute immobility. At other times, it is enormously accelerated by catastrophic influences which
sweep over mankind with the force of a tornado.

What kind of changes prompted the break of the manor? The break of the manor exhibited both sets of
tendencies, the slow disintegration of the old order and the sudden impact of an overwhelming calamity.

What forces account for the dissolution of the old manorial system? The commutation of services and
the alienation of the demesne.

Which calamity impacted England in the Late Middle Ages that accelerated the changes that were
already developing in the country? The Black Death.

The Black Death

The Black Death is a pandemic that struck Europe in the XIV century and killed about half of its
population. This brought about various economic and social consequences; in England, for example, it
speeded up the process of the disintegration of the manorial system.

Why is this pandemic called Black Death or Bubonic Plague? Because the symptoms were black swelling
in armpit and groin. Moreover, gangrene sometime caused extremities and facial features to turn black
with necrosis (hence the name “black” death)

Where did it originate? In Asia

How did the trade routes influence on the spread of the disease? Although it originated in central Asia, it
was taken from there to the Crimea by Mongol warriors and traders using the Silk Road. The plague
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entered Europe via Italy, carried by rats on Genoese trading ships sailing from the Black Sea. By the end of
1349 CE, the disease had been carried along trade routes into France, Spain, Britain, and Ireland,

When did it arrive in England? In 1348

What sectors of the English population were affected by the Plague? The whole population.

How many people died in England? One-third or half its population.

To what extent did the Black Death influence on the collapse of the manorial system? The villeins who
survived the plague seized the opportunity afforded by the social disorder to demand their release from
forced labor. Black Death caused an unprecedented rise in wages and the prosperity of hired laborers
aroused the discontent of the villeins, who became less submissive. In addition, they now found their
obligations excessive since the burden fell entirely upon the survivors, being their households reduced.
Eventually they broke out in open rebellion in the Peasants´ Revolt of 1381. Despite their reluctance, lords
were left powerless and were constrained to comply with the demands of the villeins.

When assessing the impact of the Black Death on the decay of feudalism, Lipson (1951) states: "Without
the plague, the disintegration of the manor as a result of normal forces (…) must assuredly have been a
more irregular and infinitely slower process" (Lipson).

The commutation of services

Villeins were first in number and economic importance because without their services the work of the
manor could not have been carried on… they were the basis of feudal society. (Lipson)

Commutation of services: the practice by which the lord released his unfree tenants from their
customary obligation to work on the lord’s land, and exacted money with which to hire free labourers.

Which was the most important economic activity in medieval England? Agriculture

In feudal England, why were the villeins the first in economic importance? Why were they the basis of
feudal society? They were the first in economic importance because they were a small but relatively well-
to-do peasants who gave stability to the manorial system of which they formed the indispensable
foundation. They were the basis of feudal society because by their work and rents the higher ranks of the
social structure were maintained.

What kind of services did they pay to their lords? Field services, they worked on the lord’s demesne for two
or three days a week ploughing their own oxen, carrying produce to the market or elsewhere, together with
the daily incidents of farming. In addition to this week-work, boon-works were exacted at harvest time. The
villein also made numerous contributions to the lord in money and in kind.

Never was any land or realm in such great danger as England at that time. (...) The evil-disposed in these
districts began to rise, saying, they were too severely oppressed; (...) [that their lords] treated them as
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beasts. This they would not longer bear, but had determined to be free, and if they laboured or did any
other works for their lords, they would be paid for it. (Froissart)

What happened to labour as a consequence of the Black Death? The Black Death caused an
unprecedented rise in wages (of free villeins and cottage workers). In addition, villeins now found their
obligations excessive since the burden fell entirely upon the survivors, being their households reduced.

How did villeins react to the new conditions that had come into being? They became less submissive.

What did they begin to demand? They demanded the commutation of their field services and freedom.

Why is this practice called the commutation of services? What did villeins commute their services for?
Villeins commuted their services, forced field labor, for payments in money. They became copyholders.
They had to pay an annual amount of money to work the land. The copyholders were called so because
they held a copy of the manorial contract stating that they had to pay an annual fee to work the land.

What did the lords do with the money they received? When the payment of money replaced personal
service, the lord could no longer cultivate his demesne with compulsory labor. Because of this, they spent
the financial compensation received from tenants on hiring free laborers (the lower rural working class) to
work their land.

Who were the free labourers? They were cottagers and villeins who had secured emancipation through
manumission (release from slavery) or residence away from the manor. Some free labourers existed
before the black death, and they were free to move from manor to manor offering their services.

How did the commutation of services affect the relationship between baron and knight? The
commutation of services took place not only in the relationship between villeins and lords but also
between king-barons and barons-knights. In the EMA barons were granted lands by the king and in
exchange they provided him with military services, and the same happened between barons and knights
(the knights´ lord was the baron). In the LMA they commuted their military services and started to pay an
amount of money annually to their lord, who in turn used that money to hire soldiers.

To what extent did the commutation of services impact on the social structure of rural England? What
new social classes emerged? Bondage (serfdom) was dissolved and the villeinage came to be merged
into the freemen, giving rise to a new social class, the copyholders.

The alienation of the demesne

The alienation of the demesne meant that the lord ceased to be a farmer engaged in the direct
exploitation of the land and developed into a squire (who leased his estates and lived on the income
accruing from his tenants’ rents).
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Why did the government pass the Ordinance of Labourers and the Statute of Labourers? Because of the
sharp rise in wages, the government passed these in order to try to regulate the labor conditions of the
country and it sought to keep wages at the old level. However, these measures were not successful.

What practice did the lords resort to? The lord was forced to alienate the demesne to tenants; that is, he
divided his land and rented pieces to tenants. This way, he ceased to be a farmer and became a squire
living on his rents. Thus, the cultivation of the soil passed out of the hands of its owners and while the lord
furnished only the land and buildings, the tenant furnished the stock and capital.

How did this practice impact the social structure of rural England? The villeins who were able to rent the
lord's lands began to be called tenant farmers or yeomen, and constituted a new lower-middle class
(since they were better off and in a higher position than copyholders and free laborers).

What new social classes emerged as a consequence of this practice? Tenant farmers and squires.

In the Late Middle Ages, costs increased, without corresponding rise in market prices; consequently, some
lords were moved to lease their land and stock and others, to turn their arable land into pasture.

With the Normans, in the XIVth C, England´s wool trade with the Netherlands grew considerably. This
indirectly led to the decay of feudalism since for barons, trade was much more profitable and cheaper
than agriculture (and paying free laborers was very expensive) and; therefore, many of them turned their
lands into pastures to raise sheep as sheep-raising demanded less hand labour.

Why did some lords decide to turn their lands into pasture? The wool trade with the Netherlands was
growing and since paying free laborers´wages was extremely expensive, barons realized that getting
involved in the wool trade would be more profitable than agriculture (it required less labor). This being
said, many (the ones that didn´t alienate the demesne) decided to turn their lands into pasture to raise
sheep for wool.

Which was one of the main consequences of the lords resorting to this practice? It was an indirect factor
that contributed to the decay of feudalism.

Who benefited the most from this practice? Why? Lords because it was very profitable.

Extra info about social classes: In the Late Middle Ages - due to the forces that disrupted the manorial
system - the villeins of the Early Middle Ages became either tenant farmers, free laborers or
copyholders. Most of the ex-villeins of the EMA constituted in the LMA copyholders.

In the rural part of England in the Early Middle ages there was an aristocracy (barons and knights), no
middle class and the villeins, who didn’t hold land but were allowed to work some strips of lands (some
were free and did it for money, some were unfree and merely offered their field services compulsorily).
There was a sharp distinction between these two social classes and there was no social mobility. After
the Black Death, the villeins demanded the commutation of their field services, and they started to pay
money to the lord (money which they got from selling what they cultivated in the markets). These villeins
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now began to be called copyholders. With the money the lords received from copyholders, they payed
free laborers (they had commuted their services before the BD) to work their land, who started moving
from manor to manor looking for high wages. Since paying their wages was very expensive, many lords
decided to alienate their demesne; that is, divide it and rent it to villeins or knights. This way, lords became
squires and the villeins who rented these lands became tenant farmers. Most of the ex-villeins of EMA
became copyholders and free labourers, because tenant farmers (or yeomen) were a minority of well-off
ex-villeins. Them, together with the knights, constituted in the LMA a new kind of “middle class” in the
countryside. This distinction was only for the countryside. In the urban area there were other classes
(such as the higher middle class and the working class).

The decay of the feudal system

Feudalism can be defined as a system of land tenure according to which land was held in return for
services rendered. (Cooke, Land and Law)

In both cases alike, whether he employed hired labour or abandoned farming altogether, the lord had no
further need for compulsory labour; and a natural economy, where services were rendered in kind, was
superseded by a money economy in which a cash nexus supplied the basis of all economic relationships.
(Lipson)

Why was feudalism a system of land tenure? Who held the land? What kind of services were rendered
under this system? Who paid those services? Land tenure is the legal regime in which land is owned by
an individual, who is said to "hold" the land. It determines who can use land, for how long and under what
conditions. Feudalism was a system of land tenure because The Crown held land in its own right and all
private owners are either its tenants or sub-tenants. That is, the king, who was the owner of all the land,
granted estates to nobles and barons, who were bound by these grants to fight for the king. In turn, these
lords granted part of their estates to freemen and villeins, who had their obligations as well, either paying
with money and/or with labor.

How does Lipson characterise the economy in such a system? A money economy

Which was the essence of the feudal system introduced by William I? The essence of the manorial
system lay in the intimate connexion established between the lord's demesne and the community of
unfree tenants. (Lipson) The essence of the feudal system was the idea that because a man had land, he
had certain rights and owed certain duties. (Essay)

How did this system change in the Late Middle Ages? The lord released his tenants from their customary
obligations and exacted money with which he hired free laborers. In addition, he ceased to be a farmer
engaged in the direct exploitation of the land and developed into a landlord who leased his estate and
lived on the income accruing from rents. Also, as the wool trade with the Netherlands grew, many barons
turned to trade and stopped relying on agriculture.

In the Late Middle Ages, to what extent was a natural economy supplanted by a money economy? A
natural economy, where services were rendered in kind, was replaced by a money economy, in which a
cash nexus supplied the basis of all economic relationships. However, on some manors, especially those
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belonging to the Church, a rapid return was made to the status quo of the early middle ages (because of
their systemic methods of estate management).

To what extent did the social structure of rural England change? Doubtless on many manors the lord
reasserted his authority over his tenants, yet sooner or later the traditional structure of rural society
succumbed to the reluctance of the population to suffer the compulsion of forced labor.

The Rise of Early Capitalism

What is capitalism?

Capitalism, also called free market economy or free enterprise economy, economic system, dominant in
the Western world since the breakup of feudalism, in which most means of production are privately
owned and production is guided and income distributed largely through the operation of markets.

Characteristics:

Adam Smith, the Scottish social philosopher and political economist, is considered the first theorist of
capitalism and thus regarded as “The Father of Capitalism”.

Brief History of Capitalism: Its Genesis and Evolution

The incipient stage in the continuous development of capitalism as a system dates from the late European
Middle Ages with the expansion of international commerce. In those days, capitalism was still in the stage
of its humble beginnings, it first emerged mainly in the form of commercial and financial capitalism.
Concerning England, by the end of the Middle Ages, the first signs of commercial capitalism appeared. In
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the fourteenth century, the country began to devote itself to international commerce, principally the export-
trade of English wool. During the course of the fifteenth century, commercial capitalism gained greater
strength as the woolen or cloth industry developed. The accumulation of capital was a necessary condition
of the genesis of capitalism; and such accumulation became more and more accentuated in the sixteenth
century when the economic evolution still further accentuated with more growth of international trade and
industry, and hence capitalism gained force. During this period, governments encouraged the development
of capitalism through a policy called mercantilism. Later, beginning in the second half of 18th century in
England, the focus of capitalist development shifted from commerce to industry.

Collapse of the gild system

The guild system: When town life began to develop in England, the corporate functions of the urban
community found a vehicle in the historic gilds: the gilds merchant and the craft gilds. Economic life was
organized on a corporate basis and men worked in the closest association with their fellows.
The gild merchant was a body that had control over all the buying and selling in the municipal area (it
maintained the monopoly of urban trade). Its members shared a sense of fraternity (e.g: they aided each
other if they fell into poverty)
The craft gild, a group of producers associated together whose primary function was to establish rigid
control over industry, comprised three classes of members: the masters, the journeymen and the
apprentices. Its primary function was to establish control over the industry. They also regulated wages and
prices, and aimed to prevent the growth of capitalism. The most instructive feature of this gild was the
institution of apprenticeship, in which masters taught apprentices the secrets of his craft.

Towards the Late Middle Ages (XIV and XV centuries), the Guild system began to decline and was
subsequently replaced by another manufacturing organization, another system of production: the
Domestic system.

The gradual break-up of the old gild society was not due to the degeneracy of the gild regime, which was
a symptom rather than a fundamental cause, it was the inevitable product of economic forces. (Lipson:
48)

REMEMBER: In spite of the force trade gained as an economic activity towards the Late Middle Ages, it did
not supersede agriculture as the country's primary economic one. Farming remained the main economic
activity in England and the country's central economic pillar till the period of the Industrial Revolution. Up to
that period, land continued being England’s main means production and source of wealth.

What trade began to grow considerably in England towards the late XIVth? With what European region?
The wool trade with Flanders (the Netherlands)
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What did this active trade mean in terms of the extent of the market and the amount of production? How
did they affect the Guild system? Why? The growth of trade and the expansion of markets were the main
factors causing the collapse of the guild system, since the guilds were no longer able to cope with the
demands of an expanded market. When the market was limited, handicraft and trading functions were
combined in the same hands. When the market expanded, the guild system could no longer answer the
needs of the time, so the mercantile function passed to a special craft of traders, called merchants, who
shook off the regulations of the guilds and specialized in distribution, while master craftsmen were confined
to purely manual functions and lost their economic independence.

What new system of production superseded the Guild system? The domestic system.

What was this new system of production about? Why was it called so? In the domestic system, merchant-
employers “put out” materials to rural producers who usually worked in their homes and later on finished
products were returned to the employers for payment on a wage basis. The domestic system differed from
the gild system in that the workers neither bought materials nor sold products and it also undermined the
restrictive regulations of the urban guilds. This new system meant increased efficiency due to a more
extensive division of labour within the craft. It was called domestic because all manufacture of products
was done at home and on a small scale (as opposed to factories later on).

How did this new system work? How complex were the processes of production? The process of
production in the domestic system became more complex than before because since the market expanded,
the demands were heavier and one person could not be responsible of the whole process, so now there
was division of labor. The processes to make wool for clothes were many (cleaning, carding, spinning,
weaving) and each of them generally took place in different homes.

What did the nature of these processes of production demand with respect to labour? Division of labor
became necessary: one person would get the raw material, another would be in charge of the manufacture
of products and another would sell it in the market.

Where did the craftsman work? With whose tools? He worked at home with his own tools.

Was the artisan still the owner of the raw material? Who owned the raw material? Why? How did he get it?
The artisan was not the owner of the raw material, the merchant was. The entrepreneur took the raw
material to each craftsman needed in the process. For example, in the production of wool, the entrepeneurs
supplied the carders, combers and spinners with their wool, the weavers with their yarn and the fullers and
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dyers with their cloth. At every stage of production he owned the material, directed the processes and
disposed of the finished products.

What did this change in the ownership of the raw material mean in relation to the ownership of the final
product? The craftsman could no longer dispose of the final product, he had no right of property in the
goods he made. What he sold was not the fruit of his labor, but his labor itself (worked for a wage and not
longer for a price).

Who fixed the price of the finished product? Who marketed it? Where? The entrepreneurs marketed it either
in England or in the Netherlands.

What did the craftsman receive in return for his labour? A wage

Was money necessary now for both handicraft and trading activities? What kind of capital was it? Who
needed it? For what purposes? In the EMA capital was not important, people could even resort to bartering.
In the LMA, money became important and it was necessary to buy the material, to pay the wages of
craftsmen and to buy and sell products in the market, so this new kind of capital was called merchant
capital.

What economic system was coming into being as a product of these new economic forces? Capitalism

On the basis of your previous answers, how would you assess the position of the craftsman in this new
system of production? How similar to or different from his position in the previous system was his
condition now? Was it better or worse? Why? In the gild system, the master craftsman was an independent
producer owning the raw material as well as the instruments of production, and selling the finished product
direct to the consumer. But with the rise of the domestic system, the craftsman was confined to purely
manual functions, lost his economic independence, and was reduced to the status of a wage-earner.

Social aspect

The adoption of the Domestic system as the new production system together with the rise of early
capitalism brought about the emergence of a new potentially powerful social class that would eventually
challenge the traditional power of the aristocracy.

All these concurrent indications of the prevalence of capitalism in English industry - prior to the introduction
of machinery- justify the conclusion that a capitalist society was no new creation when great inventions
inaugurated its second phase, that of power-driven machinery (…) Long before the advent of the factory age
the capitalist employer had become the pivotal figure in industry, whose organization was controlled and
dominated by him. (93)

What new social class emerged as a consequence of the birth of early capitalism? A higher middle class
of merchants and traders, who were capitalist employers.

How powerful was this class? Why? They were very powerful and rich because they were the pivotal figure
in industry and controlled and dominated its organization. At every stage of production he owned the
material, directed the processes and disposed of the finished products.
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According to Lipson’s view, what other social class was born as an output of the rise of early capitalism?
Why? How does he back up his contention? Who does he disagree with? On what grounds? Another social
class was born, which was one consisting of small masters or yeomanry restricted to the manual parts of
their occupation; that is, a proletariat was born. He disagrees with Engels, who states that the proletariat
was called into existence after the industrial revolution (by the introduction of machinery). Lipson says that
a wage-earning class possessing no resources but its technical skills and a few tools existed in England for
several centuries prior to the factory age, as a consequence of the rise of the domestic system. He also
states that a capitalist society was no new creation in the industrial revolution since long before de advent
of the factory age, the capitalist employer ad become the pivotal figure in industry, whose organization was
controlled and dominated by him.

We can conclude with Lipson that “The old order changes. For good or evil a new era was unfolding in which
a corporate society organized on a gild basis-slowly-yielded place to an individualist society organized on
a capitalist basis." (50)

What was the economic and social impact of the rise of early capitalism on late medieval England?
Growth of trade, extended market and the domestic system gave rise to early capitalism. The rise of early
capitalism meant a new economic order and the position of labor in this order dissolved the fabric of
medieval society.

System of production Gild system Domestic system

Historical period Early middle ages (XII and XIII Late middle ages (XIV and XV
centuries) centuries)

Role of trade in society Secondary role Trade gained more force as an

economic activity, although it did not
supersede agriculture

Market Limited Expanded

Importance of capital Unimportant Important, a necessity.

Processes of Simple Complex: division of labor.

production

Labor (handicraft and Bot handicraft and mercantile Handicraft functions fell on the
functions fell on the craftsman. craftsman, while mercantile
mercantile functions) functions were carried out by
merchants.

Workplace Craftsman´s home Craftsman´s home

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Ownership of the Craftsman Craftsman

instruments of
production

Ownership of the raw Craftsman Merchant

material

Ownership of the final Craftsman Merchant

product

Price fixing of final Craft gilds Merchant

product

Position of craftsman Economically independent Economically dependent on an

employer

Extra info:

★ Before capitalism and the industrial revolution the countryside was more important than the cities.
★ A carpenter, for example, could be a member of both the guild merchant and the crafts guild. He
would go through apprenticeship in the craftsguild and meet the quality standard for products that this
guild imposed. Then, he could be a member of the guild merchant to sell his products.

The beginnings and growth of democracy in England

Democracy: Democracy is the rule by people through their elected representative.

Key traits:

★ A political system
★ Representative government: the government representative of all social sectors; Popular sovereignty:
government by the people
★ Citizens’ rule: the right of adult citizens to choose and replace the government through free and fair
elections
★ Citizens’ right to elect their representatives
★ Direct participatory government
★ Citizen participation: active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life
★ Protection of the individual rights of all citizens; Individual liberty, freedom of choice
★ Majority rule and minority rights. The principle of majority rule: important feature of the democratic
system
★ Free and fair elections: elections are free and open to all citizens of voting age; each individual vote
counts the same
★ Government by law
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Our starting point will be the Middle Ages, but there was still a long path ahead until democracy was, in
the end, fully achieved in the XXth Century. Nowadays, England’s system of government is a Constitutional
monarchy, a system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized
government. There is an institution, the Monarchy, which is democratic as it is representative of all the
English people, and Parliament is the institution that represents those people.Parliament is the paramount
governing institution. We can conclude then that Parliament is the cardinal national governing
body/assembly in England.

To speak about the growth of democracy in England is to speak about the process through which
Parliament turned from a class body with limited political powers into a representative governing
assembly. It will be necessary, therefore, to consider two aspects in this process of democratization which
started during the Saxon period and did not reach its final stage until the 20th century. First, (1) the
growing political importance acquired by Parliament at the expense of the royal authority, and, secondly,
(2) the changes that took place in the internal organization of Parliament: how it developed from a class
body into a national representative assembly.

1. Up to the year 1265, the process of democratization has to be sought not in the constitution of the
Council but in the limitations imposed by its members on the royal authority.

Period/Monarch Body/Assembly Functions

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Anglo-Saxon Witan Advisory, consulting

Norman (William Great Council (or Similar attributions to those of

I, William II- National council/ the Witan: advisory, consulting
Rufus) Common Council of
the Realm)

Norman Great Council (or Advisory, consulting

Henry I National council/ Charter of Liberties (1100)
(1100-1135) Common Council of
the Realm)

Norman Great Council (or Advisory, consulting

Henry II National council/ Charter of Liberties confirmed
(1554-1189) Common Council of
the Realm)

Norman Great Council (or Advisory, consulting

John (Lackland) National Council/ Magna Carta or the “Great
(1199-1216) Common Council of Charter” (1215)
the Realm)

Anglo-Saxon

Who assisted the monarch in the affairs of government? The Witan (Witanagemot), which consisted of the
chief men of each kingdom acting on behalf of its people.

What functions did this body perform? Was it a governing body? The “Witanagemot” elected the king and
could depose him in case of misgovernment; it made grants of public lands; it gave its consent to
the king's laws and taxes and approved the election of his ministers. It wasn't a governing body, it was
an advisory body with limited political power.

What position did the monarch enjoy? To what extent did the monarch follow its pieces of advice? The
witan acted as the “High Court of Justice”, the king sitting as the supreme judge. He decided on the laws
(which were then given consent by the witan) and received taxes. The Witan elected the king and could
depose him in case of misgovernment. The monarch recieved the body’s advice but the final decision
was up to him.

What is the significance of this institution in the process of democratization of England? After the
consolidation of the different English kingdoms into one, the “Witanagemot” expanded into the National
Council. In it, we see the true beginning (weak antecedent- not governing body nor representative) of the
Parliament in England.
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Norman (William I, William II- Rufus)

Who assisted the monarch in the affairs of government? Great Council (or National council/ Common
Council of the Realm)

What functions did this body perform? Was it a governing body? Similar attributions to those of the Witan:
advisory, consulting. This council met three times a year –at Christmas, Easter and Pentecost. It wasn't
a governing body, it was an advisory body with limited political power.

What position did the monarch enjoy? To what extent did the monarch follow its pieces of advice?The
monarch recieved the body’s advice but the final decision was up to him.

Comparing the position and the decision power of the Anglo-Saxon monarch and Norman one, who was
more powerful? Why? The difference was that Norman monarchs were more powerful (mainly because of
William´s measures), so AS kings relied more on the Witan than Norman kings on the Great Council.

What is the significance of this institution in the process of democratization of England? The Great Council
was very similar to the Witan of AS times, and it was a weak antecedent of Parliament. These bodies were
the first to advise the king.

Norman Henry I (1100-1135)

What was the Charter of Liberties issued by Henry I in 1100? What did it provide for? It was a guarantee
of good government given by the crown to the Nation, which guaranteed the rights of the Church, the rights
of the nobles and landowners against exactions demanded by the Crown, and the rights of all classes to
the protection of the old English customs and laws.

What was the significance of this document? Why did this Charter mean an important step in the
development towards English democracy? It was a virtual admission that even a Norman king could not
rule without the support of the country. This Charter established a precedent for those which were to
follow (the Great Charter was a reformulated and expanded version of this Charter).

Norman Henry II (1554-1189)

Henry II's first act after his accession was to issue a charter confirming the Charter of Liberties; this
reached a final development in the “Great Charter.”

Norman John Lackland (1199-1216)

Who issued Magna Carta? When? Who forced the monarch to pass it? Why? The Magna Carta or English
“Great Charter” was granted by King John on June 15, 1215, under pressure from his rebellious barons and
threat of civil war . This document guaranteed English political liberties by declaring the sovereign to be
subject to the rule of law and documenting the liberties held by “free men”, it provided the foundation for
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individual rights in Anglo-American jurisprudence. It was drafted at Runnymede, a meadow by the River
Thames

Why is this document referred to as the “Great Charter”? At that time, it was
called this way because it was really long. Nowadays, it is called “Great” because
of its importance.

How many clauses did it contain? What were the most important ones? Why? It
contained 63 clauses, of which the twelfth and the thirty-ninth were the most
important ones.

What did clause twelfth establish? Hence, what prerogative did the great council
gain?What implications did this new right acquired by the council have in relation
to its functions? The twelfth established that the king could not levy taxes without
the consent of the “common council of the realm”.The great council hence gained control over taxation, so
there was a change in the functions of the body (which was not merely advisory anymore). This is the first
time that barons put a check on the king's power.

Who made up the common council of the realm? So, in whose hands was this new power acquired? It
consisted, as the Charter determined in its following clause (clause 13), of bishops, earls, barons and
tenants-in-chief. The new power acquired was in the hands of a high aristocracy or nobility of landholders.

What did the provision of clause twelfth mean regarding the monarch’s power? Why has it been of vital
importance in the process of democratization? This provision meant that the king could not levy taxes
without the consent of the Parliament, thus his power was reduced. It has been of fundamental importance
in both aspects of the process of democratization. In the future before granting a supply (bill where the
main purpose is taxation or spending) Parliament would demand the redress of some grievance or a greater
share in the government of the Nation, and, first of all, the observance of the Charter. On the other hand, the
barons would demand to be represented in Parliament if taxes were to be levied on them.

What modern principles find in this clause their foundation? It has been used as the foundation of the
principle that the king cannot levy any tax without the consent of Parliament, and of the principle of “no
taxation without representation”.

Why did Sir Winston Churchill once say about this clause that it “converted the power of taxation into the
Shield of Liberty”? What does he mean? He meant that because of this charter, any time when the king
meant to overstep, the Parliament used the MC as a shield to stop the king's actions. It was used to
negotiate for more liberties.

What did clause thirty-nine establish? What did it mean? Article thirty-nine established that no free man
could be imprisoned or punished “unless by the lawful judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.”

Who did its provisions initially apply to? Why? Its provisions initially applied to tenants-in-chief (barons)
because they were the only ones included in the Parliament.

What modern principles find in this clause their foundation? the liberty of Subject, the right of trial by jury,
equality of all before the law and the supremacy of the law.

What does Sir Winston Churchill highlight about Magna Carta? What is the relevance of this document for
him? Sir Winston Churchill has said: “[Magna Charta] is not a declaration of constitutional doctrine and the
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rights of man, but a practical document to remedy the abuses of the Feudal system. It is a document
recapitulating ancient customs but the means by which it was enforced was revolutionary, for the Crown
henceforth was virtually made servant of the custodians of this Charter.”

To what extent was Magna Carta significant in the development of English and Western democracies?
The Magna Carta is an important landmark in the development of the English common law. Extorted by
defiant barons, King John consented to their demands and agreed to limits on the power of the crown. It is
the first supreme law that is even above the king; it resembles a contract between the crown and the
community. It also gave permanent rights and liberties to the community. Finally, it provided a framework
for constitutional democracies throughout the world. The right to petition and habeas corpus and the
concept of due process are derived from language in the Magna Carta, which also was a forerunner of
Parliament, the Declaration of independence, the U.S. Constitution, and the U.S. Bill of Rights.

2. Until here, we have seen how the power of the king was being gradually checked by the bishops and
barons who formed the Great Council and how this body had acquired a definite control over taxation (1).
Now, we will explore the changes experienced by the Great Council in its composition.

Period/Monarch Body/Assembly Composition/structure

Anglo-Saxon Witan The body was made up of the

chief men of each kingdom.
Wisdom (upper classes: higher
members of Church and thanes)
was the qualification to be its
member. It was not yet a
collection of representatives. It
was a class body. social class?

Norman (William Great Council (or Made up of earls, barons,

I, William II, Henry National archbishops and abbots
I and Henry II) Council/Common (landholders: higher aristocracy-
Council of the Realm) thanes were no longer members).
The qualification to be its member
was holding land directly from the
king. It was also a class body.

Norman (Henry The governing body is now called

III) 1216-1272 Parliament; it is more widely
representative (certain boroughs
and cities- only those in which he
was popular).

Simon of Monfort’s
Parliament
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Edward I (the Law Model Parliament He summoned all barons and

Giver) 1272-1307 (1295) representatives of all the cities
and boroughs to his Parliament.
Parliament is now clearly divided
in House of Lords and House of
Commons.

Henry III (1216-1272)

Simon of Montfort (Earl of Leicester) remains an outstanding English personality of his day. He is
remembered as an early advocate of a limited monarchy, ruling through elected councillors, and of a
parliament including county knights and burgesses as well as the great nobles. His Parliament and Edward
I ’s Model one are widely regarded by historians as the first representative assemblies, a turning point in the
development of the English system of government.

Why was the reign of Henry III significant in the development of English democracy? The reign of Henry III
marks an important epoch in the development of Parliament. It was at this time that the word Parliament
started to be used to design the governing body.

Who did Henry III have a conflict with in 1258? Why? With the barons, led by Simon de Montfort. Reason:
the nobles, the churchmen and the king had many hot disputes over taxation and government policy,

What was the monarch forced to accept? What were the consequences of this document for the monarch?
What happened with his ruling power? He was forced to sign “The Provisions of Oxford” by which the
monarch lost much of his power.

Who assumed the royal authority? What did he summon in 1265? Who did he summon to this meeting of
the Council? What innovation did he introduce in its composition? Simon de Montfort assumed the royal
authority and summoned, in 1265, a Parliament in which for the first time representatives from boroughs
and cities were asked to join the barons and earls. Simon de Montfort's innovation lies in the fact that
he summoned not only two knights from each shire, but two citizens and two burgesses to represent
certain cities and boroughs.

Find out the difference between a city and a borough. The medieval English borough was an urban centre
identified by a charter granting privileges, autonomy, and (later) incorporation. As an autonomous
corporation, the borough functioned outside the general administrative hierarchy of the shire and hundred.
From the 16th century, the importance of boroughs as units of local government declined, but they gained
a new importance as parliamentary constituencies.

What new social sector was then incorporated into the Council? How was the body called now? Until then,
there remained only one class represented, that of landholders. The citizens and burgesses summoned by
Simon de Montfort represented instead the merchants and traders.The body began to be called Parliament.

What was the weakness of this Parliament? Simon had invited representatives from certain towns in
which he was popular and while he had enlarged the popular part of his Parliament, he had
restricted the upper part, summoning only about twenty three of the fifty greater barons.

Why is this Parliament commonly regarded as the starting point from which what was to be called The
House of Common and The House of Lords developed? So long as the members of the Council were
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exclusively barons, there was only one class represented, the high aristocracy or nobility of landholders.
After the signing of the Great Charter the knights of the shire were summoned in different opportunities to
discuss what taxes they would pay; Parliament acquired a more representative character, the rural
aristocracy of smaller landowners being now included, yet, from the economic point of view, there remained
still only one class represented, that of landholders. The citizens and burgesses summoned by Simon de
Montfort represented instead the merchants and traders. Though, for a long time, landholders and traders
sat together, the knights from the shire soon grew accustomed to act with the men from the towns, thus
forming what was to be called “The House of Commons”, while the greater barons and bishops formed the
“House of Lords”.

To what extent was this Parliament representative of the English nation? It was more widely
representative because it now included members of certain cities (citizens) and boroughs (burguesses)
and members from shires (knights). However, not all barons were summoned, nor were all cities and
boroughs, so it was not representative of the whole nation.

*IMPORTANT: Bourgeoisie= merchants and traders (higher middle class). Burgesses=inhabitants of

boroughs.

How significant was this Parliament in the process of democratization of England? The governing body
is now called Parliament; it is more widely representative (certain boroughs and cities- new classes are
incorporated); and it is the starting point of the House of Commons and of Lords.

Edward I (1272-1307)

Why did Edward I summon Parliament in 1295? What/How was it called? Why? He summoned
Parliament because he needed money. His Parliament has been called Model Parliament, because it
served as a model for all subsequent Parliaments.

Who did he summon to his Parliament? How were they summoned? He summoned the earls and greater
barons, the archbishops, bishops, and mitred abbots, two knights from each shire and two citizens and
burgesses from each city and borough. The barons were summoned by means of a personal summon,
and from this occasion a personal summons creates the dignity of peer (acquiring titles of nobility),
which is hereditary. The representatives from cities, boroughs, and shires were elected, they were not
personally summoned. The spiritual peers-archbishops and bishops were summoned exactly as the
peers, and when the abbots left Parliament after the dissolution of monasteries, they joined the nobles
and formed the House of Lords.

What social sectors were summoned by Edward I? Higher and middle classes (gentry and early
capitalists).

How similar to or different from de Montfort's Parliament was Edward I’s? As regards functions, they are
the same (advisory body and control over taxation). However, as regards composition, they are slightly
different. In both Parliaments some members of the middle classes are included but Edward summons
members from all shires, boroughs and cities, and summons more barons.

To what extent was Edward I’s Parliament representative of the English nation? This Parliament was
representative of the nobility, the clergy and the middle-class of traders, merchants and smaller
landowners. However, the lower classes were not represented.

Why can it be said that the structure of modern Parliament with the House of Commons and the House
of Lords definitely took shape in times of Edward I? Because the knights, citizens and burgesses
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(merchants and traders) (middle classes) sat together and formed the House of Commons, whereas the
greater barons and bishops (higher aristocracy) formed the House of Lords. There was now a clear
division.

Who began to sit together to discuss and act from then onwards? The Lords and Commons.

How significant was his Parliament in the process of democratization of England? Parliament had at this
time only very limited political powers. Lords and Commons still sat together; Parliament had no
regular time for being summoned, that depended on the king; it had only avery indirect control over the king
and ministers; it was not much consulted on affairs of State; it could not make laws, what it did was to
petition the king. However, there were two factors of fundamental importance in the process of
democratization of the Parliamentary system. First, the control over taxation exercised by Parliament. And,
secondly, the fact that the Commons included two classes: the gentry and the higher middle classes of
merchants and traders.

The position of the aristocracy in the middle ages

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During the Early Middle Ages, feudalism was the economic, social, and political system prevailing in
western Europe. Based on the content of the previous lessons, examine this quote by Lipson and then
answer the questions below.

Feudalism was “the social and political domination of a military and land-owning aristocracy” (Lipson,
1951, p. 3)

Why was the aristocracy socially powerful in the Early Middle Ages? They were at the top of the
hierarchical structure of society (above villeins).

Why was this group politically powerful? They were the members of the Great Council.

Lipson characterises the aristocracy as ‘land-owning’. How did the possession of land impact on the
economic power of this social class? Were the members of the aristocracy economically powerful?
Why? They held lands directly from the king and granted portions of them to the villeins, who paid field
services in return. They were the most economically powerful social group after the king.

In the Early Middle Ages, the English aristocracy was economically, socially, and politically powerful.
However, in the Late Middle Ages, as a consequence of a series of economic, social, legal, and political
developments, its power began to weaken.

Economic and social developments of the period:

To what extent do you think the emergence of new social classes influenced the economic, social, and
political power of the aristocracy? Which social group in particular began to challenge its power? Why?
In Urban England a higher middle class of merchants and traders emerged, while in Rural England, a middle
class of knights started to develop. From now on, the aristocracy, which had reigned supreme in the Middle
Ages, began to be challenged by the rising middle classes as the power of the latter was gradually
consolidated. These new middle classes challenged the political power of the aristocracy because they
came to be part of the Parliament of Monfort, which meant that the aristocracy were no longer the only
members. Furthermore, their economic power was compromised now that agriculture was not the only
source of wealth. Until now they were the ones who held the lands and the richest, but now with the growth
of trade there is more economic competition and other groups who are not landholders have wealth. Lastly,
in the EMA there was a very clear division of social classes: aristocracy (very powerful) and villeins. In the
LMA, social mobility is possible and new social classes emerge. Although the aristocracy is still the most
important, there are new groups challenging their social power (middle class)

Legal developments

In the Early Middle Ages, monarchs introduced measures to control the aristocracy.
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Monarch Measures:

William I He took measures to keep himself a powerful monarch.

a.Distribution of land: the king was the owner of all the land and granted estates to the
barons. To weaken their power, he granted them small pieces of land scattered all over
the country, not in the same shire.
b. Domesday book: used to control the possessions of barons.

Henry I He increased the power of the sheriffs and created the Curia Regis.
There were two types of Curia Regis: the lesser Curia Regis, who were advisors of the
king and, the great Curia Regis (synonym of Great Council). The lesser Curia Regis
controlled the aristocracy in their political power, since the king relied more on this
smaller group who were not necessarily members of the aristocracy.

Henry II He appointed itinerant judges (Judges on tour). Henry II established a system of law
courts called the General Eyres whereby royal judges, with special powers and duties,
travelled circuits covering the entire kingdom. The General Eyres were not merely law
courts, they were a way of supervising local government through itinerant central
government.

During Edward’s reign (Late Middle Ages), Parliament passed two statutes to reduce the power of the
aristocracy and consolidate the authority of the king, the Statute of Gloucester or Quo Warranto in 1278 and
the Statute of Quia Emptores in 1290.

Statute of Gloucester or Quo Warranto: (1278) required all landholders to demonstrate before royal justices
by what warrant (quo warranto) they exercised certain kinds of judicial and financial rights (‘franchises’)
within their lordship. This Statute opened investigations to identify specific franchises or liberties that
individuals claimed throughout the kingdom and to examine the validity of the bases or warrants justifying
these claims. These proceedings were labeled quo warranto because defendants had to show before
justices in eyre quo warranto, or “by what warrant,” they claimed those franchises. Most such franchises
allowed their possessors to perform some functions or collect some profit normally attached to the crown
or its offices.

Statute of Quia Emptores: The Statute of Quia Emptores, also called Third Statute of Westminster, was
and English law of 1290 that forbade subinfeudation, the process whereby one tenant granted land to
another who then considered the grantor his lord. Thus, after passage of the Quia Emptores, if Achu
granted land to Marti in fee simple, Marti’s lord would not be Achu but Achu’s lord. The statute prevented
the growth of the feudal pyramid, and in the course of time most land came to be held from the crown and
not from intermediate lords.

In what ways did these statutes contribute to the deterioration of the power of the aristocracy? What
powers of the aristocracy were being checked through these statutes? First, the Statue of Quo Warranto
inquired "by what warrant" English lords claimed their liberties and exercised jurisdiction, including the right
to hold a court and collect its profits. In addition, after the Statute of Quia Emptores, the aristocracy were
no longer allowed to become lords of those who they granted lands to.
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Quo Warranto: the legal power of the aristocracy was being checked because if they wanted to hold a court
they needed to have a warrant. Their economic power was also checked because they also needed a
warrant to collect money in name of the king.

Quia Emptores: subinfeudation makes the figure of the monarch weak. Now that this is no longer possible,
the figure of the monarch transcends (only possible lord), while that of the barons weakens. This statute
thus checks their political power.

Political developments

Hundred Years’ War

When did the war take place? Northern England (because of Scottish alliance with the French) and France

How long did it last? It lasted from 1337 to 1453

Who were the opponents in the war? France and England

Which was the main cause leading to it? The immediate cause of the Hundred Years’ War between England
and France was the rival French and English claims to the French throne when the direct line of the French
ruling family, the Capetians, failed.

Who finally won the Hundred Years’ War? The first few decades of the war saw mostly English victories,
but France’s size prohibited its complete absorption as English territory. Given the French monarchy’s
greater resources and prestige, then the greatest in Europe, this was a remarkable achievement, but in the
long run the English lacked the resources to conquer France.

Which was the main consequence of this war in England? The loss of almost all English-held; a great wave
of taxes to pay for the war which contributed to social unrest in both countries; the disagreement over the
conduct of the war and its failure fuelled the dynastic conflict in England known as the Wars of the Roses
(1455-1487 CE).

What feeling started to develop in the country? Who embodied that feeling? A greater feeling of
nationalism, which led to the creation of national heroes, notably Henry V (and not the aristocracy).

How do you think this war impacted on the power of the aristocracy in the Late Middle Ages? This war had
both a political and an economic impact on the aristocracy´s power. First, the new developing sense of
nationalism underminded the political figure of the aristocracy (no more political domination). Second, it
had an economic impact because the aristocracy had to pay higher taxes to maintain the war.

Battle of Barnet (War of Roses)

When did the war take place? Between 1455 and 1485

How long did it last? 30 years

Who were the opponents in the war?: the House of York and the House of Lancaster, both members of the
age-old royal Plantagenet family (the white rose was the badge of the Yorks, and the red rose was the badge
of the Lancastrians).

Which was the main cause leading to it? Henry VI (son of Henry V) had little interest in politics and was a
weak ruler. This incited rampant lawlessness throughout his realm and opened the door for power-hungry
nobles and kingmakers to plot behind his back. Henry believed Richard of York was behind rebellion
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launched against him. This rivalry set the stage for 30 years of battles for power involving three generations
of Yorks and Lancasters.

Who finally won the War of the Roses? The Lancastrian Henry Tudor—with the help of France and many
nobles—staked his claim to the crown. He defeated Richard III (third generation of Yorks).

Which was the main consequence of this war? After his official coronation, Henry married Elizabeth of York
to reconcile the long-feuding Lancaster and York houses. This union ended the Wars of the Roses and gave
rise to the Tudor Dynasty.

How do you think this war impacted on the power of the aristocracy in the Late Middle Ages? The
Lancastrians seized land from York’s nobility, so many members of the aristocracy lost their lands. Thus,
the aristocracy’s economic power was affected. Furthermore, many nobles died in battle, making the
aristocracy reduce its number. Lastly, they had to spend a lot of money on the war.

The position of the Church in the Early and Late Middle Ages

In the EMA the Church was a very powerful institution, while in the LMA, its power was undermined and
diminished. This was caused by factors both within and outside the Church, which led to the feelings of
anticlericalism and antipapalism. As a consequence, there were checks to the economic, political, legal,
moral and cultural power of the Church.

The power of the Church in the EMA (climax of power)

The Church had a very important role in the Middle Ages; it was a very important institution and religion was
very important as well.

How powerful was the Church in the Early Middle Ages? In what fields? Why? In the EMA the Church was
very powerful. Politically, some members of the Church were also members of the Great Council. Culturally,
academic education was under the aegis of the Church; the teachers were clerics and the curriculum was
devoted to ecclesiastical ends. In other words, they had a monopoly of literacy and learning and they were
the only learned people. Spiritually and morally, they had a complete dominion over people’s minds as
society had a god-centered spiritual philosophy (everything is related to god and the Church). Monks and
friars had given to Western Europe a new sense of devotion and spiritual joy. Legally, the Church had been
granted its own courts. Economically, they were very wealthy, not only because they were landholders in a
feudalist society but also because over two centuries she had received enormous amounts of lands and
riches from men who wanted to ensure their eternal salvation.

What was the relationship between the Church and the English monarchs in this period? There were
various clashes between members of the Church and monarchs over the authority of the Church over
religious and lay matters.

English monarch Popes/archbishops Conflict

William I Pope Gregory VII Clergymen (both tenants-in-chief and spiritual members
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of the Church) had a dual loyalty to King and Pope,

which became controversial, and raised a conflict
between Church and State when the Pope claimed his
right to appoint bishops in England. William did not
press the claim because he found it essential to be able
to nominate the people he rely on for counsel, so he
would not allow the Pope to curtail his royal power.

William II (Rufus) Anselm Henry quarreled with Anselm over the issue of
and Henry I (Archbishop of investitures. The conflict had begun in the reign of
Canterbury) William Rufus, when Anselm refused to receive the
pallium and the cross from the king because he (and
other reforming clerics) was concerned with the
liberation of the Church from lay control. Consequently,
Anselm confronted Henry and refused to consecrate
bishops who had been invested by the king. Henry
found this intolerable and resisted the Archbishop
creating a struggle that lasted until 1105. Henry finally
agreed to give up investiture on condition that he
retained the right of claiming the bishops’ feudal
homage as barons and (in theory) the right to choose
the man who was to be Bishop (though his choice was
often subjected to the Pope’s approval).

Henry II Thomas Becket Henry II wanted to establish a uniform system of law

throughout the country, but the existence of separate
church courts independent of his authority went
against his aim (the Church had been granted the
right to try in its own law courts all cases
concerning spiritual affairs, and all cases in which
clerics or church property were concerned; Church
property and clerics were thus protected by privileges
known as “Benefit of Clergy” so that, if accused of any
crime clergymen could demand to be tried in a church
court). Henry was determined to check Benefit of
Clergy, through the Constitution of Clarendon. Thomas
Becket (Archbishop of Canterbury in 1162) refused
to accept the Constitutions. Henry was so angry
that the Archbishop had to leave the country. Henry
finally had to yield and withdraw his Constitutions due
to Becket’s murder (his martyrdom was condemned by
public opinion).
However, Henry successfully set up the barrier of the lay
courts against the encroachments of the clerical power.
Although he was forced to concede benefit of clergy, he
did so only in cases of felony (and not minor offences).

John Lackland Pope Innocent III When King John refused to accept Stephen Langton
as head of the Seat of Canterbury, Pope Innocent
III laid England under interdict (everyone in the realm
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is treated as excommunicated) until 1213, when

John finally surrendered to the Pope’s pressure. The
King not only accepted Innocent III’s nominee, but asked
the Pope to become feudal overlord of England.

Overall, who was the winning side? The monarchs or the Church? Justify your answer. During the Early
Middle Ages, the English monarchs and the Church had several confrontations in which the Church was
overall the winning side because of her incredible power.

The decay of the power and prestige of the Church in the LMA

It should be pointed out that when we talk about the deterioration of the position of the Church in the Late
Middle Ages, we are referring to the weakening of the economic and political power of this institution and
not to the loss of its authority and dominion over the essential doctrines of the Church and religious issues.
Except for Wycliffe in the late XIV C, the strong attacks against it were upon the economic and political
power of the Roman Church, but they did not challenge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, the faith
dogmas and central religious tenets.

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the power of the Church began to decline due to a number of
factors - both within and outside the Church - which begot the development of a feeling of anticlericalism
and anti-papalism that went on increasing until it accomplished the Reformation. Many of these factors
were not new; most of them had already been present in the previous century, but in the Late Middle Ages
they consolidated and acquired a force of their own, strong enough to deteriorate the power and prestige
of the Church.

Factors that led to the emergence of the feeling of anticlericalism:

Feeling of anticlericalism: (social connotation) the feeling on the part of the laity against the Church and
the clergy. Opposition to the clergy for its real or alleged influence in political and social affairs, for its
doctrinairism, for its privileges or property, or for any other reason.

Worldliness and Many bishops had become greedy and very much concerned with the
greed of the clergy administration of their estates. To its subjects, the monastery appeared not
as a holy community but as a property-owning corporation, tenacious of its
legal rights. Bishops even neglected their pastoral responsibilities in order
to fulfill their official functions. Monks no longer lived by their strict
monastic rules, and had become accustomed to the comforts of lay
society. The bishops were very far from being inspiration to holiness and
prelates were usually chosen for their administrative or diplomatic talents,
or their aristocratic connections, rather than for piety, zeal or learning. Even
the friars, who had led exemplary lives in the previous century, were now
being criticized because they had forgotten their principles of poverty,
chastity, and obedience. Lastly, laymen were not happy with the unequal
distribution of the Church's wealth since parishes had suffered considerable
decay and poor parish priests were sunk into extreme poverty and illiteracy
because their incomes were manyrimes appropriated by other sectors of
the Church.

Pluralism The members of the Church had many posts/positions, not only within the
Church (spiritual) but also in government, for example (political). As a
consequence they many times disregarded some of these posts, especially
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the spiritual ones (absenteeism; worldliness). Pluralism and absenteeism

are not new, but for the first time,t the laymen are critical about it.

Absenteeism In this century the absence of bishops from their sees became more
frequent (because of pluralism) and their residence in London more
permanent. Although the absence of a bishop from his see did not mean
that diocesan routine broke down, the clergymen that replaced them did not
have the power or authority to arouse the fervour of their flock in the same
way.

Black Death A large number of parish priest died as a consequence of the pestilence,
(1348/9) and they were in many cases replaced by men without vocation and
education. In addition, after the Black Death of 1349 sharply reduced the
income from land.

Clergymen´s lack Only a small minority of ecclesiastics, whether monastic or secular, went to
of vocation and the universities. Expense and the curriculum (not suitable for training of
illiteracy priests or monks) were deterrents. Furthermore, opportunities for literate
men outside the monasteries were increasing and enthusiasm for the
monastic life waned as life outside became less grim.

Rise of lay culture The rise of Early Capitalism in the fourteenth century led to the rise of a new
(critical attitude) potentially powerful social class: the Higher Middle Classes of merchants
and traders (the bourgeoisie). Due to the introduction of the printing press,
which increased the availability of a number of books, these laymen became
gradually literate and learned people who could now read and judge for
themselves. Hence, a lay culture emerged which developed a critical
attitude towards the Church and began to question and challenge its power,
wealth and malpractices, thus, engendering a feeling of anticlericalism.

John Wycliffe and John Wycliffe (1330 - 1384), English theologian, philosopher, church
the Lollard reformer, and promoter of the first complete translation of the Bible into
movement (XIV) English (people should have a direct connection with god and thus should
be able to interpret the bible by themselves). The politico-ecclesiastical
theories that he developed required the church to give up its worldly
possessions (as the church was in sin, it ought to give up its possessions
and return to evangelical poverty; such disendowment was to be carried out
by the state, and particularly by the king). He also began a systematic attack
on the beliefs and practices of the church, mainly the doctrine of
transubstantiation (that the substance of the bread and wine used in the
Eucharist is changed into the body and blood of Christ), one of the main
dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Lollards, a heretical group,
propagated his controversial views. Lollardy spread especially amongst the
middle classes, where it reinforced the growing individualist, anti-clerical,
and critical spirit. The Church's reaction to Lollardy was to hunt their
followers down and burn them for heresy. Wycliffe was one of the
forerunners of the Protestant Reformation (key figure) and he was the first
member of the Church to question its dogmas. His views are antecedents
of the reformation and the denial of transubstantiation in the Tudor period.

Measures by The Statute of Mortmain limited the power of the English clergy to
monarchs: Edward acquire further property from laymen by prohibiting the grants of lands to
I´s Statute of the Church except with the express permission of the King.
Mortmain (1279)
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Factors that led to the emergence of the feeling of antipapalism:

Feeling of anti-papalism: (political and moral connotation) the feeling on the part of the English monarchs
against the political power of the Roman Church, against the advocacy of papal supremacy and involvement
in politics and law, though the spiritual supremacy of the Pope was not challenged.

Hundred Years´ The Hundred Years War led to the development of a strong sense of
War (1337-1453): nationalism among the English people, and residence of French popes at
Feeling of Avignon made the papacy seem to Englishmen an ally of the national
nationalism enemy.

Babylonish The Avignon Papacy was the time period in which the Roman Catholic pope
Captivity (1309- resided in Avignon, France, instead of in Rome, from approximately 1309 to
1377) 1377. The Avignon Papacy is sometimes referred to as the Babylonian
Captivity of the Church because it lasted nearly 70 years, which was the
length of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews in the Bible. There was a new
pope who was not Italian nor lived in Rome, but was French and was taken
to Avignon and because of the feeling of nationalism, this was considered
terrible by the English. Moreover, countries had to send money (benefices)
to the pope, whom they now considered the enemy.

Conflicts between Antecedents in EMA

monarchs and
popes

Measures by In the reign of Edward III, two other statutes were passed. They were
monarchs: Edward designed to limit the power of the Pope over the English Church. In
III´s Statute of 1351, Parliament passed the Statute of Provisors which forbade the
Provisors (1351) revenues of English benefices (money) to be sent to the Pope (mainly
and Statute of because he was French). It was followed in 1353 by the Statute of
Praemunire (1353) Praemunire, which made it illegal to bring law cases before the papal
courts, or to bring papal bulls into the country without the King’s permission

Education in the Middle Ages

Language of education:

Which was the language of learning in the Early Middle Ages? Why? In the twelfth century the Roman
Empire and its successor, the Carolingian Empire, dominated men’s conception of the past, and learned
men looked back to the Latin culture of antiquity as the origin and source of their own studies. No vernacular
language had yet become a language of the schools which would compete with Latin. Scholars were at
home with one another from whatever land they came, for Latin was the common language of learning
(international).

Which was the language of learning in the Late Middle Ages? Why? Until nearly the end of the 14th century,
French was still the language of the upper classes, but afterwards, English began to oust its rival. After the
Hundred Years War, English was made the official language of the law courts. At the same time, the ability
to read and write in English grew steadily in the upper and middle classes. If education had still been limited
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to ecclesiastics, this development would have been much slower, for the language of the Church and its
schools (universities and grammar schools) was Latin and it is especially in new schools by merchants and
traders that English was used.

These new developments in education started when Richard II was the king. Under his reign, the first secular
school was founded (school founded by a layman.

Aims of education:

Which were the aims of education in the Early Middle Ages? In the Early Middle Ages, theology was the
highest aim of university education.

To what extent did the aims of education change in the Late Middle Ages? What factors account for such
change? Academic education was still under the aegis of the Church and the curriculum was devoted to
ecclesiastical ends. In the LMA many educational institutions were still being started under direct
ecclesiastical inspiration and for ecclesiastical ends. However, the growing complexity and sophistication
of society, with the rise of a lay culture, made for the need for an increasing variety of technical skills outside
the orbit of the Church. Some increasingly influential occupations were in the hands of laymen, such as the
legal professions and the crafts and trades (apprenticeship). This type of education had practical and
technical aims, as opposed to the education offered by the Church, which had religious aims.

Elementary education:

In the Middle Ages, where was elementary education imparted? In nunneries, song schools attached to
cathedral, collegiate or parish churches, grammar schools, private chapels or chantries.

Were girls admitted to these schools? Yes, girls were often admitted to A.B.C schools and song schools,
but not to grammar schools.

Who were the teachers? members of the church (clerics or nuns)

Which were the subjects taught? singing, reading and simple instruction in faith.

Which was the purpose of these institutions? Elementary schools furnished all the academic education
which humble folks could count themselves lucky to get, and for the more fortunate formed a basis for the
work of the grammar school.

Grammar schools:

Which were the subjects taught at grammar schools? Latin grammar and composition.

Which was the teaching method used? Why? The teaching was permeated with dialectic, partly because
books were costly and scarce, and partly because the work of grammar school was designed to lead to
University studies, where the methods were largely dialectical.

In the Early Middle Ages, who controlled these schools? The Church.

How did the introduction of the printing press and rise of a lay culture impact on education? It was no
more solely left in hands of the Church.

What types of schools were founded in the Late Middle Ages? Who founded them? Which were their aims?
In the LMA many educational institutions were still being started under direct ecclesiastical inspiration and
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for ecclesiastical ends. In addition to the technical schools of merchants and traders, the founding of
chantries became extremely popular and by the half of the 16th century chantry schools were the most
numerous in England. The idea of intercession was centuries old; however, it was not until the LMA that it
became common to provide especially for masses for the repose of the soul of the founder and his family
(religious aims). The founders could be very wealthy and important people. In these chantries (small
churches), the priests were teachers when they were not praying for the founders´ souls, which gave rise to
chantry schools.

Which were the subjects taught in chantries? Mainly the same subjects as grammar schools.

Universities:

When were Oxford and Cambridge founded? There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at
Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167, when Henry II banned English students from
attending the University of Paris.and Cambridge was founded in 1209.

According to Stenton, what factor may explain why Oxford became the first English University? Its
geographical advantage in the center of England. Oxford was very accessible and it was one of the chief
towns in England. Apart from London, there were no other towns on which so many roads of general
importance converged.

Which were the general characteristics of universities in the Early Middle Ages? (organization, vacations,
examinations, attendance) University organization in this age was very rudimentary. There were yet no
colleges and students had complete freedom to come and go. There were no vacations, no organized
games, and no examinations. As from 1231, evert student was made to put his name on the roll of a Regent
Master and attend daily at least one morning lecture.

Which were the main subjects taught? theology and metaphysics

When did the collegiate system begin? Which was the first college founded? The first Oxford college was
founded around 1264 and 1274 by Walter of Merton. Only the beginnings of college history fall into this
period, though. When this period ended, colleges were tiny institutions.

What subjects were introduced by the late 14th century? With the introduction of the collegiate system, the
subjects changed according to the college the student chose (arts, medicine, law, etc). New subjects as
bookkeeping or accounting started to be taught, as well as other languages (e.g Hebrew instead of Latin)

Education in the LMA

In the Early Middle Ages, the Church was a very powerful institution which for centuries was virtually the
sole provider of education. But, in the Late Middle Ages, what happened to the monopoly over education
that the Church used to hold?

Explain these authors’ opinions and indicate in relation to what developments they are expressing these
ideas. What words in the quotes give evidence of the authors´ opinions?

In the field of education, there were no spectacular developments in the fifteenth century England, but there
was a slow maturing of change in institutions and attitudes which laid the foundation for a durable advance
in the next century. (Simon)

To what extent did the Church lose the monopoly over education in the Late Middle Ages? The Church no
longer held a complete monopoly over education because of the occupations and skills that could be learnt
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outside its orbit (middle class professional men and children of nobility and gentry raised at home).
However, lawyers and guildsmen still maintained very close relations with the Church, and did not dream of
challenging her authority in education; but their very existence lessened the Church's influence over
instruction.

Significance of the Tudor Period

The Tudor dynasty, founded in 1485 by Henry VII when he emerged victorious after the dynastic Wars of
the Roses, played an important part in turning England from a European backwater still immersed in the
Middle Ages into a powerful Renaissance state that in the coming centuries would dominate much of the
world.

The Tudor period was significant in the growth of the English culture because it marks not only the climax
of many of the developments that had already started in the Late Middle Ages, but also the birth of Modern
England.

The Modern Age

The Modern Age is the historical period from the 15th to the 18th century. The year in which this period
began is a subject of debate amongst historians.

In Western History, which events could be considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages and the
beginning of the Modern Age? The fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453) and the discovery of America
(1492)

Which event marks the end of the Modern Age and the beginning of the Contemporary Age? The French
Revolution (1789)

The beginning of the Modern Age, and thus the end of the Middle Ages, is associated with a group of
fundamental changes that occurred in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. In the international
panorama, the geographical discoveries made by the Portuguese and Spaniards in Africa, America, and
Asia extended the frontiers of the world known to Europeans. Thanks to these discoveries, some countries,
such as Spain and Portugal, established extensive colonial empires whose wealth stimulated world trade.
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In the field of economy, during this period, commerce became very important and even more widespread;
consequently, the bourgeoisie was able to make considerable fortunes and gain greater importance. Also,
the Modern Age is characterized by the birth of the Early Modern State and by absolute monarchs who ruled
by divine right, such as the Tudors in England, the Habsburgs in Spain and Austria, or the Bourbons in
France. In religion, the power of the Catholic Church was challenged through criticism of its theology and
practices, which ultimately led to the Protestant Reformation. In the field of ideas, this time saw a rebirth of
interest in the writings of scholars from ancient Greece and Rome, the Renaissance, which brought about a
new conception of life, a revived interest in this world and in human nature. Man had crossed oceans and
discovered new lands; he had become the centre of the Universe.

In English history, what event is taken as the dividing line between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age?
Henry VII´s accession to the throne (1485)

Henry VII (1485 – 1509): Having defeated Richard III at Bosworth, Henry Tudor went on to found the dynasty
that contains arguably the most well-known figures in royal history. By undermining the nobility and
marrying Elizabeth of York, Henry united the warring houses and soon secured his position on the throne.
Throughout his reign Henry did his best to strengthen tense relations at home and abroad. He arranged his
daughter Margaret to marry James IV, King of Scots, while peace with Spain was sought when his eldest
son Arthur married Catherine Of Aragon. However, mistrust between Henry and the King of Spain remained
right up until Henry’s death. Following Arthur’s premature death, it was up to the dead king’s younger son
Henry to take the throne.
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Henry VIII (1509–1547): To historians, Henry remains one of the most important monarchs to have ruled
the English and Welsh. During his four decades of sovereignty, his reign paved the way for the English
Reformation, he presided over a remodelling of government, a major growth in the importance of
Parliament, the incorporation of Wales into English administration, the establishment of the Kingdom of
Ireland, and he oversaw the construction of many colleges, palaces and fortresses. He is also notorious for
having married six times, the first being his dead brother’s widow Catherine of Aragon. After a divorce that
permanently altered the relationship between the church and the monarchy in England, he wed Anne Boleyn,
only to have her executed for treason and adultery. Next up was Jane Seymour who died after giving birth
to Henry’s only male heir. He then wed Anne of Cleves, but a second divorce later he got hitched to Catherine
Howard, who was also beheaded for treason. Henry’s last wife was Catherine Parr, who outlived the mighty
monarch.

Edward VI (1547–1553): Edward was another boy king, having ascended the throne at the age of nine.
Fiercely intelligent, Edward excelled at various academic disciplines while England was ruled by an ever-
quarrelling series of Lord Protectors until he came of age. During this time the country was divided by
religion; although his father had initially broken the link between the English Church and Rome, it was during
Edward's reign that the decisive move was made from Catholicism to Protestantism. Due to his ardent
beliefs, Edward disapproved of his elder sister Mary's Catholicism and even when his health was visibly
failing, remained adamant that he did not want the throne succeeded by his elder sister. It is believed that
had he survived into old age, Edward would have been a great King, but it was not to be. He died aged fifteen,
from either tuberculosis, measles or even syphilis and his brief reign did little to secure peace in the
kingdom.

Mary I (1553 – 1558): Known as Mary Tudor, this queen is best remembered for trying to undo the works
of her half-brother and attempt to return England from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. To this end,
she had almost three hundred religious dissenters executed, often by being burned at the stake. As a result,
she became known as Bloody Mary. The daughter of Catherine of Aragon, Mary was proud of her Spanish
heritage and she married a Spaniard, namely Phillip, the son of Emperor Charles V. However, he apparently
found her deeply unattractive and fourteen months later he returned to Spain. During her life she suffered
from phantom pregnancies and produced no heir. Unloved by her subjects, Bloody Mary died of cancer and
reluctantly named her sister Elizabeth as her successor.

Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603): Sometimes referred to as The Virgin Queen - since she never married - Gloriana,
or Good Queen Bess was the fifth and final monarch of the Tudor dynasty. So long and influential was her
reign that this period in history became known as the Elizabethan era. Under her reign, England grew strong
in terms of global discovery and international diplomacy while literature and the arts flourished; a Spanish
invasion was crippled and her excellent political and diplomatic skills meant that she was able to prevent
the outbreak of a religious or civil war on English soil. The demise of the Tudor Dynasty came to an end
when Elizabeth died aged sixty-nine, at that point the oldest English sovereign ever to have reigned.
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Significance

According to Elgue-Martini (1968) the Tudor period marks the climax of many of the political, economic,
social, and religious changes that had started long before the accession of Henry VII.

Economic aspect

In the economic field, as a consequence of the further growth of trade and expansion of the market, the
16th century was a period of vigorous economic expansion characterised by great economic prosperity.
However when Henry VII came to the throne, England was already an active trading country and had
developed some basic industries.

What industries emerged in the Late Middle Ages? The wool industry

Was trade important in this period? Why (not)? Yes, it was very important, especially the wool trade with
the Netherlands (Flanders).

What did this active trade mean in terms of the extent of the market and the amount of production? How
did they affect the Guild system? Why? With the expansion of the market and the amount of production,
the guilds were not able to satisfy the growing demand, so the domestic system developed.

How did the adoption of the domestic system of production influence the economic developments of the
period? The domestic system, caused by the fact that trade gained more force and markets were expanded,
led to the increasing importance of capital, the rise of more complex systems of production (the division of
labor -mercantile functions separated from productive functions), and the rise of the merchant class.

In the Tudor period, what happened to the industries that had emerged in the Late Middle Ages? In the
mid-14th century, the wool trade had since gone into decline, and by 1500 it had shrunk to a tithe
of its former volume. Until the 15th century, the wool and the cloth trade had been carried on
directly between the most important English ports and the leading European centres, concentrating
on the Baltic and the North Sea. But towards the middle of that century, the expansion of the English trading
connexions had been abruptly checked.The whole of the English trade with Europe had therefore to be
carried on via the Netherlands. During the reign of Henry VII and Henry VIII, Antwerp and Calais were
the main trade-centres. Calais was lost a few months before Elizabeth ascended to the throne and
Antwerp was also lost in the next years. This is why English merchants were then compelled to seek out
new markets. English merchants gave free play to the sea-faring instincts.
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Did any new industry develop during this period? The was an overseas expansion (Russia, Prussia, the
Baltic, Turkey and the Levant, India, and America) which inaugurated a new period of industrial activity.
There was a great expansion of mining of all sorts -lead, copper, tin, iron and coal. Other industries
which flourished at this time were the ones connected with fishing.

To what extent did trade grow during the 16th century? Even though there was a decline in the wool trade,
trade relationships grew extensively during this period thanks to the overseas expansion.

What factors account for such growth? The economic changes which took place during the Tudor
period were multiple and complex; they were to a great extent the result of important historical
events, such as the conquest of the lands round the eastern Mediterranean by the Turks(*), which closed
the old trade-route between Asia and Europe, the geographical discoveries which followed and political
changes in Europe. Also, the defeat of the Spanish Armada (*2) gave confidence to Britain, who became a
naval power that discovered more routes and territories to trade in America that did not belong to Phillip.
This led to an overseas expansion that would pave the way for a new English plan of colonization
(acquisitive relationship with the sea- once the Church is established in Elizabeth´s reign).

(*)Before the discovery of America, the main route of trade was in the Mediterranean to the east. When the
Turks conquest those lands, they start charging very high prices to those who want to go through that route,
which leads European countries to search for new routes to get to Asia. America is discovered, and so are
new routes to Asia, as for example going around Africa.

(*2) Before the war with Spain, only Spain and Portugal possessed the monopoly of the routes of trade with
America. Since Philip did not allow British merchants to trade in these cites, merchants looked for
alternative ways to make money without regard to Philip´s “laws”. This is how pirate ships became so
popular, and also contraband.

How does Trevelyan characterize England’s relation to the sea now? Why? The history of Britain as a leader
in the world's affairs (…) begins with the reign of Elizabeth. The reason can be read upon the map. Map-
makers, whether in ancient Alexandria or in medieval monasteries, placed our island on the north-west edge
of all things. But, after the discovery of America and the ocean routes to Africa and the East, Britain lay in
the centre of the new maritime movement. This change in her geographic outlook was employed to good
purpose by her inhabitants, who (…) made her the chief seat of her new trans-oceanic commerce and of the
finance and industry that sustained it.

The voyages of discovery had completely changed the situation of England regarding overseas commerce.
The discovery of America and the opening of new routes to Asia had placed her in a very favourable position

Thus, in early times, the relation of Britain to the sea was passive and receptive; in modern times, active
(Britain participated actively in trade) and acquisitive (acquiring territories) In both it (the sea) is the key to
her story.
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Britain's position in the world before and after the discovery of America.

To what extent did all these developments influence Capitalism? The commercial expansion not only
determined the emergence of England as one of the greatest sea powers in the world, but brought about
economic, administrative and social changes which altered the structure of society. The industrial
development, the rise of overseas trading companies, the national control over trade and industry, the
growing importance of the merchant class, all consequences of the commercial expansion, constitute
the first great step towards “capitalism”.

The Defeat of the Spanish Armada

According to McDowall (2006), the defeat of The Spanish Armada in 1588 was the most glorious event of
Elizabeth I's reign. It marked the emergence of England as a great European sea power, leading the way to
the development of the empire over the next two centuries. It also marked the limit of Spain's ability to
recapture Protestant countries for the Catholic Church (p. 67)

What were the causes of the rivalries between England and Spain? Philip (Spain's king) was particularly
incensed by the spread of Protestantism in England, and he had long toyed with the idea of conquering the
British Isle to bring it back into the Catholic fold. Tensions between Spain and England flared in the 1580s,
after Elizabeth began allowing privateers such as Sir Francis Drake to conduct pirate raids on Spanish fleets
carrying treasure from their rich New World colonies. By 1585, when England signed a treaty of support with
Dutch rebels in the Spanish-controlled Netherlands, a state of undeclared war existed between the two
powers. That same year, Philip began formulating an “Enterprise of England” to remove Elizabeth from the
throne.

Why was the conflict between England and Spain first referred to as an “Unofficial War”? Until 1588,
Elizabeth and Phillip well still reluctant to commit their kingdoms to the ordeal of war. For all their caution,
however, they both were heading for armed conflict. Gloriana continued to give aid and comfort to Phillip’s
Dutch rebels and to sanction (officially approve) English piracy against his treasure fleets. Phillip
encouraged Catholic sedition in England, gave support to Mary of Scotland, and slowly became convinced
that he was God’s instrument, chosen to rid the world of that heretic Elizabeth of England.

When and why did the War become Official? When queen Elizabeth knighted Drake instead of punishing
him for attacking Spanish ships with treasures from America. In 1588, Phillip sent his Armada (130 ships)
in the hope of removing protestant Elizabeth from the Church and restoring the Roman Catholic faith in
England.

Who won the War? What factors account for such victory? The Armada was outfoxed by the English, then
battered by storms while limping back to Spain with at least a third of its ships sunk or damaged. The vast
majority of the Spanish Armada’s losses were caused by disease and foul weather. It was also the English
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sailors’ mastery of the new fighting tactics which made the triumph over the Armada possible, since the
Spaniards were very inexperienced at sea (Spanish military power excelled on land but its soldiers regarded
the navy as an inferior branch of the service).

What were the main consequences of the War for England? The Counter Reformation was slowed down,
Protestantism and the independence of the northern provinces of the Netherlands were assured, and
Elizabeth´s seamen henceforth felt confident that the riches of the New World were theirs. The defeat of
the Spanish Armada also led to a surge of national pride in England. England saved itself from invasion and
won recognition as one of Europe’s most fearsome sea powers (intimately connected with economy,
freedom, equality and private enterprise*).

*The English naval superiority was established through the cooperation of individual initiative. Only part
of the ships which fought against the Spaniards were professional warships, the great majority were the
same fighting merchant ships which had plundered the Spanish ports and vessels. All the sailors took
an active part in the war; their objective being not military glory but the defence of their freedom to trade, to
sail the seas and to worship God in their own way. Thus the characteristics of the new sea-power, its
intimate connection with economy, its tendency towards freedom, equality and private enterprise.

To what extent did the defeat of the Spanish Armada impact on the economic developments of the Tudor
Age? This defeat led to an overseas expansion, which was closely connected with the growth of
merchant capitalism. It led to the growth of industrial activities and of international trade. It also meant
that the English had a new control of the seas (which would later on lead to a plan of colonization).

Social aspect

In the social field, in the Late MIddle Ages, the adoption of the Domestic system as the new production
system together with the rise of early capitalism brought about the emergence of a new potentially powerful
social class, the higher middle classes of merchants and traders.

In the Tudor period, under the impact of the commercial expansion, this social group consolidated its
economic and political position. Read Elgue-Martini's essay again and answer the questions below.

In what ways did the economic developments of the Tudor period help consolidate the economic position
of this group? Socially, the Tudor period was decisive in the establishment of middle-class modern
England. In this period, under the impact of the commercial expansion, this class acquired great
economic and political power.

What measures did Henry VII take that, in checking the power of the aristocracy, consolidated the position
of the higher middle classes?

★ The reorganization of the Court of Star Chamber to deal with powerful landowners who had
hitherto administered justice in their own neighbourhood (there is now a court in name of the
king which controls all other courts, including baronical courts, thus checking the nobility´s legal
power)
★ The “loans” and “benevolences” exhorted from the nobles (the king requested nobles to loan him
money. Most of the times, he did not pay them back, thus, the economic power of the aristocracy was
checked.)
★ The passing of the Sumptuary Laws, which put an end to “Livery and Maintenance” (Livery meant that
the aristocracy had their own “military force” and maintenance meant that the soldiers were
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permanently ready to fight. The Sumptuary laws put an end to that practice, which means that the
nobles cannot have their own army any longer).
★ The choice of men of humble rank, entirely dependant on royal favour, as ministers (members of
the higher middle classes became ministers and advisors, checking the nobility´s political power).
★ The Justices of Peace (Officials chosen by the king to control the local governments. They acted as
intermediaries between the nation and localities. This meant that the king had a complete control
over the country).
★ The “commission of array” and the “signet letter”: he made use of the military aptitude of the
aristocracy, to provide for the defence of the country.The king commanded nobles to send (array)
their armies to fight for him. This was requested through a letter signed (signet) by the king himself.

What measure taken by Henry VIII strengthened the position of this social class in Parliament? Henry VIII
takes the measure of “dissolution of the monasteries”; monasteries are closed and the lands are sold very
economically to the higher middle classes. This measure increases their economic power but also their
political power, since now monks were not landowners and were no longer members of Parliament, so
merchants were proportionately more in number.

Political aspect

In the political field, the Tudors inaugurated a new era of national unity and nationalism.

The Ditchley Portrait, 1592

(la Reina como símbolo formalizado del concepto de majestad y emblema

inalterable del creciente nacionalismo inglés)

The forging of political unity and the transformation of a medieval realm into a
modern nation were largely the result of strong-arm tactics of the great Tudor monarchs, but spiritual
nationalism -a sense of oneness and Englishness- was far advanced before the first Tudor seized the crown
at Bosworth Field. (Baldwin Smith, 1983, p. 80)

Why does Baldwin Smith assert that the feeling of nationalism was far advanced before the accession of
the first Tudor monarch to the throne? Because it had already started to develop in the Hundred Years War
(1337-1453).

When did this sense of oneness and Englishness start to develop in England? The indispensable condition
of nationhood -linguistic unity- had developed far enough by 1400 sthat the babble of innumerable tongues
had given way to a single dominant speech: that of English as spoken in the neighborhood of the city of
London. The conquered tongue of Anglo Saxon, much modified and corrupted, had triumphed over Norman
French, and possible nothing better signifies the growing exclusiveness, national consciousness, and sense
of separation from the European and continental community than the victory of native English over alien
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French. Although English in the XV century dominated but did not monopolize, the growth of a single
medium of expression, the increasing reference to English as a mother tongue, and the dying use of French
and Latin were signs of evolving national cohesiveness. Once the English became conscious of a sense of
Englishness, once they transferred their loyalty from locality and state to realm and state, a sentiment had
been set loose that would destroy the last shreds of lingering medieval internationalism.

What developments account for the growth of the feeling of nationalism in the country? The events
mentioned previously, together with the defeat of the Armada and the measures (*) taken by Henry VII
(these measures did not contribute to nationalism exactly but to political unity) all led to the growth of the
feeling of nationalism.

*First, he married Elizabeth of York, thus uniting the House of York and the House of Lancaster;
secondly, during the first years of his reign he obtained from Parliament all kinds of concessions,
which he used to enrich and strengthen himself and to weaken the power of the nobles. Thus Henry
VII inaugurated an era of national unity and political stability which soon would give rise to a new spirit
of nationalism and patriotism that would reach its climax during the reign of Elizabeth.

Can the Tudor Monarchs be considered absolute rulers? Why (not)? The Modern Age is characterized by
the birth of the Early Modern State and by absolute monarchs who ruled by divine right, such as the Tudors
in England.

Were they supported by the Nation? Why? There existed a community of purposes between the King, who
wanted to establish a strong personal rule, and the people, especially the rising middle classes, who
wanted political stability as an indispensable factor to achieve economic prosperity.

What was the relationship between the Tudor Monarchs and Parliament like? There was a community of
interests between the higher middle classes, who were very powerful in Parliament, and the monarchs. This
meant that the monarchs could obtain many concessions from Parliament.

In what ways did this relationship impact on the position of Parliament during this period? The Parliament
became a server for royal power.

What factors account for the consolidation of the feeling of nationalism in the Tudor Period, especially
during Elizabeth's reign? With the defeat of the Spanish Armada, the queen became glorified in the nation
since she was considered the symbol of the defeat.

Religious aspect

During the Tudor period, in the religious field, the climax of the developments that had already started in the
Late Middle Ages was expressed in the theological revolution called the Reformation, which, in England,
meant the final break with Rome and the Pope, the denial of Dogma, and the final establishment of the
Anglican Church.

When and how did England break with Rome? In 1534 with the Act of Supremacy, which declared that the
king (Henry VIII) and not the pope was the Supreme Head of the Church of England.

Which religious developments of the Late Middle Ages could be regarded as antecedents of this breach
with Rome? Though the immediate cause for this breach was Henry VIII’s decision to marry Anne
Boleyn, the English spirit of independence has always resented the dependance on Rome in religious
matters; antecedents in this sense may be found in the people’s unwillingness to pay tributes to the Pope,
Henry II’s attempts to check the “benefit of the clergy”, as well as in King John’s denial of the Papal
Right to nominate archbishops and Edward III’s “Statute Of Provisors” and “Statute of Praemunire”.
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When and how did the Church in England become definitely Protestant? Though the protestantizing and
secularizing of England was not complete till the Puritan Rebellion and the Whig-Tory Revolution, the
Tudor period constitutes the most important stage in the process, since it saw the establishment of the
Church of England. It is in Edward VI's reign when the first reforms in dogma take place and the Church
starts being Protestant.

Which religious developments of the Late Middle Ages could be regarded as antecedents of this change
in religion? The developments that led to the feelings of antipapalism and anticlericalism (previous charts)

When was the Church of England finally established? During the reign of Queen Elizabeth.

Conclusion

The Tudor period was significant in the growth of the English culture as it marks the climax of many of the
political, economic, social, and religious developments that had already started in the Late Middle Ages.
However, according to Elgue-Martini, the significance of the Tudor period can be approached from a
different perspective as well, as the birth of Modern England. She asserts so because, when Queen Elizabeth
died in 1603, much of the fabric of 19th century England –a seafaring, imperialist, capitalist, industrial,
middle class, and Protestant country– had already taken form.

“The Tudor Age marks the beginning of Modern times in England because politically, it was during this
period that the power of the nobles was definitely checked and the nation was united under the authority of
the King and Parliament and inspired with a new spirit of patriotism and self-reliance; economically, the
commercial expansion played an important part in the process which turned England into a sea-faring,
industrial, capitalist State; socially, the new economic and political power acquired by the rising upper
middle-classes was decisive in the development of middle-class modern England; in the religious field, it
was at this time the Church of England was established; and philosophically, the belief in a static hierarchy
of “beings”, “acts”, “values”, “forms”, “persons” with God at the highest place, which had characterized the
Middle Ages, gave place to a new individualistic conception of the world in which man was the essential
reality.”
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Economic, social and political developments

Economic developments: MERCANTILISM

What is an economic system? Economic systems are the means by which countries and governments
distribute resources and trade goods and services. They are used to control the five factors of
production, including: labor, capital, entrepreneurs, physical resources and information resources. An
economic system encompasses many institutions, agencies, and other entities. The structure of any
economic system seeks to answer three basic questions.1) What to produce. 2) How to produce it and how
much. 3) Who receives production’s output.The system sets the rules of play for all the players in an
economy, and defines how they can interact with one another.

What is an economic policy? Economic policy refers to the actions that governments take in the
economic field as a means of achieving its economic objectives. It covers the systems for setting
interest rates and government budget as well as the labor market, national ownership, and many other
areas of government interventions into the economy. In general terms governments are concerned
with (at the macro-level) securing full employment, price stability, economic growth and balance of
payments equilibrium, and (at the micro-level) an efficient use of resources. In practice, given the
complexities of the economy and its exposure to international influences, the simultaneous
achievement of all these objectives is virtually impossible, so that a degree of prioritizing is required.
Inevitably, political as well as economic considerations will influence this process. The national budget
generally reflects the economic policy of a government, and it is partly through the budget that the
government exercises its three principal methods of establishing control: the allocative function, the
stabilization function, and the distributive function.

Mercantilism is an economic policy in the economic system of Capitalism.

What is mercantilism? Lipson: a planned national economy based on self-sufficiency. It is interventionist:

government intervenes and controls (everything is fixed by the state)- against individual freedom of
enterprise; and protectionist: final aim is for the country to become self-sufficing (not dependent on any
other country)- defense of national industry.

Why does he speak of “a planned national economy”? The planned state economy is an economic model
that includes the state control over the economy. The economy is planned when the state interferes in the
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commercial affairs of a country, deciding issues such as production and planning of this production. As
regards it being a national economy, industrial and commercial activities of the community seized to be
organized on a urban basis, and local interests were merged in those of the country as a whole, a national
regime replaced a municipal regime as the mainspring of economic growth.

What does the concept of “self-sufficiency” mean? The idea of self-sufficiency is applied to the nation: A
nation‘s reliance upon its own resources, agricultural and industrial, essential for its existence. It implies 1)
The production of its primary necessities in respect of foodstuffs and manufactured articles to the fullest
extent possible. 2) The utilization of foreign commerce to supply deficiencies which could not be made
good at home, in return for the export of its own surplus products. 3) A possession of its own mercantile
marine.

What was the final aim of Mercantilism? The mercantile system was grounded on the attainment of a
balanced economy (not only trade and manufactures but also agriculture) which sought to achieve
economic independence as the corollary of political independence.

How long was this economic policy applied in home industry and in international trade? This economic
policy was applied in home industry only during the Tudor period, and in international trade it was applied
until the Victorian period (XIX C).

Why was it applied? What reasons led to the adoption of this economic policy? The economic changes
which took place during the Tudor period were multiple and complex; they were to a great extent the result
of the geographical discoveries, the impact of the oceanic voyages, the growth of trade and the expansion
of the market. Economically, the most important changes during the Tudor period took place in the field of
commerce. The commercial expansion resulted in the emergence of England as one of the greatest sea
powers in the world and also brought about economic changes which altered the economic fabric of the
country. The industrial development, the rise of overseas trading companies, the growth of merchant
capitalism, the increase of overseas enterprise, the national control over trade and industry, among others,
were all consequences of the commercial expansion. It was precisely this commercial growth concomitant
with the market expansion that led to the adoption of a new economic policy, mercantilism.

How does the English economic historian (Lipson p. 143 & 144) explain the reasons for the Tudors’
adoption of mercantilism? The English people were convinced that the divergence of public and private
interests called for state intervention in order to protect the community from the harmful side of
individualism. This was because of two main facts. In the first place, industry was still conceived in the
medieval life of a public service (the interests of the public as consumers should be protected, as well as
those of the skilled workers as producer.) In the second place, the principle of communal control in the
economic sphere was deeply rooted in the historic consciousness of the English nation. Early mercantilist
legislation was in its essentials, nothing more than the application, on a national scale, of the orthodox
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practices which had been followed for several centuries by the municipalities (self-sufficiency,
independence, exclusiveness).

How did the English central government regulate home industry and international trade in the XVIth C? In
the sphere of home industry the aim of the state was to bring capitalism under control. The industrial
entrepreneur was subject to restrictions in six different ways. Firstly, he was bound by legal rates of wages.
Secondly, pressure was exerted on him to keep his men at work. Thirdy, he could only employ trained
artisans who had served an apprenticeship. Fourthly, he must conform to a recognized standard of quality
and dimensions. Fifthly, prices were sometimes fixed by public authority. Sixthly, his trade might be put into
the hands of monopolists, who would either refuse him the right to continue in business or exact him from
oppressive fees for doing so. There were patents of monopoly that gave permission to certain
entrepreneurs to produce specific products. There was thus a monopoly of each industry in the hands of
different people.

As regards the international trade, since in the middle of the XVth century the English trading connections
had been checked, the whole of English trade with Europe had to be carried on via the Netherlands. The
Antwerp trade had been originally opened up by the Londoners, who had considered it as their own
property. When infiltration from the provinces began, they reacted strongly and in 1486 the City
authorities created the Fellowship of the Merchant Adventurers of London, which aimed at monopolizing
the trade with the Netherlands. So, the “Intercursus Magnus” (1496) was signed, which fixed a much
reduced composition fee, and recognized the company’s right to exact payment from all merchants
trading within its area (which was the first step towards the creation of a monopolistic corporation upheld
by the State). So, in international trade there were also patents of monopoly that allowed certain merchants
to trade with specific areas. Furthermore, in the Elizabethan Age, there rose overseas trading Companies
of a new type. They were of two types. The “regulated company” and the joint-stock.

*Patents of monopoly: given by the king/state, which profits from this monopoly. There is state control over
every economic aspect.

The legal structure of the mercantile system rested upon protectionist policies in all spheres of the national
economy, namely industry, agriculture and navigation. As regards industry, they encouraged the export of
manufactured articles but frowned upon the export of raw materials (especially wool). They also frowned
upon the import of products which competed with home products, yet they recognized the utility of
commodities with which the nation could not dispense. On this basis was constructed a protective network
of prohibitions and high tariffs on foreign manufactured goods, combined with the removal of duties on
foreign raw materials.As regards agriculture, tillage was considered one of the principal supports of the
mercantilist states. Corn growers were encouraged to raise grain sufficient to satisfy the public demand
and furnish a surplus for sale abroad.The avowed object of agrarian legislation was to provide the requisite
stimulus by permitting the export of corn and prohibiting its import except when prices became excessive
at home. As to navigation, the navigation acts were intended to foster the growth of a mercantile marine:
with this end in view they imposed the obligation to employ native ships.

Which were the economic effects of Mercantilism and the impact of this economic policy on the English
colonies? The resources of England were inadequate to provide her with the raw materials required in
certain industries, hence the importance which was attached to the foundation of colonies, for they afforded
the means by which foreign commodities could become “native” to the realm (source of raw materials).
Moreover, the colonies were the market of the mother country’s manufactures products. This being said,
the colonies do not gain much from their relationship with the mother country since they exist for English
benefit. Over time, the colonies start feeling pressure from the navigation acts (which only allow them to
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trade with England) and they start to feel that the measures affect their economy negatively. (All this
happens in the XVII century with the Tudors).

Social panorama

Social classes:

★ Nobility (gentlemen, lords)

★ Higher middle classes: new gentry (merchants, traders, professionals)
★ Yeomen (small landholders)
★ Common people (labourers, farm-workers, shopkeepers, craftsmen)

Consolidation of the position of the higher middle classes: contributory factors

★ Voyages of discovery: new trading routes (Merchants and traders could now trade with Asia and
Africa through more routes )
★ Discovery of America: (higher middle classes could trade with America)
★ Henry VII´s Intercursus Magnus (1496): (Henry VII gave the Londoners the monopoly of the trade with
the Netherlands)
★ Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536): monasteries are closed and the lands are sold very
economically to the higher middle classes. This measure increases their economic power but also
their political power, since now monks were not landowners and were no longer members of
Parliament, so merchants were proportionately more in number.
★ Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588): This defeat led to an overseas expansion, which was closely
connected with the growth of merchant capitalism. It led to the growth of industrial activities and
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of international trade. It also meant that the English had a new control of the seas (which would later
on lead to a plan of colonization).
★ Growth of trade
★ Expansion of the market
★ Consolidation of Capitalism

Deterioration of the power of the nobility: contributory factors

★ Hundred Years´ War (1338-1453)

★ Feeling of Nationalism
★ War of Roses (1455-1485)
★ Henry VII´s measures to check its power (mentioned before)

Political developments

As regards political developments, the Tudor period brought about the consolidation of both royal authority
and of parliament, since there was a community of purposes between them which led to a relationship of
alliance or partnership. The parliament´s support increases the power of the crown and leads to the
centralization of power in the economic (mercantilism), political (absolutism) and legal and administrative
fields (bureaucracy: justices of peace*, other royal officials). Thanks to the support of the nation (especially
higher middle classes), the Tudors became absolute* monarchs and despots*. This would give rise to a
national monarchy and the early modern state.

*Henry VII: through the Justices of Peace -the link between local and national government -he had a
complete control over the country, and by means of two instruments, the “commission of array” and
the “signet letter”, he made use of the military aptitude of the aristocracy, to provide for the defence of the
country

*Absolutism: a political system in which a single ruler, group, or political party has complete power over a
country. Henry VII began the move towards royal absolutism. This was a belief in the divine right of kings
to rule as they saw fit, without having to answer to nobles, church, or Parliament. The Tudors were absolute
monarchs who had complete power over the economic, political, legal, and even religious (after
Reformation) aspects.

*Despotism: the exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel and oppressive way.

*Early modern state: New idea of state all over Europe. Before we spoke about nation (people), now state
includes the people, the territory and the government.

Parliament during the Tudor period saw few changes. As regards its structure, no major changes were
introduced. Land possession (property: either land or capital) was still a qualification, which meant the
domination of the landed gentry (powerful House of Commons) and the weakening of the House of Lords
(because of the dissolution of the monasteries). As regards functions, it was an advisory body with control
over taxation, which granted money and was part of law making (key role in the Reformation).
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The Reformation
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It is argued that the Tudor period marks the climax of many of the political, economic, social and religious
changes that had started long before the accession of Henry VII (Elgue-Martini, 1968,p.1). In the religious
field, this climax was expressed in the theological revolution called the Reformation, which, in England,
meant the final break with Rome and the establishment of the Anglican Church.

What was the Reformation? The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century religious, political,
intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs
that would define the continent in the modern era. Its greatest leaders undoubtedly were Martin Luther and
John Calvin.

When and where did it take place? Luther nailing a copy of his 95 Theses to the door of Castle Church in
Wittenberg, Germany, in 1517 is considered to mark the birth of the Protestant Reformation. Its ending can
be placed anywhere from the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed for the coexistence of Catholicism
and Lutheranism in Germany, to the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War. It mainly
took place in northern and central Europe.

Which were the major political, economic, social, and religious issues that led to the Reformation?
Essentially, it was the result of centuries worth of political and social grievances against the Christian
Church as it existed.The Reformation of the 16th century was not unprecedented, since there had been
ongoing concern for renewal within the church in the years before Luther. Over the centuries the church,
particularly in the office of the papacy, had become deeply involved in the political life of western Europe
and abuses such as the sale of indulgences (or spiritual privileges) by the clergy and other charges of
corruption (economic) had undermined the Church's authority. There was not only evidence of
anticlericalism but also political authorities who increasingly sought to curtail the public role of the church.
Socially, this tension was exacerbated by the transformative social and intellectual period known as the
Renaissance. In the religious field, priests like John Wycliffe of England challenged the Church's teachings,
which they believed had strayed away from the Bible.

Which was the final outcome of this theological revolution? The unprecedented access to ideas such as
Luther's thanks to the printing press inspired many others to challenge the Church, thereby splitting
Christianity into two major branches, Catholic and Protestant. Also, the Bible became more accessible.
Luther and other Reformists translated Biblical texts from Latin, which was only known by nobility and
Church officials, to languages spoken by the general public. (General outcome for all northern Europe).

By the end of the sixteenth century, which European countries had become Protestant, and which had
remained Catholic? By mid century, Lutheranism dominated northern Europe, while Spain and Italy were to
be the great centres of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. In Scotland, John Knox, who spent time in Geneva
and was greatly influenced by John Calvin, led the establishment of Presbyterianism, which made possible
the eventual union of Scotland with England.
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Religious divisions in Europe

after the Reformation, 1560

The Reformation in England:

Antecedents

● The murder of Thomas Becket: In 1164, Henry II proposed the Constitutions of Clarendon, which
intended to check the "Benefit of Clergy", and as Archbishop Becket refused to accept them he was
forced to flee the country. However, years later he was murdered and his martyrdom forced Henry
to withdraw his proposal. This conflict is a symbol of the many conflicts between monarchs and
Church during the Early Middle Ages.
● Greed of the Church (The Friar from Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales): Bishops became greedy,
concerned mostly with the administration of the State (absenteeism) and many, neglected their
functions as spiritual leaders to fulfill official functions (pluralism).
● The black death (Burying plague victims of Tournai): Due mainly to the Black Death that killed half
of the English population, many priests died and were replaced by clergymen without vocation and
preparation (many were illiterate). These men became priests because they saw in the Church the
possibility of having a comfortable living.
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● John Wycliffe (Wycliffe surrounded by the names of other reformers): John Wycliffe and the Lollard
movement questioned the wealth and power of the Church by opposing doctrinal matters. He aimed
to do away with the existing hierarchies and replace it with “poor priests” (Lollards) who lived in
poverty. Wycliffe questioned the dogma of transubstantiation.
● Wool trade (Sheep pen in the Luttrell Psalter): In the 14th and 15th century the growth of the cloth
industry and the commerce made the merchants more important economically and socially. The
rising higher middle classes started to gain power in the new social structure and were able to
become educated and begin to oppose the power of the Church. These classes developed a feeling
of anticlericalism and would later on be part of a Parliament that checked the Church's power.
● William Caxton’s printing press: With the introduction of the printing press in England, books
became available for the Higher Middle Classes who know acquired them and became literate and
critical. They became to be educated outside the realm of the Church, they started to think critically
and question the malpractices of this institution. Education allowed the HMC to become critical not
only of the malpractices but also of the word and authority of the Church, though they did not dare
to question the dogmas of the Church yet. In addition, the printing press would later on allow Luther’s
ideas to spread easily.
● Babylonish Captivity (Palace of the Popes in Avignon): There was a new pope who was not Italian
nor lived in Rome, but was French and because of the feeling of nationalism (mainly due to the
Hundred Years War), this was considered terrible by the English.
● King Edward III: Edward III limited the power of the Pope over the English Church. He passed the
Statute of Provisors (1351- forbade revenues of English benefices to be sent to the pope) and the
Statute of Praemunire (1353- made it illegal to bring law cases before the papal courts or to bring
papal bulls into the country without the King's permission)
● Rise of Humanism (Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man): Man’s fate was determined not by religious
doctrine but by himself. There is an emphasis on man and his reasoning capacities in his earthly
setting (movement from a god-centered philosophy into a man-centered one).

However deep and progressive the feelings of anticlericalism and anti-papalism may have been in the
Late Middle Ages, they could not effect a decisive revolt against the Church, until they got the political
suppórt of the national State. The accession of the Tudors to the throne in the sixteenth century
provided the turning point of the long drawn-out struggle for power between the Church and the State.
Tudor England saw the emergence of a strong national monarchy in alliance with the rising middle
classes. It conceived the English Church as an adjunct of the State, removed from the spiritual and
jurisdictional supremacy of the Pope, and subordinate to the State instead. The movement for reform of
the Church in the national interest was started by Henry VIII. and instrumented through Parliament in
successive stages. It began as a political social reaction against the Church, involving no doctrinal
considerations beyond the denial of the Pope’s authority in England. But eventually this anticlerical
revolution produced changes greater than those intended, as it let to the establishment of the Anglican
Church. The Reformation was, therefore, a complex religious movement which had important political,
economic and social connotations (Olivia, 1989, p.8)

EXTRA INFORMATION: Martin Luther was the German monk who challenged the Roman Catholic Church
and sparked the Protestant movement and John Wycliffe the English predecessor of Luther who first
criticized the Church for its activities. One of Luther’s main objections to the Catholic Church was the
sale of indulgences. According to Luther, how could a person reach salvation by faith alone (not good
works). Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press was the invention that mostly contributed to the spread of
Luther’s ideas.

The Reformation Monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Elizabeth I

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The Henrician Reformation

In the late 1520s, the Catholic Church would face another great challenge to its authority, this time in
England. Unlike Luther, the man who broke England’s ties with the Catholic Church did so for political and
personal reasons, and not for religious ones.

Which were the political reasons that prompted the Reformation in England? The many factors that led to
the development of a feeling of antipapalism.

Behind the Reformation also lay deep causes which sprang from the condition of the Church, and her
privileged position within a growingly centralized state. The laity resented and despised much about
the Church, so when Henry set to destroy the papal power in order to solve his matrimonial problem,
they supported the King through Parliament. However, the changes during Henry's reign only have to do
with the Pope not being the head of the English Church any longer, so anticlericalism is a very indirect
antecedent.

What personal reasons did Henry VIII have to break from Rome? Henry wanted to marry Anne Boleyn, and
to do so he needed an annulment, which only the Pope could grant.His succession was also endangered by
the existence of a legitimate female heir and an illegitimate male heir (duke of Richmond). He wanted his
heir to be male and legitimate. Finally, his wife’s nephew (Charles V) was the most powerful sovereign in
Europe and was against the divorce, which was one of the reasons why the pope did not want to grant it to
Henry.

Which was the immediate cause of the Reformation in England? The royal divorce.

How did Henry VIII react to Luther’s 95 Theses? Why did the Pope X confer Henry VIII the title of “Defender
of the Faith”? Because Henry wrote an important theological treatise against the heresies of Martin Luther.
The new church that rose under Henry's reign remained Catholic and Orthodox in every particular save one-
it was English and Henrician, not Roman and papal. Henry was not a heretic.

The instrument chosen by Henry to effect his Royal Reformation was the Parliament

When was the Reformation Parliament summoned? What was the significance of this Parliament? Cardinal
Wolsey lose his position as Lord Chancellor in 1529 because he failed to secure Henry a divorce in his
negotiations with the Pope. Henry sought some new authority to carry through divorce, and in November of
1529 the Reformation Parliament was summoned. The body that met was unprecedented: it lasted seven
years, enacted more than a hundred statutes, of which 32 were of vital national significance, and exercised
an influence in the affairs of God and church that no feudal Parliament had ever dreamed of claiming.

*Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1533 (who agreed with him that he and
not the pope spoke for God). One month after Cranmer´s installation parliament obliged the king and his
marriage to Catherine (first wife) was declared null and void.

Why did Parliament support the Monarch in this process? The laity resented and despised much about
the Church, so when Henry set to destroy the papal power in order to solve his matrimonial problem,
they supported the King through Parliament. In addition, and most importantly, there was a community of
interest between the monarch and the members of parliament, especially the higher middle classes, who
wanted political stability to thrive economically.
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Which were the major pieces of legislation passed by this Parliament? In 1529, the Act against Abuses
was passed, which checked the abuses of the Church (for example, the selling of indulgences or the fees
for sacraments, etc.) In 1532, the Annates Act deprived the papacy of its major source of revenue from
England. It was a restatement of the Statute of Provisors, since it put an end to the sending of Annates (i.e.
the first year’s revenue of newly appointed bishops and abbots) to Rome. In 1533, the Act Against Appeals
ended the judicial dependence of England on Rome by making any appeal to Rome illegal. Again, this was
not a new law, but the restatement of a previous act, that of Praemunire (this act allowed the newly
appointed archbishop, Cranmer, to nullify Henry´s marriage and nobody could appeal to Rome to counter
the decision taken in England). In 1534 both the Act of Succession and the Act of Treason were passed.
The first required all Englishmen to swear to accept the political and matrimonial results of the break with
Rome and the principles on which they stood (acknowledge Anne as lawful wife and defend all statues of
the parliament- this way legitimizing the heirs to come) and the latter included all who imagined the king to
be a heretic or slandered his marriage (traitors were executed). Also, the Act of Six Articles in 1539
(explained below). Lastly, in 1535, came the Act of Supremacy by which Henry broke away from Rome,
and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church in England and the Suppression of Religious Houses Act.

Act of Supremacy of 1534: What is the significance of the passing of this act? Henry now monopolized all
secular and spiritual jurisdiction. Henry achieved the subjugation of an international priestly order that
adhered to a spiritual and legal jurisdiction outside and above the crown. The Act of Supremacy not only
gave the monarch the authority of the pope, it also expressed a political creed that smashed once and for
all the essential international duality of Christendom. As the Church could not err, neither could the state
now. The nation state stood higher than any other power. In addition, the doctrine of royal supremacy
signaled the ultimate destruction of the monasteries since they lived by their own rules and mostly
advocated papal authority, which is one of the reasons why Henry decided to dissolve them.

Which were the most important economic, social, and political consequences of the dissolution of the
monasteries? In 1539 Henry and Cromwell appealed to the support of Parliament in order to have an
act passed authorizing the confiscations of monastic lands, and the members of Parliament were
ready to give their support since they knew they would also be able to profit from these confiscations.
Between 1536 and 1540 the Crown acquired by dissolution the lands and goods of all monasteries,
friaries and nunneries, and in 1547 the chantries went the same way (Edward´s reign). Socially and
economically, it strengthened the landed and country gentry as the members of these social classes were
able to buy at a very low price much of the land the Crown put on the market. The Crown benefited from the
sale of lands (most of which were sold in order to pay for the king's wars and foreign policy). Politically,
monks no longer held lands and their place in parliament was taken by the new landed gentry.

*Thomas Cromwell is considered the chief architect of the English Reformation. He was the king´s chief
minister (from 1529) and he not only organized the destruction of the monasteries but also phrased the key
statutes that tore apart Christendom, and hammered out the details of the break with Rome.

In his Act of Six Articles, Henry VIII stated that he was a Catholic in everything except the Supremacy of
the Pope and declared that anyone who denied transubstantiation, or the necessity of auricular confession
and clerical celibacy was to be punished by death.

“It is astonishing in the extreme that the rage of spiritual battle known as the Reformation should have had
its English inception in diplomacy, not psychology, in the accident of marriage,not the design of heaven, and
in the court of kings, not the house of God”. (Baldwin Smith, 1983, p.122)

To what extent did religion in England change with Henry VIII? In England, the Reformation commenced
as a revolution of legal forms and not of religious content (which is partly the reason why Henry
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succeeded in bringing the church to heel). The break with Rome involved few fundamental doctrinal or
ceremonial changes except for omitting the name of the pope in prayers. Catholicism without the pope
was the king's religious solution but the chronic problem of the last twelve years of Henry's reign was to
prevent the ecclesia from falling further into Protestant heresy or sliding back to Rome.

The most important consequence of the Henrician Reformation: England making the monarch Head of the
Church and breaking from Rome.

The Edwardian Reformation

Edward VI, son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, was nine years old at his accession. As he was too
young to rule the country, two men guided the State in his name. First, his uncle Seymour, the Protector
Somerset; and after him, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland.

What were the main religious policies passed under Somerset's Protectorate? In the early period of this
reign, the government was in the hands of Protector Somerset who took measures to favor the spread
of Protestantism. In 1547, Somerset got Parliament to repeal the Act of Six Articles (repealed the Henrician
treason and heresy laws and England became a haven for continental heretics), and in 1549 Cranmer
produced the first Book of Common Prayer, which was moderately Protestant (left the exact nature of
mass in doubt) but the Act of Uniformity which was enacted to enforce it was ineffectual. In 1547 the
chantries were dissolved and their lands sold (as the monasteries had been under Henry's reign).

*Somerset (lord protector) until 1549. Church walls were whitewashed (simplicity of worship), images
taken down (Protestants were against the adoration of images, statues, murals, etc.), vestments sold to
City tailors, chantry property confiscated, clergymen were allowed to marry, and mass is celebrated in
English.

What religious changes took place in England during Northumberland's protectorate? The Northumberland
gang supported the extreme Protestant position. The Book of Prayers was revised and made more
distinctly un-Catholic. The revised version appeared in 1552, and was enforced by a vigorous Act of
Uniformity passed in 1553. Therewith the Church of England had been rendered officially Protestant
(threatening punishments for nonconformity and nonchurchgoing). Priests began to be called ministers
and transubstantiation was denied.

How many Books of Common Prayer did Cranmer write? Two. The first was written in 1949 and the
revised version in 1552.

Which acts were passed to enforce the use of these books? The Acts of Uniformity (first and second)

Which was the main difference between Cranmer's Books of Common Prayer? The first was only
moderately Protestant (left space for Catholic interpretation), whereas the second was more distinctly un-
Catholic.

The first book was compiled from many sources, Catholic and Protestant. Though transubstantiation
vanished (not mentioned but not denied), Catholics could still find a real presence (free interpretation);
moreover, the prayer-book still spoke of the altar and ordered the use of alb and cope. The second
book (openly rejected Catholic dogma) abolished prayers for the dead and reservation of the
sacrament, and ordered a communion table to be set in the chancel or choir. Vestments were taken
away the famous “black rubric” emphasized that kneeling at the sacrament did not mean adoration of
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sacrifice. An Ordinal caused the minor orders to disappear and barely distinguished bishops from
the priesthood.

To what extent did religion in England change with Edward VI? Religion changed under Edward's reign
and the Church of England became officially Protestant.

Mary Tudor: The Reconciliation with Rome

Why isn't Mary's reign considered a stage of the Reformation? Why is it characterized as the period of the
reconciliation with Rome? Because she reestablished Catholicism as the official religion in England in 1553

What were the aims of Mary's religious policy? Making England a catholic country again and uniting it with
Rome.

Bloody Mary: This unfortunate nickname was thanks to her persecution of Protestant heretics, whom she
burned at the stake in the hundreds.

The Elizabethan Settlement

What do the words “I have no desire to make windows into men’s souls” mean? Elizabeth wanted to impose
a common prayer book upon all of her subjects and yet leave the interpretation of its words to the individual.
Hence her declaration, “I have no desire to make windows into men’s souls” (unwillingness to persecute
people based on her personal interpretation of texts).

Elizabeth’s religious ideas: Elizabeth was a politique, a firm believer that religion should be an instrument
of state and a compartment of life, not the end of government or the whole of human existence.

What measures did Elizabeth take to secure her religious settlement? When Queen Elizabeth came to the
throne, her main aim was political unity. With Elizabeth, the country was once again called to
change its course. The Elizabethan Settlement of 1559 consisted of the Acts of Uniformity which
enforced the Book of Common Prayer of 1552 with some modifications (softening its Protestant severity
by introducing ambiguous wording), and the Act of Supremacy (making her Supreme Governor, a somewhat
less provocative title than Supreme Head). In 1563, the promulgation of the Thirty-nine Articles (a religious
creed that reflected the queen’s determination to unite her people) completed the basis of the Church of
England.

Which were the most important characteristics of the church set up by Elizabeth? It was a Church
traditional (or Catholic) in structure, with its hierarchy of bishops and courts under the supreme
government, but in doctrine a compromise which leaned heavily towards full Protestantism. It was a
compromise grown out of politics and established by the Queen in Parliament

To what extent did religion in England change with Elizabeth? The Book of Common Prayer was modified
and left very similar to the first one. Transubstantiation is not mentioned nor denied and the book is left for
free interpretation in many cases in order not to be so clearly anti-Catholic. The English Church is now in a
mid position between Protestantism and Catholicism (there is a hierarchical organization and the queen is
the supreme governor and not head, which for Catholics is less conflicting).

To what extent was Elizabeth able to bring a level of religious peace to England? Both Protestant and
Catholic extremist complained about Elizabeth´s measures and organized plots against her. However, her
settlement did in part dampen the fire of religious bigotry. The Puritans were a religious group, within the
Church of England, who organized campaigns to make Elizabeth's Church more Protestant. They were part
of the House of Commons and created parliamentary troubles for Elizabeth. Once the Spanish menace was
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past, the queen rightly suspected that her supremacy had more to fear from Puritans than from Catholics,
so she found an archbishop who would exterminate these traitor organization, and puritans were threatened
exile or execution if they refused to attend Anglican services (not because of their religion but because of
their plots).

Consequences of the Reformation

Monarch Henry VIII (1509-1547) Edward VI Mary (1553- Elizabeth I (1558-

(1547-1553) 1558) 1603)

Significance Henry broke away from The Church Catholic She achieved political
Rome, and declared became interlude unity through a
himself Supreme Head of officially Church which was
the Church in England. Protestant. Catholic in structure
There were no changes in but Protestant in
dogma. doctrine.

The Renaissance
The Renaissance was the cultural rebirth of the ideas of ancient Greece and Rome that occurred in Europe
between the 14th and 17th centuries. It meant the beginnings of the modern outlook as opposed to the
medieval worldview.

Most historians agree that the reawakening of interest in Greek and Latin texts by Greek and Roman
philosophers was spurred by the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, which encouraged many
scholars to flee to Italy, bringing printed books and manuscripts with them.

Renaissance, (French: “Rebirth”) period in European civilization immediately following the Middle Ages and
conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in Classical scholarship and values.
The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents, the decline of the feudal
system and the growth of commerce, and the invention or application of such potentially powerful
innovations as paper, printing, the mariner’s compass, and gunpowder. To the scholars and thinkers of the
day, however, it was primarily a time of the revival of Classical learning and wisdom after a long period of
cultural decline and stagnation. (Britannica)

Where and when did the Renaissance begin? It began in Italy (Florence) in the late 1300s. Dubbed as the
“Cradle of the Renaissance”, Florence - according to B. Russell - was the most civilized city in Europe.
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How does Bertrand Russell define the Renaissance? Russell defines the Renaissance as “The modern as
opposed to the medieval outlook.” (REMEMBER modern outlook does not coincide with the modern era,
which started much before).

In what ways was the Renaissance a rebirth? It refers to the rediscovery of classical Roman and Greek
culture. It meant the decline in influence of Roman Catholic Christian doctrine and the reawakening of
interest in Greek and Latin texts.

In what aspects of culture was the Renaissance thought expressed? The Renaissance thought was
expressed in every aspect of culture: education, literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and
science.

What was the Renaissance thought centered on? Renaissance thought was centered on man and his
reasoning capacity, man in his earthly setting (Anthropocentrism). Medieval thought had been focused on
God and salvation.

*Humanism implied an interest not only in antiquity but also in human beings; people were both worthy and
capable of determining their own destinies. This perspective contrasted sharply with the medieval view that
humanity was irredeemably sinful and had value only through the infinite grace of God. Nevertheless, an
intense Christian spirituality continued to inspire and pervade most European art.

In B. Russel’s view, “The Renaissance was not a popular movement; it was a movement of a small number
of scholars and artists, encouraged by liberal patrons, especially the Medici and the humanist popes”. In
addition to its great merits in the field of art, the Renaissance liberated educated men from the narrowness
of medieval culture and created a mental atmosphere in which it was possible for the individual genius to
flourish with a freedom hitherto unknown.

The Renaissance in England

When did the Renaissance begin in England? Did it develop in England at the same time as on the
Continent? Why (not)? Renaissance arrived in England in the 1500s, almost two centuries after it began in
Italy. The movement arose and developed in the fifteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the
sixteenth. The arrival of the Renaissance in England coincides with the Tudors. In philosophy and painting,
it arrived at the beginnings of the 16th, whereas in music and literature, which were the most important
aspects of English Renaissance and the fields in which the English flourished, it arrived in the second half
of the 16th century, with Elizabeth. (Architecture comes later in the 17th c with the Stuarts.) It develops in
England later than in the continent because of two main reasons: geography (England was rather isolated;
the movement travelled first from Italy to France, then the Netherlands and finally to England.) and the
Reformation (During the reform there wasn’t religious patronage. In the continent rich families such as the
Medici and popes patronized artists but not in England. Only after the Church is settled with Elizabeth will
Renaissance in England begin to flourish).

What were the most important fields in which Renaissance art was expressed in England? Literature and
music.

Humanism and education

What was Humanism? Define it.Where and when did Humanism begin? Humanism was a system of
education and mode of inquiry that originated in northern Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries and later
spread through continental Europe and England. The term is alternatively applied to a variety of Western
beliefs, methods, and philosophies that place central emphasis on the human realm.
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Who is conventionally regarded as the first Humanist? Why? Petrarch is traditionally called the first
Humanist and considered by many to be the "father of the Renaissance." In his works he points out that
secular achievements did not necessarily preclude an authentic relationship with God. Petrarch argued
instead that God had given humans their vast intellectual and creative potential to be used to their fullest.
His writings and sonnets make emphasis on man’s capacities and his capability of self-realization. The
influence of Petrarch on the history of humanism was profound as he promoted the recovery and
transcription of Classical texts, thus providing the impetus for important Classical researches.

What were the main concerns of Humanism? Individualism, self-reliance, self-expression, development of
personality

What was the centre of interest for Humanism? What aspects of this concern did it emphasize? Renewed
confidence in the human being: human capacity of reasoning, and thinking.

What did Humanism aim at? Self-reliance, self-expression, and the development of personality and the
emphasis was transferred from the education of bookish clerks to the production of scholar-gentlemen,
cultured laymen trained to be men of affairs.

How did Humanism differ from the worldview dominant in Medieval society? In the Middle Ages,
intellectual life was largely concerned with theology and the reading of Scripture. Antiquity represented not
a golden age to be revered and imitated but the unfortunate period before the coming of Christ. Humanists,
however, regarded with wonder philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, etc. of antiquity and had a
spirit of inquiry that tried to understand the natural world in a rational and scientific way.

When did this philosophy develop in England? In the late 15th century.

Was Humanism in England a secular or religious movement? Why? How did it differ from Humanism on
the Continent? On the continent, Humanism reacted against the monopoly of education of the Church. It
was a secular movement (the criticism came from outside the Church). English Humanism wanted to break
down with the scholastic system and introduce an ecclesiastical reform (reform NOT related to
Protestantism but to malpractices). In England it was more of a religious movement. It reacted against
some wrong-doings and malpractices of the Church. The aim of the Humanists in England was to purify the
Church as an institution of all its evils (the criticism came from within the Church as an institution). The
idea was always to remain inside the Church and Christianism.

Who were the main representatives of Humanism in England? How were they called? Why? The
representatives of English Humanism - Colet, Erasmus, More, and Lily - are commonly referred to as the
“Oxford Reformers”, since they studied and worked in Oxford and aimed at reforming and purifying the
Church and Schools from their malpractices.

How did Humanism impact education? How did the aims of education differ now from the ones in the
Middle Ages? How was this change reflected in the subjects taught at schools? Gradually, the concept of
a humanistic curriculum began to strengthen, focussing not on Christian theological texts but on classical
humanities subjects such as philosophy, history, rhetoric, Latin, Greek, drama, and poetry. In 1535 the Royal
Injunctions were passed. Classical Greek, Latin, Hebrew, mathematics and medicine were encouraged, the
direct reading of the Bible was favored, and Aristotle and logic were to be studied with the help of humanist
writers. From now on, medieval scholarship was to be despised and a new order in University studies began
to unfold, more critical and more empirical than the old, less authoritarian and less united. The aim of
education was no longer to prepare priests, but to prepare responsible citizens, the governing and the ruling
classes for the offices of State (secularization of education). As a consequence, new subjects were taught,
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and some other subjects disappeared. The main subjects studied were grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history,
and moral philosophy.

What were the languages of learning in this period? What language did the Humanists use? Humanists
established that Greek and Latin were to be taught. They mainly used Latin but English was still used too.

Explain the main contributions of the English Humanists to the field of education.

● Colet refounded St Paul’s school as the first humanist school in England. The school, dedicated to
the Infant Jesus, was in place to give young boys a Christian education. While at St. Paul's Colet
used his preaching, administration, scriptural exegesis and education towards Church reform.
● The Grammarian Lilly wrote the Latin Grammar for St Paul’s, which was later on used by all humanist
schools afterwards. Lilly was the first master of St Paul’s and the first example of non-clerical
management in education.
● Erasmus wrote many books for St Paul’s, which were also used afterwards.
● The aim of Humanist education was not centered on religion but on the development of responsible
citizens apt for government.
● Thomas More’ Utopia, first published in Latin in 1516, is in many respects a typical product of
Renaissance humanism.

England in the XVII century - Stuart England

Accession of James I to the throne: the beginning of a new dynasty.

James VI of Scotland (1567-1625)- James I of England (1603-1625)- First Stuart King of England

Mary (James VI’s mother) and Elizabeth were first cousins once removed through King Henry VII of England.

The death of Elizabeth in 1603 was followed by the succession of the Scottish king James VI, who ruled as
James I until his death in 1625. James, founder of the Stuart dynasty in England, was widely welcomed.
James’s reign over England is referred to as the Jacobean period, after the Latin equivalent of James,
Jacobus.
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(*) Hampton Court Conference is related to the puritans and the Gunpowder plot to the Catholics.

The economic panorama

In the English history, the seventeenth century has been nicknamed “a minor industrial revolution”, why?
Because the growth of industries was one of the most striking aspects of this century.

What industry experienced a remarkable growth in this century? What reasons account for such
impressive progress? The coal mining industry, which was one of the earliest fields of modern capitalist
enterprise, since it could not be organized on a commission baiss and the expense was very high and could
not be met except by means of large investment. One of the reasons for the rapid growth of the coal industry
was a growing scarcity of timber. Although there were still thick forests in various parts of the country, the
problem of moving timber was severe and often insuperable. This was owing to an increased demand for
wood and its consequent high price. People began to burn coal instead of wood.

Apart from this industry, what other industries expanded in the period? On what basis were they
organized? Foreign trade and iron mining. They were organized on capitalist lines (money- importance of
capital). Now being financed by a joint-stock method, they were the only important capitalist businesses.
Merchants and ironmasters were, in fact, the biggest investors in the rising coal trade.

In addition to these industries, what other industries took off in the period? Other expanding industries
included the manufacture of salt and of glass and shipbuilding.

Which two of all these industries would particularly impact on the future economic and industrial growth
of the country? Why? Apart from the coal industry, iron mining took off. These two industries would
particularly have impact on the economic and industrial growth of the country, since they were important
antecedents of the Industrial Revolution.
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What industry still remained the principal English one and most valuable source of export? The
manufacture of woolen cloth.However, during the century, the cloth trade was subject to fluctuations due
to the civil war, pestilence, and international politics.

How was industry organized? What was the system of production? Who performed most of the work? With
a few exceptions, industry was still organized largely on a loose domestic basis, work being commissioned
by middlemen, who bought the raw materials and disposed of the finished goods.

Despite the industrial expansion, what was still the most important economic activity and most usual
occupation of Englishmen in the XVII C? Agriculture and sheep farming.

The enclosure of arable land went on steadily forward in the course of this XVII century. What purposes
did enclosure serve in this period? For grazing sheep and also to improve the standard of agriculture by
getting rid of the inefficient system of cultivation in which the villagers’ strips were mixed together in open
fields.

The social panorama

In this period, notably the first quarter of the century, there was a good deal of social movement between
the “upper” and “middle” classes. What factors explain such social mobility? Ranks such as peer, kight,
baronet, etc. could be purchased (not only by being born into one could you have it). Merchants intermarried
with old-established country gentry and sometimes restored declining landed fortunes by doing so. A
successful yeomen would sometimes marry “above him”. Civil servants and professional men would invest
their savings in land. And whereas some landlords lived entirely on rents, others, especially at the beginning
of the century when wool was in heavy demand for the cloth industry, enhanced their fortunes out of the
calculated profits from pastureland or at times out of horticulture for the food markets in towns.

Roughly speaking, how many social classes could the seventeenth century English people be grouped
into? There were four main classes.

● At the top were the peers (the nobility).

● After the nobility came the gentry (squires, knights, gentlemen). The gentry is made up of old land
holders and also new land holders (merchants that bought lands). (upper class and higher middle
class).
● Then, the yeomen (“middle people of a condition between gentlemen and cottagers or peasants”)
divided into two groups: those of ancient lineage sprung from old families of free tenants and those
who rose by their own exertions from a lower state (freeholders, copyholders, or leaseholders- all
of them earned their living from the land). These were small land holders (lower middle class).
● Finally came the largest class: the common people (Laboring people, farm laborers, outservants,
apprentices, cottagers, paupers). A great gap existed between the rich and the poor.

What social class -which had already been reinforced in the XVI century- was further powerfully
strengthened in this century? Why? The old English gentry were powerfully reinforced in the late sixteenth
and early seventeenth centuries by an influx from professional and mercantile classes. Lawyers,
government officials, and successful merchants bought land not only to improve their social standing but
also to increase their incomes. This broadening came about because lands formerly belonging to the
Church or Crown were sold in large quantities after the reformation. Land was managed in a more business-
like way than before. During most of the century, the land-owning class was undertaxed because they
formed the bulk of the House of Commons, who imposed taxation.

Which of these social groups became a pretty prosperous one at the time? Yeomen
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Which of these groups represented the largest social class of all? Common people (three quarters of the
population)

On the basis of the previous answers, explain the following statement: “The seventeenth century can be
referred to as a period of a community of interests between the inhabitants of the countryside (country-
dwellers) and those of towns (town-dwellers). During the Stuart and Tudor period, town dwellers, who were
merchants and traders, started to acquire land thanks to the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the Civil
War. Moreover, country-dwellers (many members of the aristocracy) began to invest in cities and trade.
Therefore, there was a community of interest between both groups.

Parliament against the crown

The Stuart monarchs, from James I onwards, were less successful than the Tudors. They quarrelled with
Parliament and this resulted in civil war. The only king of England ever to be tried and executed was a Stuart.
The republic that followed was even more unsuccessful, and by popular demand the dead king’s son was
called back to the throne. Another Stuart king was driven from his throne by his own daughter and her Dutch
husband, William of Orange. William became king by Parliament’s election, not by the right of birth. When
the last Stuart, Queen Anne, died in 1714, the monarchy was no longer absolutely powerful as it had been
when James IV rode south from Scotland in 1603. It had become a “parliamentary monarchy” controlled by
a constitution.

These important changes did not take place simply because the Stuarts were bad rulers. They resulted from
a basic change in society. During the seventeenth century economic power moved even faster into the
hands of the merchant and landowning farmer classes. The Crown could no longer raise money or govern
without their cooperation. In return for money the Commons demanded political power. The victory of the
Commons and the classes it represented was unavoidable. -McDowall, David. (1989). An Illustrated History
of Britain: 87.

The history of the seventeenth century saw a contest between Parliament and the King for predominance
in the State. In the middle of the century the two sides took the sword and fought it out, and by the end of
the Stuart period Crown and Parliament had almost ceased to be rivals and again become partners, but with
their relative positions reversed from what they had been under the Tudors -Ashley, M. England in the
Seventeenth Century: 43.

Who is to blame for the struggle?

“The power of the Tudors, in short, was not material but metaphysical. They appealed sometimes to the
love and always to the loyalty and “free awe” of their subjects.” Trevelyan, G. A Shortened Story of England:
276

“When, after the death of the last Tudor, James I in his pedantry tried to materialize English king worship
into the political dogma of divine hereditary right, he split its essence in the dust. England had found in the
Tudor monarchs adequate representatives of her own spirit and policy; but the Stuarts, while claiming yet
greater powers from a higher source than English law and custom, adopted policies at home and abroad
which were in some of their main lines opposed to the wishes of the strongest elements in English society.
The situation thus created forced to the throne claims on behalf of the House of commons, which were as
new to the constitution as the claims of divine hereditary rights and autocratic power on behalf of the
crown.” Trevelyan, G. A Shortened Story of England: 277

“In the struggle that lay ahead it was Parliament, not the King, that threw out the challenge and demanded
that the sovereign should submit to a modification of his traditional rights. Thus since the King was
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incapable of living within his income out of the royal revenues, he was always on the defensive against a
growing opposition and the letter of the law retreated slowly before the spirit of the age”. Ashley, M, England
in the Seventeenth Century: 45

“They (the Commons) insisted on their right to give advice on foreign affairs and on the need to purify the
Church, and they demanded that the King should abolish various traditional means by which the Crown
raised money (...)” Ashley, M. England in the Seventeenth Century: 44

Who does each author put the blame on for the contest between Crown and Parliament?Support your
answer with details from the sources. Ashley blames the Parliament for the contest since they were the
ones who demanded unprecedented changes as regards its functions (they wanted to decide over religious
issues, foreign policies, and exclusive control over taxation). Parliamentary members took advantage of the
fact that they were the most economically powerful of the period and that the king was having financial
problems and needed their aid. On the other hand, although Trevelyan recognizes that the Parliament was
demanding unprecedented rights, he focused on the king’s pedantry in claiming himself a divine heir to the
throne and in adopting policies that were against the interests of the most powerful English classes.

“Therefore the ‘power of the purse’ became an effective bargaining counter with the monarchy. Finally -and
this was an error of judgement on his part- the King lacked effective representatives of his interests in the
Lower House such as Queen Elizabeth had commanded to direct and influence its debates. So the
Commons, instead of working along with the King’s Government in its not unreasonable policy (...) began
to put forward policies of their own and (...) to win the initiative in legislation.” (Ashley, M. England in the
Seventeenth Century: 44).

On the basis of your analysis of these sources, who do you consider the one to be blamed for this clash
between King and Parliament? Why? Back up your answer with arguments.

CONCLUSION: Both parties were to blame, because there were changes in attitude on both sides. The
Stuarts began to advocate openly their absolutist ideas; they materialized the previously implicit king
worship and they wanted to make all decisions without Parliament (they admitted no checks on their
power). Parliament, which had supported the monarchs in the Tudor period, stopped doing so and started
making new demands and wanted to have a say in foreign and religious affairs.

The Parliament, on the one hand, makes demands that had not been made before, while the monarch wants
to continue with the policies taken by the Tudors (conservation of the status quo). Neither side is willing to
meet in the middle and thus the blame for the contest is on both.

One of the reasons for the contest between Crown and Parliament sprung from important changes in the
attitude and behavior of the Stuarts’ absolutism compared with that of their predecessors, the Tudors.

During the Tudors’ reigns, there had been a community of interests between Parliament and the Crown and
there had been a good relationship. During the Stuarts’ reigns, in contrast, there was a constant struggle
between them, which began as soon as James I came to the throne.

Tudor and Stuart absolutisms

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Field
Tudor monarchs (XVIth.C) Stuart monarchs (XVIIth.C)

Political Absolute monarchy (implicit because of Absolute monarchy (Explicit. They were
their popularity). not supported by the nation and resorted
Strong, despotic, absolute rulers. explicitly to the Divine Hereditary Right)
They believed in the divine hereditary Strong, despotic, absolute rulers.
right of monarchs (appointed by god to They believed in the divine hereditary right
rule the country). of monarchs (appointed by god to rule the
country).

Economic MERCANTILISM MERCANTILISM

(the government interfered to control
wages, prices, foreign exchange, and
the general conditions of agriculture
and industry; the poor law, the
enclosures and the monopolies were
administered with rigour)

Religious The Church of England (Anglicanism) The Church of England (Anglicanism)

Mid position between Protestantism Mid position between Protestantism and
and Catholicism. Catholicism.
Charles II and James II had more catholic
tendencies.

Legal Supremacy of the Monarch over the Supremacy of the Monarch over the Law
Law

Popularity The Tudors were highly admired and The higher middle classes have already
never had to mention the fact that they been consolidated and are willing to risk
had divine hereditary rights because the peace of the country and to have a fall
that was always accepted and implicit. out with the king in order to gain political
They were considered national heroes. power.
The feeling of nationalism and
patriotism consolidated after the defeat Since the king has fights with parliament
of the Spanish Armada. (esp. House of Commons) he uses the
argument of his divine rights in order to
There is a community of interests stop the rising middle classes from
between monarchs and higher middle meddling in politics. This argument is now
classes, because the latter want to rejected by the people. Rivalry.
consolidate their economic power and
for that they need a peaceful country
with economic stability.
Mercantilism (control of the
government over industry and
commerce).
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EARLY LIBERALISM

We shall now consider the liberal philosophy of John Locke whose ideas were influential in shaping
Parliament's ideas and opinions. The principles of Early Liberalism were the ones for which Parliament
contested with the Stuart monarchs. The first comprehensive statement of liberal philosophy is to be found
in John Locke, one of the most influential modern philosophies.

Author Hardold Laski Bertrand Russel

Definition Liberalism was a new social philosophy that Early liberalism was a product of
emerged at the end of the middle ages and was England and Holland. The
evolved in the period between the Reformation and essence of liberalism is an
the French Revolution. Liberalism was a new attempt to secure a social order
philosophy that emerged to give a rational not based on irrational dogma [a
justification to a new society, a new social and feature of tyranny], and ensuring
economic order. Liberalism is the idea by which the stability [which anarchy
new middle class rose to a position of political undermines] without involving
dominance and a doctrine which seeks to justify the more restraints than are
operation of the ethos of capitalism, which is its necessary for the preservation of
effort to free the owner of the instruments of the community.
production from the need to obey rules which
inhibit his full exploitation of them.

Character It is directly related to freedom, (however, this “The distinctive character of the
istics freedom was not universal, since its practice was whole movement is (...)
limited to men who had property), individualism, individualism.”
men’s reasoning capacities.

Factors What produced liberalism was the emergence of a Protestantism had already
that led new economic society at the end of the MA. caused a breach with the old
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to its “The geographical discoveries, the new cosmology, medieval system. Individualism
emergen technological invention, a renewed and secular had penetrated science and
ce and metaphysic, (...) new forms of economic life, all philosophy.
developm made the contributions to the formation of its
ent motivating ideas” (p.12)
“bigotry was giving place to enlightenment, (...) all
classes were increasing in prosperity.”
The pursuit of wealth for its own sake, the capitalist
spirit, became the chief motive of human activity,
but moral rules imposed under the sanction of
religious authority felt as a constraint, so new
conceptions were needed to legitimize the new
potentialities of wealth that men had discovered.
Within the confines of the older system, the
potentialities of production could no longer be
exploited so men began to doubt the legitimacy of
those premises. In other words, “within the confines
of medieval culture the idea of capitalism could not
be contained.” p.18. and therefore there was a task
to transform the culture to suit new purposes.

Aims CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT There was a certain bias against

Political It tried to limit the ambit of political authority, to government, because
field: confine the business of government within the governments almost everywhere
framework of constitutional principle (discover a were in the hands of kings or
system of fundamental rights defending the aristocracies, who seldom either
interests of property the state cannot invade). Thus, understood or respected the
it sought to limit political intervention to the needs of merchants, but this bias
narrowest area compatible with the maintenance of was held in check by the hope
the public order. The liberalist seeks to establish his that the necessary
right to wealth with the minimum interference from understanding and respect
social authority of any kind. would be won before long.
The hereditary principle, though
not rejected, was restricted in
scope more than it had
previously been; in particular, the
divine right of kings was rejected
in favor of the view that every
community has a right, at any
rate initially, to choose its own
form of government. Implicitly,
the tendency of early liberalism
was towards democracy
tempered by the rights of
property. (p. 578)

Aims: STATE AS A HANDMAID OF COMMERCE It valued commerce and industry,

Economi Early capitalist theory, at least until the end of the and favored the rising middle
c field mercantilist period, regards the subordination of class rather than the monarchy
economics to politics as natural; but an inefficiently and the aristocracy; it had
administered state interferes with the full immense respect for the rights of
exploitation of the economic resources of society, property, especially when
and men begin to recommend the principles of accumulated by the labors of the
laissez-faire. (Laski: 19) individual possessor. (577)
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The idea of liberalism is connected with the

ownership of property; the ends it serves are always
the ends of men in this position.
Before liberalism, there was a body of rules upon
economic life of which the inner principle was
consideration for social well-being taken in the
context of individual salvation in the next life. This
medieval idea was substituted by the motive of
wealth for its own sake.

Aims TOLERATION: Religion becomes rational, even It stood for religious toleration; it
Religious wordly, in character. There is a rise of deism (the was Protestant, but of a
field: belief in a god who made the world but has no latitudinarian rather than of a
influence on human lives), a disguised atheism. fanatical kind; it regarded the
Religion has to accommodate itself to the new wars of religion as silly. (577).
order. They desired liberty within the
Liberalism is hostile to the claims of churches. It Church of England for opinions
welcomes the attack on the church, for this means and practices which were
a blow at the old, impeding rules and also makes persecuted by Archbishop Laud
important resources available for capitalist (581). It wanted to end
exploitation (more than they were under theological strife, in order to
ecclesiastical proprietors). The MA were liberate energies for the
permeated by the idea of a supreme end beyond enterprises of commerce and
this life to which all earthly conduct must conform science. (578).
(enforced by the Church), and the pursuit of wealth
for its own sake was deemed incompatible with
that idea. Now, the idea of divine sanction for the
rules of behavior are gradually replaced by a
utilitarian saction to satisfy individual want.
The Reformation played an essential part in the
shaping of its doctrines since the rise of
Protestantism aided the growth of the liberal
philosophy. It abolished papal jurisdiction, relieved
the people from clerical taxation and transferred a
great volume of property from clerical to lay
hands. Because it was a grave blow at authority, it
loosened the hold of tradition on men’s lives.
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Aims: Liberal ideas upheld the SUPREMACY OF THE LAW They wished to abolish the
Legal and vindicated individuals’ king’s right to grant trade
field rights to be protected from interference outside the monopolies, and to make him
course of Law. Ashley states acknowledge the exclusive right
that they “fought the Crown in order to establish the of Parliament to impose taxes.
Legislature as the effective (...) They held that Parliament
centre of law-making power.” should meet at stated intervals,
They demand a rational fiscal system , security of and should not be convoked
property, a means of expressing grievance for the only on rare occasions when the
wealthy, and freedom of trade. king found its collaboration
indispensable. They objected to
arbitrary arrest and to the
subservience of the judges to
the royal wishes. (581)

Liberalism:

● Definition: It is a new philosophy/ideology/doctrine that emerged at the end of the Middle Ages
which aimed at giving a rational (as opposed to dogmatic) justification to the new social and
economic order, which implied capitalism and the emergence and rise of the higher middle classes.
● Reasons for its emergence: 1) The importance given to men’s reasoning capacity by Humanism and
the Renaissance. 2) The Reformation, which encouraged an individual approach to the Bible and
questioning capacities (critical attitude). 3) The ideas of new thinkers such as Locke, which were
disseminated thanks to the printing press. 4) New geographic discoveries led to the growth of trade
and the rise of early capitalism. 5) A rise in science
● Characteristics: focus on individual reasoning capacities (against dogmatism); moderately
Protestant (but against wars of religion; in favor of commerce and industry; importance of education;
importance and protection of property (but that which was acquired through labor and not
inheritance); against absolutism and the divine hereditary rights of monarchs.
● Aims: 1) Politically: constitutional monarchy (against absolutism). 2) Economically: “laissez fairez”
(freedom in home industry) and “free trade” (foreign trade without restrictions); against mercantilism
(which implied control of the government). 3) Religion: in the first half of the 17th century they favored
Puritanism, while in the second they seeked toleration. 4) Legally: supremacy and independence of
the law, as opposed to the divine hereditary right of the absolutist monarch (against illegal taxation
or arbitrary arrest, for example); the law above the king; defense of the rights of the individual.
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

Monarch brought up in Scotland as a Prebysterian:

James I was from Prebysterian Scotland, which was a branch of very extreme Protestantism. The Puritans
(who were the bulk of the House of Commons) expected the king to take measures according to their
beliefs. They did not want to continue with Elizabeth’s Church settlement (the Church of England), which
was Protestant but tolerated Catholicism. Puritans wanted more extreme measures and James I decided
to continue with Elizabeth’s Church.

Hampton Court Conference (1604): causes, outcomes:

Religious reasons: Monarch’s adherence to the Elizabethan Church settlement: Church of England. This led
to clashes with the Puritans. The monarch was not willing to introduce changes to the Church of England
because he did not want to lose power given by him by the hierarchical structure of the Anglican church (he
was the head).

Hampton Court Conference (1604). The monarch heard the Puritans’ demands and desire for changes. The
meeting came to an end in confusion, as the king left. After the conference, the Puritans were exiled and
went to Holland, but they didn’t want their sons to be Dutch. In 1620, they sailed into the Mayflower and
went to America. This is the first wave of Puritan migration to America.

Gunpowder plot: James was the son of Mary STUART, who was a strong Catholic. The Catholics thought
the situation would improve. James made promises to the Catholics but didn’t keep them so the Catholics
plotted against him. As a consequence of this plot, a strong anticatholic feeling developed in the country.

Beginnings of the first British Empire: the empire in the 13 American colonies began in 1607.

PARLIAMENTS SUMMONED BY JAMES I

The same procedure took place again and again: The king summoned Parliament whenever he needed
money. The members of the Parliaments gave him the money but not without complaining and demanding
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

for several changes first. On several occasions the king became angry with the members of Parliament and
decided to dissolve them. In his final Parliament (called “Parliament of Love”), he passed the Act against
Monopolies as a reward for the Parliament’s cooperation.

TASK: General overview of the Stuart dynasty and significance in future history of the country:

What is the origin of this royal family? How long did they rule the country? The Stuart royal family was
Scottish and ruled England from 1603 to 1714. Mary of Scotland (James VI’s mother) and Elizabeth were
first cousins.

Why did this new royal family come to the throne of England? Because Elizabeth I, the Virgin Queen died
childless.

What great events occurred in the Stuart era that changed the shape of the nation and made it the country
it is today? The Gunpowder Plot, the plague, and the Great Fire of London in 1666.

According to the historian (Steve Roberts), why were these events significant in shaping the future of the
nation? In his view, what did they determine? The English Civil war, the execution of a king (Charles I), the
Acts of Union and the Bill of Rights, determined that England would be a Protestant nation and not a Catholic
one; that it would be governed by a Parliamentary democracy; and that British people would live in “Great
Britain” instead of just “England”.

What did the death of the last Stuart ruler trigger? Queen Anne’s death (who left no children) triggered the
Battle of Culloden in which Bonnie Prince Charlie (Charles Stuart), who claimed the throne, was defeated by
James Wolf, who fought on the side of the king.

Who came to rule the kingdom now? What did it mean for the country in religious terms? The Hanoverians
came to rule the kingdom. The country remained Protestant and did not return to the Roman Catholic faith.

Charles I and his struggle with parliament, the outbreak of the civil war,
and the Cromwellian Interregnum
In 1625, against a background of political and religious conflict across Europe, Charles I (1625-1649)
inherited the thrones of three British kingdoms: England (with Wales), Ireland, and Scotland. Although he
ruled all three kingdoms, they did not constitute a single unit: each kingdom had its own culture, its own
religious arrangements and its own parliament. He was king by inheritance –as the eldest living son of King
James I– and by Divine Right, chosen and approved by God himself, as symbolised in the coronation
ceremony.

During his reign, the antagonism between King and Parliament, which had revealed itself as soon as his
father had come to the throne, worsened. The marriage with Henrietta Maria, daughter of King Henry IV of
France, as well as the appointment of William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury, alienated the King from
the Anglican majority, which followed Calvinist ideas, and aggravated the divisions of the country over
religion and the management of power.

Charles I and his struggle with Parliament

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In the political field, what theory did Charles I advocate? He advocated the divine hereditary rights of the
monarchy. He disregarded the parliament because he considered to be appointed by God (supporter of
absolutism).

Who did the Monarch mainly depend on for advice? He depended on the leading minister, The Duke of
Buckingham: George Villiers.

Did Parliament agree with the way the Monarch conducted the affairs of government? Why (not)? No, they
did not. They wanted to have a more important role in political affairs. They wanted to be consulted.

Which were the main parliamentary demands? They wanted to be consulted on foreign affairs (the monarch
relied to much on Buckingham, who prepared all expeditions, and they wanted to have a say); religion (he
relied too much on Laud, who had Armenian views, was against and persecuted Puritans); and taxation (not
new, present in Magna Carta but illegal taxes had been levied anyways).

Who did Charles I marry? Henrietta Maria, the sister of king of France Louis XIII

Which was his wife's religion? Roman Catholic.

Which was the Monarch's religion? He was an Anglican with Armenian tendencies. However, “he was even
more friendly than his father to Roman Catholics, and even more strongly opposed to the Puritanism which
now pervaded the House of Commons.” He had secretly promised to relieve the English Roman Catholics
of their disabilities.

Who did he appoint as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633? William Laud, an avowed opponent of the
Puritans.

What religious ideas did the Monarch and the Archbishop advocate? Laud and his friends were nicknamed
Arminians (branch of Protestantism) and they refused to deny the Roman Catholics were true Christians.
The King favoured Laud’s point of view and in due course was to use him as his chief adviser. Armenians
favored certain ceremonies of the Catholic Church and in the eyes of the Puritans this was equivalent to
Popery.

To what extent did the members of Parliament agree with the Monarch’s religious views? They did not
agree with the Monarch’s views since most of the members of the House of Commons were Puritans and
clamoured for the enforcement of laws against Roman Catholics.

Typical procedure of Parliaments from now on: Monarch needs money, summons parliament, parliament
makes demands, king dissolves parliament, king resorts to illegal ways of collecting money, king imprisons
those who won’t pay the forced loans.

First and Second Parliament (1625 and 1626)

Why did Charles I summon Parliament in 1625 and 1626? Because England was at war with Spain and the
king had financial troubles, so he summoned parliament to ask the Commons for money.

What did Parliament demand in each case? The first Parliament clamoured for the enforcement of the laws
against Roman Catholics (which the King had secretly promised to cancel), the introduction of measures
to promote Puritanism, and violently criticized the writings of an “Arminian” rector named Richard Montagu,
who was wittier and sharper than Laud, and had the bad taste to deny that the Pope was Anti-Christ. In
1926, they demanded an inquiry into the failure of the Cadiz expedition, asked about the causes of the
misunderstanding with France (annoyed the French king), and sought to impeach Buckingham.
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How did the monarch react to such demands? The king dissolved parliament. He levied tonnage and
poundage without parliamentary sanction and tried to raise a forced loan. Those who would not pay it were
imprisoned on the king’s order.

Third Parliament (1628 and 1629)

Why did Charles I summon Parliament in 1628? Because, now at war with both France and Spain, he needed
money again.

Why did the members of Parliament present the Petition of Right to the Monarch during the first session
of this Parliament? Because they wanted to voice their grievances before voting supplies. There had been
illegal imprisonments and taxations. The subjects of the crown had been wronged and in future the law
should be observed.

What were the 4 main principles stated in this document? First, it established that loans and taxes without
the consent of Parliament were illegal; secon, arbitrary imprisonment without cause shown was also illegal;
third, they forbid the billeting of soldiers in private houses against the will of the owners; and fourth, forbid
the exercise of the martial law in time of peace.

Were the rights enacted in the Petition of Rights new? Why (not)? They were not new, since they were a re-
statement of the principles of Magna Carta.

What was Charles I’s reaction to this document? He accepted it and gave his assent but then did not abide
by it.

In the second session of Parliament, the members of Parliament presented three resolutions, known as
Eliot’s Resolutions (1629), to the Monarch. Why did Parliament present this document? Parliament was
annoyed because the Petition of Rights had not been respected. 1) Whosoever brought in innovations of
religion or favoured Popery and Arminianism should be considered capital enemies to the kingdom. 2)
whosoever should advise the taking and levying of tonnage and poundage without parliamentary consent
should likewise be considered capital enemies. 3) Any merchant who paid tonnage and poundage thus
levied should be deemed a traitor to the liberties of England.

They presented this document because they were trying to protect the Church of England and to stop illegal
taxation.

What were the members of Parliament trying to protect? Which core issues of Parliament’s dispute with
the King did they represent? They were trying to protect the Church from the Armenian ideas of the monarch
(against Laud). The two core issues were taxation and religion.

What was Charles I’s reaction to these resolutions? He dissolved parliament.

Eleven year’s tyranny (1629-1640)

After the tumultuous end to the 1629 session of Parliament, Charles I broke with convention by ruling
without Parliament for eleven years. To meet the expenses of government without parliamentary aid, the
Monarch resorted to a number of unlawful methods to raise money: forced loans (loans from the general
public in the case of threat with no real prospect of repayment); tonnage and poundage (custom duties);
knighthood fines (those who owned big estated should be made knights and those who did not present
themselves in their coronation must be fined); forest laws (king’s right to any land that had been forest);
monopolies (they provided the crown with revenue); wardship and purveyance (wardships of wealthy
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

children were sold; purveyance was the right of the royal household to buy provisions at cost price); ship
money (tax levied to provide defence in time of war or threat).

Charles I’s ecclesiastical policies and the collapse of personal rule

Unlike the Church of England, the Scottish Kirk (Church) had undergone a thoroughly Calvinist reformation
led by John Knox in 1560 and emerged as a highly organised Presbyterian institution run by an assembly
of ministers and lay Elders.(adapted from Farr, 2017, p. 18)

What was the main religion of Scotland in the 1600s? Presbyterianism

To what extent was Scotland’s religion similar to Anglicanism? Although both countries were Protestant,
Anglicanism tolerated Roman Catholics to some extent, while Prebysterians were more extremist.

What reforms did Charles I try to introduce to the Church in Scotland? A new prayer book, modelled on the
English Book of Common Prayer

This engraving shows the reaction of Scottish Protestants when the head of the church in Scotland tried
to use the New Book of Common Prayer for church services. Examine the image. How did the Scots react?
How would you describe the feelings of the crowd?

When the new liturgy was read, there were outcries of protest and riots.

Was Charles I’s religious policy in Scotland successful? No, it led to war with the Scots, which he could not
win without the financial help of the Commons.

Did his religious policy in Scotland contribute to the outbreak of the civil war in England? Why (not)? The
immediate cause of the outbreak of the civil war were Charles I’s ecclesiastical policies. Scotland was
united to England only through the monarch –when James VI of Scotland became James I of England in
1603– and it had its own parliament, legal system, and church government. It was the last of these that
would cause Charles I the most difficulty, as he tried to force the Presbyterian Scots to accept a prayer book
similar to that in England in 1637. Rebellion against the king’s religious policies in Scotland in 1638 led to
the raising of an English army to march north in 1639. Peace was negotiated before there was any
bloodshed, but the main issue had not been solved. Charles began preparing for another campaign against
his unruly subjects in the north. A new army could not be funded without Parliament voting to provide the
money, so in the spring of 1640 Charles had to call Parliament. In that unexpected way, the Eleven Years’
Tyranny came to an end (adapted from Little, 2014, p. 7).

April 1640: Short Parliament - November 1640: Long Parliament

Why was the Monarch forced to summon Parliament again in 1640? Who had advised the Monarch to do
so? He was forced to summon Parliament because he needed money to finance the war with the Scots.
The Earl of Strafford advised him to do so.
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Why was this Parliament called 'Short Parliament'? Because the two Houses were dissolved three weeks
after they had met.

Why was the monarch forced to summon Parliament again by the end of that year? Because though every
possible method to raise money without the help of the Commons was examined, the king could obtain
little help. In addition, the Scottish army had occupied Northern territories in England.

Why was this new Parliament called 'Long Parliament'? The Long Parliament received its name from the
fact that, by Act of Parliament, it stipulated it could be dissolved only with agreement of the members; and,
those members did not agree to its dissolution until 16 March 1660, after the English Civil War and near the
close of the Interregnum.

What measures did the members of Parliament take? Which was the purpose of these measures? After
the Commons charged and then executed many of Charles I’s ministers, he was left powerless and the
Commons enacted every measure they wanted. A “triennial act” was passed laying it down that a parliament
must be summoned at least once every three yeras and another act stated that Parliament was not to be
dissolved without its consent. Other measures were: nearly all the prerogative courts under the king’s
control (such as the Star Chamber) were abolished, all axes levied without parliamentary consent were
declared illegal; a Scottish treaty was signed; and two Acts of Attainders were passed (Strafford and Laud
were executed.

The purpose was to secure their permanency in politics, since the king would no longer be able to dissolve
Parliament and had to consult before imposing his taxation methods.

December 1640: Root and Branch Bill (Parliament divided upon religion)

What was the purpose of the Root and Branch Bill? It was proposed by the Puritan sector of parliament to
reform the Church of England and make it more Protestant and less Catholic.

What was the content of this document? The document proposed a more protestant Church.

This bill passed the House of Commons by a small majority. What does this show about the religious
tendencies in the lower house? It shows that the House of Common was divided on religious matters. Some
MPs supported the monarch’s ideas and others were extreme Puritans. It was a very close vote.

November 1641. Grand Remonstrance (Parliament divided upon politics)

What was the Grand Remonstrance? When a rebellion broke out in Ireland, this document was created to
show that the monarch could not be trusted with the army because he would turn it against the people; it
included a list of the king’s malpractices. (It was also proposed that only Ministers should be appointed
of whom the House of Commons should approve and that the bishops should be deprived of their vote
in Parliament.)

Who drew up this document? Why? The Commons. They drew up this document to show the previous
malpractices of the monarch in order to show that he could not be entrusted with the army (because they
feared he would turn the army against them).

How did the Monarch react to this document? He returned a non-committal answer and issued a
proclamation upholding the Church of England.
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What was the Commons vote on the Grand Remonstrance? It was approved by a significantly small
majority, 159 to 148. Moderate men had been convinced that reform had gone far enough and was turning
into revolution.

What did the closeness of the result show about political unity in the Commons? There was no unity as
regards politics, since many MPs believed that the monarch could be entrusted with the army.

January 1642: Charles I’s attempt to arrest five leading members of Parliament

According to Ashley, this action on the part of the monarch was unconstitutional. Do you agree? Why
(not)? The Commons marched the streets after the King’s noncommittal answer and impeached thirteen
bishops and were thought to be prepared to impeach the Queen. This was too much for the King and he
was determined to charge five members of the Commons. Ashley said it was unconstitutional and he is
right since article 39 in Magna Carta stated that no free man could be imprisoned or punished “unless
by the lawful judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.”

Why do you think this event cemented the divide between Charles and Parliament and contributed to the
start of the Civil War? Because it once more stomped on the people’s rights.

June 1642: Nineteen Propositions

What were the Nineteen Propositions? They were a set of proposals for a settlement. The “Nineteen
Propositions” set out a new English constitution under which Parliament would become the supreme power
in the land: no Privy Councillors or Ministers of State or even guardians of the royal children were to be
appointed except with Parliament’s approval; Judges were to hold office during good behaviour; the army
was to be put under parliamentary control; Parliament was to determine the future of the Church.

Why did Parliament issue them? As an ultimatum of men who were ready for war.

How did the Monarch react to these proposals? He rejected them.

Which was the consequence of such rejection? Parliament declared that he was an aggressor and the
Civil War started.

August 1642: Outbreak of the Civil War

On 22 August 1642, King Charles I raised his royal standard at Nottingham, effectively marking the start of
the Civil War.

Read the following extracts. Which issues leading to the Civil War are mentioned in each of them?

He [Charles I] had already married Princess Henrietta Maria, sister of the king of France, and a French
Catholic Queen was almost as bad as a Spanish one in the eyes of Parliament. And he had taken up with
the teachings of Arminius, a Dutch clergyman who maintained that Protestants ought to keep up the
ceremonies of Roman Church - its sacraments, vestments and festivals. (Rayner, R. A Short History of
Britain. p. 258)

When Charles belatedly requested supply, and the regularization of the customs, the Commons demanded
Buckingham’s dismissal. Charles’s reply, on 15 June, was another snap dissolution […] The charges against
Buckingham were referred to Star Chamber, which promptly acquitted him, and the King issued a
proclamation for the establishing of the peace and quiet of the Church of England´ which demanded total
conformity to the present establishment of the Church and threatened its critics with condign punishment.
Worse still, he began to finance his continuing war policy by extra-parliamentary means, first by a request
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

for a `free gift´, then by the slightly more respectable machinery of a forced loan. (Kenyon, J. Stuart England.
p. 108)

Superficially, religious differences lay at the bottom of everything. Had King Charles I and Archbishop Laud
not tried to impose a prayer book and strengthen the episcopacy in Scotland, the Long Parliament need not
have been called when it was; and if the Scottish Covenanters, thus provoked, had not invaded England
successfully, Pym and his friends would never have been able to strike down Strafford and fasten their will
on the king. (Ashley, M. England in the Seventeenth Century. p. 80)

With the Act of Attainder against Strafford, the King passed another Bill which forbade the dissolution of
the existing Parliament without its own consent. These two measures, the first of them the bitterest
humiliation of Charles’ life, seemed to make the position of Parliament secure. And so, it would have been,
but for the religious differences which in the second session split into two hostile parties the hitherto solid
phalanx of the constitutionalists. In the Commons the Puritans won, by small majorities, divisions in favour
of the Root and Branch Bill abolishing episcopacy, and the Grand Remonstrance. (Trevelyan, G. A Shortened
History of England. p. 298)

The 17th century was characterized by a constant struggle between the Crown and Parliament. The
antagonism that had begun with James I continued and worsened with Charles I and it eventually led to the
Civil War. The general factors that caused it were both religious and political. As regards religion: 1) The
King married Henrietta Maria, who was a Catholic, which was looked down on by the members of Parliament
who were Puritans and did not want a Catholic queen for fear she would influence the monarch into taking
Catholic-friendly measures (they wanted a more Protestant Church). 2) The King was Anglican with
Armenian tendencies, which favored aspects of the Catholic religion and, for the Puritans, this equated
Popery and Catholicism. In addition, he had an Armenian advisor on religious affairs, Laud, who despised
and persecuted Puritans and who wanted changes in the Church of England (the Parliament wanted to be
the one to advise the king in religion). 3) The King wanted to keep the Church of England as it was, very
consevative, while the Puritans wanted to change it. As regards politics: 1) According to Magna Carta,
Parliament had control over taxation and had to be summoned for each tax to be approved; however, the
king resorted to illegal ways of raising money (forced loans) without the Parliament’s consent, which was
unconstitutional. This started with James I but continued and worsened with Charles I. 2) Parliament
despised Buckingham because he was a royal favorite (both of James and Charles) and they distrusted his
influential and powerful figure. The king relied on him for advice on foreign affairs and they wanted to be
consulted. 3) Parliament wanted to be permanent in the machinery of government but every time the king
did not agree with them, he dissolved it. There were also immediate causes that led to the war: 1) The king
tried to impose a Book of Common Prayer on the Prebysterian Scottish, which led to a conflict, and he had
to summon Parliament to ask for money to go to war (if he hadn’t done this, he could probably have
continued ruling the country without summoning Parliament like he had for 11 years). 2) There was a
division in Parliament and one sector started to make very controversial demands: Root and Branch Bill and
Grand Remonstrance: the king rejected the latter and arrested 5 MPs unconstitutionally (since people
cannot be arrested arbitrarily according to Magna Carta). This last event was the one that triggered the Civil
War.

In the end, the most important factor that led to the CW was the struggle between the Crown and Parliament
for dominance in the state.

Yet when all that is said, it still has to be recognized that it was a real shifting of economic power within the
community that made the civil war possible. (...) Well before Queen Elizabeth died, the rise of a vociferous
new gentry and the demands uttered in the Commons to express opinions on matters that had never before
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

been their concern showed that the monarchy of the Tudors had ceased to offer an acceptable method of
government. (Ashley, M. England in the Seventeenth Century. p. 80)

Groups that fought the Civil War

Royalists (cavaliers) Parliamentarians (roundheads)

Social Inhabitants of the countryside. Big Higher Middle Classes - urban

background landowners (especially from the population (inhabitants of the towns and
North-West, the most conservative cities of the south-east: merchants and
areas) traders) and some small landowners
from the South-east). Big landholders
from the South
(*) the proximity of the small landowners
to the continent and to London is
associated with the fact that they had
more progressive ideas (Liberalism).

Aims: Mercantilism Free trade and laissez-faire

economic field

Aims: political They supported the divine hereditary A Constitutional Monarchy

field right of the monarch and an
absolute monarchy

Aims: legal Supremacy of the Monarch over the Supremacy of the Law
field law

Aims: religious To maintain the Church of England Tendency towards Puritanism

field as it was (Anglican Church)

Which group supported the Monarch? The Royalists.

Which group won the War? The Parliamentarians.

The end of the Civil War

 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

When did the Civil War begin? Shortly after the failed attempt of Charles I to arrest five members of
Parliament.

Who won the war? The Parliamentarians

What were the charges against Charles I? He was accused of wicked design to erect and uphold in himself
an unlimited and tyrannical power to rule according to his will and to overthrow the rights and liberties of
the people of England. He was held personally responsible for the death and destruction caused by the Civil
War (6% percent of the entire population had lost their lives).

Why did Charles refuse to defend himself against the charges put forward by Parliament? He refused to
recognize the authority of the court because he believed in the Divine Right of Kings.

Which was the final outcome of the trial? On 27th January the sentence was passed. He was found guilty
of committing high treason and was sentenced to death by beheading (three days later, on the 30th
ofJanuary 1649).

What happened to Charles I and to the Monarchy as an institution? Parliament abolished the Monarchy .

Do you think the death of Charles I was revolutionary? Why (not)? Yes, it was. For the first time the English
monarchy had been questioned and a king had been sentenced by its subjects.

Death warrant of king Charles I: This evocative document, a flat parchment containing seals and signatures,
is handwritten in iron gall ink and led to the execution of Charles I and subsequent rule of Oliver Cromwell,
one of the 59 signatories. Charles was tried in the House of Commons and executed on 30 January 1649,
outside Banqueting House in Whitehall. Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the Death
Warrant was used to identify the commissioners who had signed it (the 'regicides') and prosecute them for
treason. Even the signatories who had died, including Cromwell, were dug up and their bodies hanged. The
House of Lords ordered the return of the Death Warrant from Charles’ executioner who was imprisoned in
the Tower of London. It was returned on 31 July 1660 and it has been in the custody of Parliament ever
since.

The Cromwellian Interregnum (1649-1660)

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On January 30th, 1649, the Stuart King of England, Charles I, was beheaded as a “tyrant, traitor, murderer,
and public enemy” at Westminster in London, and England was proclaimed a Republic. This momentous
event ushered in the eleven-year Interregnum period during which the ideals of republicanism foundered in
corruption and ended in the military dictatorship of the Protectorate. Oliver Cromwell, the parliamentarian
hero of the English Civil War and General and creator of the New Model Army, would create a political
structure that would allow for increased prosperity and English success abroad, but which could not survive
without his indomitable personality. (Steele, n.d., p.1)

With the death of King Charles, I in 1649, England became a republic. The eleven-year period from 1649 to
1660, when England was without a king, is called the English Interregnum. This was a period of major
experimentation in national government. The two republican experiments were the Commonwealth (1649-
1653; Council of State; Rump Parliament) and the Protectorate(1653-1658; Lord Protector; Council of State
Parliament).

Why was the period between 1649 and 1660 called interregnum? Because nn interregnum is a period of
discontinuity or "gap" in a government, and in that period, a republic replaced the monarchy that would later
on be restored.

What institutions were abolished during this period? 1.The Monarchy, 2.Parliament: the House of Lords
was dissolved and the House of Commons was diminished in number -the ones who did not want to execute
Charles I, creating a Rump Parliament. 3. the Church of England: it was no longer the official religion of the
country, for Cromwell was a Puritan (but did not do religious persecution- toleration).

Who held the political authority during the Commonwealth? Who ruled the country during the
Protectorate? During the interregnum there were two Republican experiments (republican because there
was no monarch). The first was the Commonwealth, in which the government was in hands of a Council of
State (made up of the members of the New Model Army and some members of the Rump Parliament) and
the Rump Parliament (made up of Parliamentarians, those who had advocated the execution of the king).
This government was not very effective because the Parliament did not limit the power of the Council
because they all had the same interests. After the Commonwealth, it was decided that a leader was needed,
and the Protectorate was created. It was governed by a Lord Protector (Oliver Cromwell) and a Council of
State. Elections were called and new members of Parliament came (now not only from England but from
the other countries of the British Isles as well). This parliament was in theory in charge of taxation but every
time Cromwell needed money and the parliament would not give it, he dissolved it and ruled by decree. He
governed then with the assistance of the New Model Army, which made his government a military
dictatorship (not constitutional).
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

To what extent were these political experiments successful? It was not very successful because Cromwell
could never achieve the goal he was fighting for: a constitutional government.

Oliver Cromwell’s achievements

Even though the republican experiments were not successful, Cromwell proved himself one of the ablest
rulers England has ever had.

Which were Cromwell's main achievements in domestic and foreign affairs?

Domestic affairs:

● In spite of his being a Puritan, there was no religious persecution (mild beginning of religious
toleration): There was a re-establishment of Jew communities in England (Cromwell pushed through a
measure of toleration and there was a greater degree of freedom of worship that at any point up to then
in British history).
● The Interregnum was a period characterized by relative peace, order and prosperity (especially after
the chaos after the war).

Foreign affairs:

● He ended the First Anglo-Dutch War.

● England made a successful alliance with France against Spain.
● He was the first English imperialist ruler (later on, acquisitions of colonies are private enterprises,
not public): He planned an attack on the Spanish colonies in the Caribbean and resulted in the invasion
of Jamaica, which then became an English colony.
● Cromwell’s foreign policy generally re-established Britain as a key power in Europe
● Unification of British Isles: Cromwell’s was the first government in British history to provide a single
system of government that united England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland under a single elected British
parliament, which operated for the first and only time in British history with a detailed written
constitution.

Significance of the Civil War and the Cromwellian Interregnum

The tragedy of Oliver Cromwell was that he was never able to find a Constitutional basis for his government.
A patriotic Englishman, he regarded his fellow countrymen as a Chosen People who were the apple of God’s
eye, and he was anxious to do right, to preserve order, and to promote Christian well-being. But how could
a soldier, raised to prominence by revolution after a series of Civil Wars and kept in power by his army,
become a Constitutional ruler? (Ashley, 1960, p.99)

To what extent was Cromwell able to provide a constitutional basis for his government? He failed, since
this was a period of military dictatorship. Cromwell ruled by decree.
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The Restoration (1660-1667)

Tie-up: When Cromwell died in 1658, his republican administration - the Protectorate - collapsed. His son,
Richard Cromwell, succeeded him and took over but he did not prove a good leader. He lacked his father’s
force of personality and military prestige. He stayed in power for a few months, and his fall was followed
by different unsuccessful attempts to form a military regime. The surviving members of the Long
Parliament - the Rump Parliament - were then recalled and remained the body of authority. The political
crisis, instability, confusion, the civil and military unrest that followed, led General George Monk to speak
out in favor of the restoration of the Stuart monarchy. Fearing that the nation would descend into anarchy,
he brought his army from Scotland, summoned the surviving members of the Long Parliament, asked it to
dissolve itself and called for General Elections in 1660 for the first time in almost 20 years. The result was
the restoration of the monarchy, and Charles was invited to return to Britain.

Charles II and the restoration of the monarchy

In 1660, after spending over a decade in exile, Charles Stuart (1660-1685) was invited back to the throne of
England by a parliament that was filled with recently elected Royalists. The Restoration was popular among
ordinary people; a stirring of royalist sympathy began and there was much rejoicing. Charles was welcomed
back by his people who had for the most part suffered under the strict oppressive regime of the
Commonwealth. English people still viewed the monarchy as a symbol of which they could be proud.
Therefore, they felt some sort of optimism for a revival of the monarchy hoping that the new king would
bring back peace and order to the country.

The Restoration of 1660 was the restoration not only of the King but also of the institutions that had been
abolished by the Puritan Parliamentarians and that remained central to British life: Parliament and the
episcopally organized Church of England.

Restoration of the monarchy

What majority did the General Election of 1660 return to Parliament? What was this Parliament thus
called? This Parliament was called “Cavalier Parliament” since the majority elected was the Royalists.
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What did the return of such majority to Parliament mean in political terms? What did it mean in terms of
success/failure of the political ideologies that were confronted in the Civil War? This meant that the
Roundheads’ project had failed and that the country was moving back to conservative lines.

What immediate action did this Parliament take as regards the government of the country? They restored
the monarchy and the Parliament (survivor members Long Parliament: dissolved and new elections:
Cavalier parliament) following the laws and traditions of the country (which did not exist during Cromwellian
interregnum). They also restored the Church of England.

The Declaration of Breda (1660) (a document issued in Breda, the Netherlands, where the King had lived
in exile) stipulated the conditions upon which Charles was offered the English crown. Find out about its
clauses and the promises made by the monarch in return for his restoration to the English throne. The
Declaration of Breda was a document issued by the exiled King Charles II in Breda, the Netherlands, making
certain promises in return for his restoration to the English throne, following the end of the Protectorate
government. It expressed his desire for a general amnesty, liberty of conscience, an equitable settlement
of land disputes, and full payment of arrears to the army. He left the specifics to Parliament. Of primary
importance was the statement within the Declaration of Breda that no one would be held to account for
their part in the English Civil War – this removal of the fear of revenge very much cleared the way for the
return of the king in exile. It also promised religious toleration in areas where it did not disturb the peace of
the kingdom (“No man shall be disquieted or called in question for differences of religion”).

Which of these provisions were significant for the constitutional and religious future of the country? Why?
One which stated that the monarch relied on the advice and assistance of the Parliament and another which
stated that no man should be molested on account of religious beliefs (a step towards religious toleration).

Restoration of Parliament

What provisions did Parliament make for restoring its prerogatives in the machinery of government?
1.Parliament was to be freely elected. 2. Parliament limited the regular royal revenue to half the cost of the
Government. Purpose: to be regularly summoned. The king needed Parliamentary money, so they gave him
half the regular revenue so he would summon Parliament again for the other half. The monarch was
dependent on Parliament. 3. The monarch was not allowed to have a standing army; he needed to summon
Parliament if he wanted to go to war. 4. Passing the Clarendon code (so the Church of England was
restored).

Explain the aim of these measures concerning the monarch’s power and Parliament ‘s position and
durability in government. With the measures introduced, the King became dependent on Parliament since
he needed to summon him whenever he needed money (since he could only get half of the money in each
session) and whenever he wanted an army. Parliament wanted to establish its permanent position in the
machinery of government.

Restoration of the Church of England

The Church of England was restored through the passing of the Clarendon Code. The so-called Clarendon
Code was a series of four legal statutes enacted by the English Parliament - dominated by old royalists -
between 1661-1665 which effectively re-established the supremacy and privileges of the Anglican Church
after Cromwell's Interregnum and provided for a set of measures against dissenting religions. Drawn up as
a means of persecution of Nonconformists or Dissenters to cripple their power and to prevent them from
ever again being able to dominate government, the Code was named after Charles II ‘s first lord chancellor
and the head of his government, Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1609–74). The Code meant the re-
establishment of a harshly repressive Anglican order.
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The Corporation Act (1661) – It required all individuals working within the government to embrace the
Anglican Church and formally reject the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643. This act intended to exclude
all non-conformists from public offices. Combined with the Test Acts, the Corporation Act excluded all non-
conformists from having civil or military duties, and from receiving awards from the universities of Oxford
and Cambridge. This legislation was abolished in 1828.

The Uniformity Act (1662) – This rule made the use of the Book of Common Prayer mandatory during church
services. About 1700 ecclesiastics refused to comply with this act and were forced to resign and lose their
livelihoods.

The Conventicle Act (1664) – This act prohibited conventicles (unauthorised worshipping meetings) of
more than five people who were not members of the same household. The aim was to prevent dissenting
religious groups from coming together.

The Five Mile Act (1665) – It intended to forbid nonconformist ministers from living within 5 miles of the
parishes from which they had been expelled. In fact, the promulgators of this act believed that such
ministers could easily spread their religious beliefs and attract more people into their cults. They were also
prevented from teaching in schools. This act was abolished in 1812.

The origin and growth of the English political parties

Charles II's rule faced a daunting set of problems. His time in power saw a number of crises and conflicts
that marked much of his reign: foreign policy crises, religious crises (religious tension and struggle between
Anglicans, Catholics, and Dissenters), and numerous clashes with Parliament. However, the reign of Charles
II marks an important epoch in the English Constitutional development. It was during his reign that the
modern form of government, that of the party power and the opposition in Parliament, was instituted,
resulting in the birth of the first English Political Parties: the basis of Britain's two-party parliamentary
system of government. Also, it was during his reign that another important step in the development of
democracy took place: the issuance of one of the most effective instruments to safeguard and guarantee
individual liberty. The passing of the “Habeas Corpus Act” ensured that a man who was imprisoned should
be brought up for trial as soon as possible. Although this principle was contained in the Great Charter, in
the case of political prisoners there had been evasions, and this act put an end to such anomalies.

Charles II's favouring of monarchical absolutism, his pro-French foreign and pro-Catholic policies together
with the “Exclusion Crisis” between 1679 and 1681 over the bill to exclude his brother James, Duke of York
(afterward James II), from the royal succession, account among the factors leading to the rise of two
political factions within Parliament, thus marking the birth of the English Political Parties.

Charles II‘s pro-French foreign and pro-Catholic policies: In the course of the 17th century, three naval
conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic – the Anglo-Dutch Wars, also called Dutch Wars - took
place stemming, the first two, mainly from commercial rivalry. The First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–54) began
following England’s institution of the 1651 Navigation Act, which was aimed at barring the Dutch from
involvement in English sea trade. The conflict resulted in the defeat of the Dutch force and the war was
ended by the Treaty of Westminster of 1654. The commercial rivalry between the two nations led again to
the Second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–67, ended by a treaty in 1667 which resulted in a Dutch victory. The
Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–74) between England and the Dutch Republic formed part of the war of
conquest by Louis XIV of France, whose chief aim in the conflict was to establish French possession of the
Spanish Netherlands, destroy the Protestant Dutch Republic and extend French territory. In comparison to
the First and Second Anglo-Dutch Wars, political reasons account more as causes for this war than
economic ones. The unpopularity of this alliance with France in the English Parliament, coupled with several
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

defeats at the hands of the Dutch navy, led to the end of the war with the Treaty of Westminster of 1674,
the eventual marriage of Charles II‘s niece, Mary, to William of Orange (Stadtholder head of state of the
Dutch Republic) and England‘s agreement to a defensive alliance with the Dutch.

The Cabal (1667-1674): In 1667, as a consequence of the impact of the humiliation by the Dutch in the
Second Anglo-Dutch War, Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon -Charles II’s royal favourite and Lord Chancellor
between 1660-1667- was charged with treason and replaced with a group of advisers, a senior group of
privy councillors, known as the Cabal or the Cabal Ministry, active from approximately 1667 to 1674. The
term “C-A-B-A-L” served as the acronym for the names of the five Privy Councillors (Clifford, Arlington,
Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale). Power in this royal council was shared by the group of men rather
than dominated by a single royal favourite. The Cabal Ministry led an unpopular policy of royal absolutism
and consistently attacked the House of Commons. However, the council never remained very unified in its
members’ aims and sympathies. Unfulfilled personal ambitions, hostility amongst ministers and much
disagreement ruled in issues regarding faith and the foundations of the political establishment.

Who was the king of France between 1643-1715? What kind of monarchy did he embody? What territorial
ambitions did he cherish? Louis XIV, who was an absolutist ruler. Under his reign, France emerged as the
colossus of Europe and sought to extend its dominion to its “natural boundaries” of the Rhine, the Alps, and
the Pyrenees. The avowed policy of the French crown was to realize at home and abroad the maxim “The
king first in France and France first in Europe”. Louis wanted to extend French territory.

Why did England enter an alliance against France in 1668? What countries did She join? The Triple Alliance
(England+Sweden+Holland), to check the French advance on the Rhine and in the Spanish Netherlands.

Why did England betray this Alliance in 1670? Because the King adopted pro-French policies.

What Treaty did She sign with the king of France? The Treaties of Dover.

What commitments did Charles II make with the French monarch? In return for what? With what aim? One
treaty was a military alliance against the Netherlands. England and France were to attack and partition the
Dutch Republic and its possessions. A residue would be left, to be governed by William of Orange as vassal
of France (Charles II’s nephew). All the members of the Cabal consented to it. There was also a secret treaty
(only two ministers knew about it) by which Louis undertook to provide Charles with French soldiers and
money, to enable him to restore the English Catholic religion in England as soon as circumstances were
favorable. The two treaties were a single plan for the subjugation of Europe and England by the French
Catholic monarchy.

Why was this treaty also known as “secret”? Were all its clauses made public? Not all its clauses were
made public; only two members of the Cabal had agreed to the secret treaty (the Roman Catholic ones).

What war did England become engaged in as a direct consequence of this treaty? The third Ango-Dutch
war (1672).

The issue of the Declaration of Indulgence in 1672 was the first step taken by Charles II in compliance
with the terms secretly agreed on with the French monarch. What did it provide for? How successful were
its stipulations? Why? The Declaration of Indulgence granted freedom of worship (to both Catholics and
Puritans and Dissenters) and suspended the Clarendon Code against Dissenters and the Elizabethan penal
laws against Catholics and allowed public worship in licensed chapels to Nonconformists and private
worship in their homes to Roman Catholics. Its stipulations were not successful because the Cavalier
Commons were fiercely anti-Catholic and anti-Dissenter and they would not provide a parliamentary grant
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with which to fight the Dutch War unless the king withdrew his declaration and signed the Test Act (1973)
baring all Catholics and Dissenters from civil and military offices, which he did to avoid bankrupcy.

Obliged by the Treaty, as the next step, Charles embarked on the war against the Dutch. In 1673, financial
problems and the momentary suspension of the French king’s subsidy forced Charles to recall parliament
to ask for parliamentary grants. In retaliation for his Declaration of Indulgence and his Catholic leanings,
parliament passed the Test Act. What did this act provide for? What effect did it have on holders of public
(civil and military) office? Under the Test Act, only communicant Anglicans could hold any civil or military
office under the Crown. This had forced many resignations of non-Anglicans. Danby wished to extend this
Test to peers and MPs so that Parliament would be 100 percent Anglican. The opposition were able to
muster enough support to defeat this, but the old issues of Angican vs. Puritan were again brought to the
force.

How did parliament respond to the monarch’s request for a money grant? What effect did it have on his
involvement in the course of the war? How was the war issue settled with the Dutch? Charles revoked the
Declaration of Indulgence and obtained further supplies for the Dutch War which he tried to continue. But
the war was increasingly popular (English navies were again shamefully defeated and there was mounting
xenophobia against France); the new ministry had no desire to go on with it and peace was soon made
(1674). England became non-belligerent, remaining on the touchline until peace was made between Louis
XIV and the Dutch in 1978.

On the basis of your previous answers, to what extent did the Treaty of Dover prove successful? Not very
successful, since the King gave up his main schemes in foreign affairs and religion.

There were sharp ideological divisions among the five members of the Cabal, ranging from the
Parliamentary idealism of Ashley to the autocratic absolutism of Lauderdale. Soon these personal disputes
became public knowledge and by 1672, this Ministry was falling apart. The collapse of the Cabal followed
the adoption of the Test Act of 1673 which eliminated Catholic influence on the government. Therefore,
Clifford resigned from his position and other members of the government also had to leave their positions.
The Cabal government ended in 1674.

Thereupon Charles appointed Thomas Osborne, Earl of Danby, as his chief minister leading the King's
government between 1674-1678. A keen partisan of the established Anglican church, an enemy of both
Roman Catholics and dissenters, and an opponent of all toleration, his principal aim was the maintenance
and increase of his own influence and his desire to strengthen the executive and the royal authority. A
foremost opponent of France, he pursued an anti-French foreign and pro-Protestant policy. As part of this
policy, he engineered the marriage (1677) that sealed peace with the Dutch. Paradoxically, at the same time,
he secretly obtained the renewal of the yearly subsidy from the French king formerly suspended.

Revelations about the secret Treaty of Dover: By 1678, embarrassing revelations emerged regarding the
Secret Treaty of Dover and the clauses which had hitherto remained concealed. Only two of the Cabal
councillors, Arlington and Clifford, both Catholics, were let know about the secret clauses; the political
nation, in and out of parliament, were unaware of them. The disclosure of the Secret Treaty, Charles II's pro-
French policy, his Declaration of Indulgence mirroring his Catholic leanings and pro-Catholic policy, together
with the disgust after the betrayal of the Triple Alliance and Osborne's leadership of religious, political, and
foreign policies offended a number of parliamentarians and individuals, particularly Anthony Ashley Cooper,
Earl of Shaftesbury, who had a genuine desire for toleration for dissenters. The presence of an orthodox
Anglican in Lord Danby threatened this toleration as he only favoured strict conformity. All these factors, in
addition to the rumours of the so-called “Popish Plot” (organised by the Jesuits and the French to murder
Charles II and replace him on the throne with his Catholic brother James), sparked an inevitable wave of
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

outrage and anti-Catholic hysteria embodied by Shaftesbury who started a fierce campaign of opposition
to Charles II becoming the leading spokesman of the faction: the Country Party. As for Charles, he rested
upon Danby as the advocate of the executive and the royal authority and prerogatives, as the leader of the
royal stand: the Court Party. Thus, parliament was shaping itself into two opposing political parties or
factions the Court Party and the Country Party. Although these were thought of as factions rather than
parties as political organization remained rudimentary and the unity and coherence of the factions’ interests
around an ideological platform of opposition fragile, these two divisions ultimately became known as Tories
and Whigs respectively.

General elections of 1679

For Shaftesbury and his partners, opportunity came to challenge Danby’s power and influence. His
assumed participation in the Popish Plot, his methods of parliamentary management (which included a
level of bribery and corruption), and the discovery that his apparent anti-French policy was in fact concealing
secret pro-French treaties suggested betrayal of the national interest, if not outright treason. Therefore, in
1678, under the charge of corruption, parliament sought to impeach him, using evidence provided by the
French ambassador that he had accepted subsidies from France. In an attempt to save him, Charles
dissolved - against his will - what was known as the Cavalier Parliament in 1679. However, this endeavour
failed because, the same year, due to financial shortage, the King was compelled to summon Parliament
again for which new general elections were called. The new elections resulted in an anti-royal majority of
MPs.Thereupon, having fallen out of favour, Lord Danby was finally impeached and eventually imprisoned
in the Tower of London until the accession of James II in 1685. It was by the time of the General Elections
of 1679 when the contending factions began to be identified as political “parties” and dubbed “Whigs”
and “Tories”, both pejorative labels by which they were to be known in the centuries ahead.

Also, the General Elections of 1679 were the first to be fought on party lines. Political parties are understood
as organized groupings of people, with mass followings, that are united in the promotion of a series of
principles that are intended for the public good. To a greater or lesser extent, both parties, the Whigs and
the Tories of that time, adopted organizational and propaganda techniques. Each had a recognizable
leader and certain ideological coherence, evinced a degree of political organization, had political tactics
and strategies, employed electoral agents, established their political forums, and organized propaganda
campaigns and political rallies to mobilize the population nationwide to support their platforms.

Complete this chart comparing and contrasting the two political parties that contended in the General
Elections of 1679.

What political groups of the early and mid-century can be regarded as their antecedents? The Royalists
(and Court Party) and Parliamentarians (and Country Party).

What similarities/differences can you spot between those then political factions and these now political
parties? Same aims, except religion.

Field Tories Whigs

Leader Earl of Shaftesbury

Antecedents Royalists/Cavaliers Roundheads/Parliamentarians

(Court Party) (Country Party)
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Ideology Conservative (for status quo- no They supported Shaftersbury and

changes). For the established order wanted to get rid of James.
and against changes Opponents of the Crown and
royal policies
Progressive, for innovations
LIBERAL ideas

Social ● Representative of the landed ● Representative of the commercial

background interests interests
● Inhabitants of the ● Inhabitants of the towns and cities:
countryside merchants, traders, professional men
● Big landholders from the ● Small landholders from the countryside:
North yeomen
● Some big landholders from the south-
east

Political field ● Constitutional Monarchy

● For the royal powers and ● Parliamentary participation in
prerogatives government and in the affairs of the state
● Freedom of speech
● prerogatives Parliamentary control over
taxation
● Checks to the royal powers and
prerogatives
● Parliament should become a necessary
and a permanent part in the machinery of
government and right of Parliament to
advise the monarch
● They advocated John Locke’s ideas of
government as a social contract: a
contract between the ruler and the ruled.

Economic Mercantilism both in home industry free trade (international, bc laissez-faire had
field and national trade already been achieved)

Religious Upholders of the Church of England; A more tolerant Church of England: religious
field they stood for an Anglican monopoly toleration (not equality but no persecution,
of public life. (not tolerant) except for Catholics). Difference w. Roundheads:
Anti-Catholics. Roundheads fought for puritanism
Conservative: High Churchmen No longer Puritanism (because of Clarendon
Privileges and prerogatives of the code it practically disappeared and all went to
Church of England Church of E); Protestant monarchy; Anti-
Catholics; pro-Nonconformist
Liberal: Low churchmen
Freedom of worship; freedom of conscience
RELIGIOUS EQUALITY

Legal field Advocates of royal prerogative. Parliamentary supremacy; Further limitations on

Supremacy of the Monarch over the royal prerogative and on executive power.
Law Individual freedom and liberties Right of the
individual to be protected by the Law
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Foreign Peace party: Anti-war (since they War party: Pro-war (because it implied imperial
affairs were landholders, war only means expansion and for them- merchants and traders-
taxation) new territories mean new markets).

The General Elections of 1679 returned an anti-royal majority of members to Parliament:

What immediate action did they take in legal terms? “Habeas Corpus”: The elections returned a majority of
whigs with liberal ideas; the immediate action they took was the passing of habeas corpus act, a
fundamental defense and protection of the individual human rights (no person can be imprisoned
indefinitely unless with the decision taken by a judge, unless they have been brought up before a court).

What did it mean regarding the ideology upheld by them? How significant was it? They were liberals and it
meant the protection of individual rights (not new: in Magna Carta, but its provisions were to protect
interests of big landholders, peers, but with the passing of time these provisions expanded to include more
people), and the supremacy of the law (in a certain way).

How relevant was this measure with regard to the development of democracy? Why? It was very relevant,
the Habeas Corpus still exists today.

The Succession Issue: The Exclusion Crisis

In 1679, the revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked another full-scale political crisis, the Exclusion
Crisis between 1679-1681 which sought to exclude Charles's brother and presumptive heir, James, Duke of
York, from succession on the grounds of his Catholic religion. Charles had no legitimate heir and in an
atmosphere intensely hostile to Catholicism, the prospect of a Catholic successor to the throne was
unpopular. It was believed that if James inherited the throne, he would endanger the Protestant religion and
liberty of the nation. Thus, under Lord Shaftesbury's leadership, the Whigs in the Parliament introduced a
series of bills with the intention of excluding the Duke of York from succession to the throne. The Tories, in
turn, championed the unquestionable divine hereditary right monarchy. The Exclusion Crisis is also
associated with the first age of political parties in England.

How many bills were passed with the aim of excluding the Duke of York from succession to the throne?
Who were the proposed pretenders to the throne? On what grounds? Three exclusion bills were passed
(look up in Britannica). The Tories supported James II while the Whigs didn’t; the Tories expected to
negotiate with James II, who promised he would preserve the Church of England (on his side because they
protected hereditary rights) while the Whigs proposed another candidate. The different exclusion bills
propose different candidates (illegitimate son on the grounds that he was protestant). Charles did not need
parliament because he had money from Louis (renewed offer of money), ruled without parliament until he
died and was succeeded by his brother. The fact that the exclusion bills were not passed meant the defeat
of the Whig party.

How successful were they in achieving the desired goal? They were not successful.

How did Charles respond to each of these attempts? What actions did he take? He dissolved parliament.

How did the issue of succession finally come to an end? James II came to the throne after Charles’s death.
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What did this victory mean both for the winners and the defeated? How did it affect their positions and
power in government? A triumph for the Tories because the exclusion bills failed.

What was Charles II's last action at his deathbed? What did it mean in religious terms? He professed his
Catholicism and received the sacraments. Religious terms meaning: he was a Catholic

Who was crowned the new King of England? James II

Watch the video on THE EXCLUSION CRISIS. Then answer the questions below:

Where is Charles giving this speech? At Parliament

How does he describe the attempts to exclude the Duke of York from the rightful succession to the throne?
As an act of treason

Who is he addressing? The Whigs/Parliament

In the king’s view, what did the rebels’ stance put at risk? The peace of the country (by causing another
civil war)

How does he justify his support for the Duke as the legitimate successor? His right is ordained by God

How does he declare those who deny the Duke’s right to the throne? An enemy of God, King and country.

What is the monarch's last action? He dissolved parliament.

Hence, the first age of political parties is also dated to the Exclusion Crisis and the struggle between the
Whigs and Tories over this issue as the terms “Whig” and “Tory” were increasingly used during the heated
struggle over the succession issue. The crisis witnessed the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-
exclusion Tory parties, i.e, the anti-royal MPs who favoured Protestantism at the expense of the Crown were
by now known as Whigs while their High Church enemies were labelled Tories.

There has been considerable debate over when political parties came into existence in England and when
the terms Whig and Tory were first used as party labels. Whether it was in the wake of the Popish Plot
allegations or during the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), in any case, the Whigs and Tories of the period
1679-85 are regarded as embryonic political parties in England, as the basis of Britain 's two-party
parliamentary system of government and they would dominate politics through the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries.
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Though from its very beginnings the Restoration was overshadowed by disasters, most notably the
outbreak of the great plague in 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666 (which led to the substantial
rebuilding of the city of London), the period had its accomplishments. The Restoration saw the rebirth of
the theater, banned by the Puritan rule for eighteen years, with the re-opening of the theatres in a singular
era of plays and play writing. It was also a golden age for British science with great names such as the
chemist Robert Boyle and the physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton. It was in this period too when
the Royal Society was founded by a royal charter. Finally, Charles's reign saw the consolidation of
colonization and trade and the Passage of Navigation Acts that secured Britain's position as a sea power.

The contractual state: Hobbes and Locke

In the political speculation of the seventeenth century, there were two main types of theory as to the origin
of government. Type one (Divine Right) maintained that God had bestowed power on certain persons, and
that these persons, or their heirs, constituted the legitimate government, rebellion against which is not only
treason, but impiety. The other type of theory (Social Contract) maintained that civil government is the result
of a contract, and is an affair purely of this world, not something established by divine authority. (Russell,
1991, p. 606)

HOBBES

Which of Thomas Hobbes’ works is considered the foundational text of social contract theory? Leviathan
(which is a biblical sea monster). It was the first really robust exploration into why people come together
under government and what makes those governments legitimate and workable.

What did Hobbes explain in this text? When did he write this work? In an age in which the nature and
structure of government was much-debated. Politics were a deadly business and for the first time in world
history non-royal people were getting involved in it. It became possible to publish a book on the questions
of the age; however, by publishing political discourses Hobbes automatically made political enemies, for he
was writing in an age of civil war in England.

How does Hobbes characterize life in nature? Why? Man in nature was brute. “Life in nature is nasty,
brutish, and short”. Marked by competition, warfare, unrest, insecurity, violence. Humans are not what they
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should be. They were fallen creatures and unless they had help from their communities they tended to fall
into disarray.

According to the philosopher, what is the purpose of government? Humans came together and formed a
social contract. They formed governments to solve the discord among humans.

Why did he call his work Leviathan? Humans and society were by nature unruly. Thus, people needed a
central authority, a strong central government. People came together and sacrificed some of their individual
rights to a central authority that would keep peace among people (that was the social contract). The central
authority derived its authority from the people, it would then control them in various ways like a tentacled
sea monster.

What does Hobbes' Leviathan represent? “A multitude so united is called a commonwealth. This ‘Leviathan
is a mortal God” (Russel, p. 535). Thomas Hobbes book Leviathan is foundational to the whole history of
political theory and a good number of the ideas that he pioneered in that work still echo today and how we
study and how we think about political questions.

What kind of government did he advocate? A Monarchy.

Who gave the sovereign the authority to rule? His philosophy had a somewhat Democratic strain to it which
was the strength of central authority whether that be a government or a church really derived from and was
directed at the good of the people (while the philosophy of the age was that individuals governed because
they were given that authority by God).

Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan title-page: The Sovereign holds a sword in his left hand (describes the
instruments of civil order and the capacities wielded by the sovereign) and a crosier in his right hand (right-
hand side outlines the components of ‘spiritual’ sovereignty) thus wielding both secular and religious
power.The body of the Sovereign is constituted by the blurring-together individual bodies of the citizenry,
the co-signers of the social contract, who face away from the viewer and towards the Sovereign.

LOCKE: The father of early Liberalism

What is John Locke's most important political work called? “Two treatises on Government”

Did he believe that political authority was derived from religious authority (also known by the description
of the Divine Right of Kings)? No, it derived from a social contract.

How does Locke characterize the State of Nature? Why? As a state of perfect and complete liberty to
conduct one’s life as one best sees fit, free from the interference of others. Persons are assumed to be
equal to one another in such a state. It is a state of liberty where persons are free to pursue their own
interests and plans, free from interference. The State of Nature, although a state wherein there is no civil
authority or government to punish people for transgressions against laws, is not a state without morality.
Because of the Law of Nature (which was given by God) and the restrictions that it imposes upon persons
(that they not harm others with regards to their “life, health, liberty, or possessions”), it is relatively peaceful.

Why and how, according to the philosopher, are civil governments instituted? What do men seek to
protect/preserve? The state of war begins between two or more men once one man declares war on
another, by stealing from him, or by trying to make him his slave and since the State of Nature lacks civil
authority, once war begins it is likely to continue. Thus, governments are instituted by people through a
social contract in order to protect their private property (including their bodies) and avoid a constant state
of war.
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What is gained once a political society and government are created? Having created a political society
and government through their consent, men then gain three things which they lacked in the State of Nature:
laws, judges to adjudicate laws, and the executive power necessary to enforce these laws. Each man
therefore gives over the power to protect himself and punish transgressors of the Law of Nature to the
government that he has created through the compact.

Can the compact/contract with the government be dissolved? When? The justification of the authority of
the executive component of government is the protection of the people’s property and well-being, so when
such protection is no longer present, or when the king becomes a tyrant and acts against the interests of
the people, they have a right, if not an outright obligation, to resist his authority. The social compact can be
dissolved and the process to create political society begun anew.

Thomas Hobbes John Locke

Leviathan (1651) Two Treatises on Government (1690)

Divine Against Against.

Hereditary The power of governments is instituted The power of governments is instituted by
Right by social contract (an agreement, a social contract. The power of government is a
covenant). The power of government is worldly issue.
a worldly issue.

State of Nasty, brutish and short. Peaceful

nature No property, no justice or injustice but Happiness, order, harmony.
only war. Chaotic. The desire to acquire Men are guided by a common natural law
dominion of the other in order for self- (reason). It is not pre-moral.
preservation leads to war (all against The law of Nature is of Divine origin (passed
all). down by god. Divine commandments.)
No property, commerce or industry. The law of nature teaches to respect others’
Competition for security, glory and property, life and liberty.
dominion of others. Problem: some men do not abide by the natural
● Equality and liberty (men are law and harm others: this causes chaos and
free. No man above the other) there is a need for an impartial entity to put an
end to the conflict.

● Equality and liberty (men are free. No

man above the other)

Purpose To escape the evils of the state of To settle down conflicts and be impartial (a
(social nature. common judge) and bring peace and order.
contract) To put an end to the state of war Preservation of wealth, life, liberty and well-
To bring about peace and order. being in general through laws, judges to
adjudicate laws, and the executive power
Final aim: self preservation: to avoid necessary to enforce these laws.
men’s self-destruction
Final aim: to protect the basic natural rights:
liberty, property and life (but most importantly,
governments are created for the protection of
PROPERTY, which is the fruit of one’s own
labor)
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Characteri Sovereign has unlimited power and Citizens do not lose their rights, they preserve
stics there is no right to rebellion. Tyranny them all: Citizens can rebel and governments
(social and despotism is better than anarchy can be deposed for misgovernment or if they
contract) and chaos (we must avoid self act tyrannically (when the government fails to
destruction). The ruler cannot be protect the basic individual rights; when he fails
deposed for misgovernment. to comply with his part of the agreement).
Absolutism The government’s power is limited and the
Citizens lose all their rights (except that agreement is terminable and renewable.
of self-preservation). All their rights are System of checks and balances: division of
surrendered to the civil government. power (executive, legislative, judiciary, of which
Agreement: to confer power upon a the legislative and the executive are the most
common authority to rule them. important: the legislative is virtuous and the
Entitling a ruler with the power to executive is evil- emphasis on the role of the
govern. Government chosen by the legislative=parliament): this prevents the abuse
majority. of power. (Constitutional monarchy). Parliament
Complete submission and subjugation is the governing body, not the Monarch (who
of citizens to central authorities’ rule only has a symbolic role).
and will. Absolute monarchy is no form of civil
Property is controlled and created by government (it is not neutral).
the civil government. Religious toleration (except for Catholicism,
The contract is endless.Non-terminable which undermines the security of the realm)
and non-renewable. For Locke, the only ones who reckoned as
Succession is decided by the civil ruler. citizens are property-owners (not the poor and
not women); so his government ideals were not
Exception: when the sovereign can’t entirely democratic.
ensure self-preservation. This is the
only time when the citizen can rebel
against the ruler (when the ruler
threatens his integrity, his life).

Parties Unilateral (among citizens:only white Bilateral (citizens + government)

(social adult males)-Only one party. Government is a party, both parties make
contract) The ruler is not a party and thus is not compromises.
bound to the agreement, makes no
compromises.

*Sovereign means “that who has the

sovereignty to rule (not just the
monarch, even if Hobbes preferred the
monarchy)

James I and the Glorious Revolution

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What was the Glorious Revolution? Glorious Revolution, also called Revolution of 1688 or Bloodless
Revolution, in English history, the events of 1688–89 that resulted in the deposition of James II and the
accession of his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, prince of Orange and stadtholder of the
United Provinces of the Netherlands.

What issues led to its outbreak? James II’s attempt to go over Parliament, to re-catholicize England, and
as a more immediate cause, the birth of his son (so protestant Mary would no longer be the heir-apparent).

James was very openly Catholic and his main support came from the Tory ministers of the Church of
England. The English were very anti-catholic they felt that Catholicism was a tyrannical religion one that
Catholic rulers like king louis xiv of france we're going to enslave them. When James II came to the throne
he had a parliament that was ready to obey him but he insisted on making army officers out of Catholics,
and appointing them to local government positions, which violated the laws passed in the 1660s and 1670s
(the Test Act that required you had to swear an oath you were not a Catholic in order to hold office). The
feeling became widespread that the king was trying to impose Catholicism on the people and that he was
also outing people from local positions of power to replace them with his Catholic favorites. there was a lot
of unrest; he dissolved parliament when it wouldn't go along with the Catholic officers and attempted to
rule without parliament. In June 1688 his second wife had a son and this had tremendous consequences
because his heir before that was his daughter Mary from her first marriage, who was a Protestant and was
married to William of Orange. The birth of this son caused a problem because the son took precedence
under the rules that have only been recently changed by the Queen and he would be raised as a Catholic.
Seven Englishmen wrote William a letter shortly after the birth of the Prince calling on him to come over to
England to restore the English Constitution to to assert the rights of a free parliament. In secret William
assembled this army of 25,000 men. The King assembled an army as well but when William arrived many
officers deserted him so he fled to France and William’s troops took over London. William does not just
declare himself king he calls for the election of another Parliament. After some negotiations the Parliament
adopts a Declaration of Right and also decides to make William King and his wife Mary as Queen.

At the time of his succession, James II enjoyed a very strong position on the throne.

How can you back up this contention? Who supported him? What rights was he granted? The Whigs and
others who had wanted to exclude him from the throne had been thoroughly beaten in the years 1681-3. He
enjoyed a wide range of loyal support from previous Trimmers and non-party men as well as from courtiers,
Tories, and people in general (who wanted to avoid another civil war). The House of Commons of 1685 was
very favorable to the Crown and voted James a larger, peacetime revenue than any king had ever had before.
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

Nevertheless, James lost all this support in a few years. Why? The king’s policies were a threat to the
predominance of the established church and of the upper class. Discontent grew among the people due to
the king’s favoritism towards his Roman Catholic subjects and his attempts to set aside the laws of
Parliament. He was determined to restore the Church of England to the Catholic religion. He increased
brutality and repressiveness of government (“Bloody Assize”) and judges were again being used to serve
the government’s political ends. He also excluded from government middle-of-the-road men and replaced
them by his Catholic friends.

What unlawful actions did he take? Why were these illegal acts? James began to pack the Army with
catholic officers, undertook a further remodelling of local government by installing catholics or whoever
collaborated with his designs (and ousting even Tory protestants), and even selected Catholics for college
positions in universities such as Oxford, which was illegal according to the Test Act (he was going against
the law and the religion of the country). He also prorogued parliament in 1685 and then dissolved it without
another meeting, which was felt as an attack on parliament itself because it was an assault on rights and
privileges.

What measures did he take in the religious field? What was his aim? How successful were they? Why?
Two attempts at declaration of indulgence (1687, 1688). He set up an “Ecclesiastical Commission” as an
instrument of his re-catholicizing policy. He also tried to force the clergy of the Church of England to support
his policy of Indulgence, that is, of religious toleration by use of the prerogative (freedom of worship to
Catholics). This resulted in a great constitutional law case of the century, that of “the Seven Bishops”. Seven
bishops petitioned the king against this use of the dispensing power, and against his compelling them to
publicize his Declaration, which they held to be illegal. James had them charged with seditious libel.
Eventually, the jury found in favor of the Bishops, who were acquitted, and this was the first major law case
to go against the executive under either monarchy or republic. It marks the emancipation of the judiciary.

Did James give up his attempts at turning England back to Catholicism? No

What unexpected event - regarded as the immediate cause of the Glorious Revolution - reinforced James's
religious aim for the country? Why? What did this happening entail for the religious prospect of the nation?
In June 1688 the catholic Queen had a son. Until then the heir-apparent had been the Protestant Princess
Mary, married to WIlliam of Orange, but now it was to be this infant, who was going to be raised as a
Catholic. The possibility of an unending succession of catholic kings was not acceptable for the people.

How was this threat confronted? What course actions did Parliament take? What political party/parties
took up those measures? A small group of leading men, Tories as well as Whigs, decided to invite William
of Orange over to put things to rights. This invitation cut across party lines.

What was the political significance of this joint action? Political unity against king

How did the monarch respond to such measures? How successful was he? The king raised his own army
to fight William, but he lost support from the people and his closest allies. He finally flees the country (he
goes to France).

Who came to rule the country then? What reasons were pleaded? William of Orange made military and
naval preparations, and together with Mary they invaded England. The people wanted them to rule because
they were Protestant.

Why did they qualify as the new rulers of England? On what grounds? The throne had been vacated by
James’s flight to France and William and Mary were declared King and Queen jointly and in their own right,
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

but the throne should be offered to them by Parliament. They were chosen on the grounds that they were
protestant.

What did the arrival of the new rulers imply with respect to the principles of divine and hereditary rights
of the monarchy? William became king by Parliament's election, not by right of birth. So the proper relations
between a monarch and his or her subjects were considered to be contractual. It was the first time that a
social contract was established with a ruler.

On what conditions did they come to the throne? What document stipulated them? Under the conditions
included in the Declaration of Rights (which then became a Bill and an Act).

What Act was passed by Parliament in 1689? What did it outline? Find out about its most significant
provisions. The Bill of Rights. First, it declared that the succession to the throne was to be exclusively
Protestant. Secondly, Parliament had to be freely elected, to have freedom of speech and meet frequently,
and there was to be no taxation without its consent. Thirdly, the crown could neither interfere in the
execution of law nor suspend the law. Fourthly, there was to be no standing army in time of peace except
by consent of Parliament. It also set out some of the main grievances against James’ government.

Were the principles laid down in this document new in the political history of the country? Why? /Why not?
Most of the principles in the document were not new. They had been introduced in Magna Carta and gained
by Parliament, but the Stuarts disregarded them.

What new principle did the document introduce with regard to prospective rulers of the country? What
was its political and religious significance? The succession to the throne had to be Protestant. It lays the
foundation of the constitutional monarchy (establishes the supremacy of parliament over the monarch, and
the permanency of parliament in government). Finally the liberal aim of Constitutional Monarchy was
achieved.

What did the concepts embodied in this document imply regarding both royal and parliamentary power
and prerogatives? The monarchy was no longer absolutely powerful and Parliament was now more
powerful than the king.

Why was this Revolution dubbed “Glorious”? The 'Glorious Revolution' was called 'glorious' because all of
the objectives and goals of the revolutionaries were achieved without any bloodshed.

What did the Glorious Revolution mean in the political history of England? What was its political
achievement? What system of government was then set up? It led to the rise of a parliamentary or
constitutional monarchy. Parliament became a necessary and permanent governing body.

Define this system of government and explain how it works. A constitutional monarchy is a political system
in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government. Monarchs in constitutional
monarchies act as symbolic heads of state while waiving most political power.

The Bill of Rights established a framework of government by and for the governed. Whose theory of
government does it seem to reflect? Why? It reflects Locke’s theory, because the government is a party in
the social contract and must abide by it.

What did then the relationship between the king and his people come to be? A contractual relationship.

What was one of the most important outcomes of the Glorious Revolution? Why? What did it mean for
democracy? What other major document did its adoption inspire? The most important outcome was that
an English Bill of Rights was adopted; this set of laws gave Parliament more power than the monarch and,
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

because it represented such a victory for democracy, the English Bill of Rights served as a major inspiration
to the framers of the Constitution of the United States.

Soon after the passing of this Bill, Parliament issued four subsequent Acts. Find out about the names of
these acts and inquire into the provisions of each and their implications.

1: The Financial Control Act (1689): Every year the monarch had to present before Parliament an estimate
of the spending of the next year (what is called now the budget). 2.The Army Control Act (1689): The army
is only made legal by an Act passed every year, the Army Annual Act. 3.The Mutiny Act (1689): It gave the
control of the army for the monarch only for one year. If he wanted to renew that right, he had to summon
parliament. 4.The Triennial Act (1894): it stated not only that a parliament should meet, but that there should
be a general election for a new one every three years.

With what aim did Parliament pass these further pieces of legislation? To safeguard the principles of the
Bill of Rights. The greater length, frequency and regularity of parliamentary sittings, marks its assumption
of the central place in the government of the country. By these Acts, Parliament assumed a power superior
to the Crown, because it established the principle of government by King and Parliament: an executive
in harmony with a sovereign legislative.

On the basis of your previous answers and analysis, explain and support the following assertion: The
Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 finally and definitively safeguarded Parliament ‘s position as a necessary
and permanent part in the machinery of government.

The Glorious Revolution and its impact on the religious field

In the religious field, the Glorious Revolution brought about an important achievement with the issuance
of theToleration Act of 1689. Find out about its provisions and then answer these questions:

What did it grant? To whom? It ensured a minimum measure of freedom for actual religious worship to
Trinitarian protestants. Catholics were still deliberately excluded, as well as Unitarians, Quakers and non-
Christians. *Catholics were not penalized/persecuted as they had been before, but religious toleration was
greater for Protestant groups.

Who particularly sponsored the passing of this Act? Why? On what grounds? William, who was a Calvinist.
He was not a man to put religion before principles of state, but in faith he was certainly nearer to his
Presbyterian or Congregationalist than to his Anglican subjects, and he favored practical toleration. The
Declaration of Right established certain conditions, among them: he wanted to grant religious toleration
because though he was a protestant, he was an open minded man and tolerant and wanted to devote
energies to economic growth and not religious struggles. Thus, he’s responsible for the passing of the act;
he also insisted on granting religious equality but he was not successful because parliament would not
support him on this, but religious toleration was successful; people were no longer persecuted or penalized
because of their religion.

How did Parliament react to his insistence on the passing of this Act? The majority of parliament upheld
the liberal ideas and thus supported religious toleration (but not equality).

Did the Toleration Act also provide for religious equality too? Why? / Why not? When and how was
religious equality finally achieved? Religious toleration: free to worship god (or freedom of conscience) in
your own way: not the same as equality: no matter your religion you can occupy any position in government
(only Anglicans because of Test Act: it prevailed until 1828 when the test act and the corporation act of the
clarendon code were repealed).
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(*): “The Toleration Act was a triumph (...) for liberal, progressive principles. It was a recognition that
different religions could co-exist within the framework of a single political unit or state without disrupting
it.”

The population in Ireland was Catholic. They were regarded as second-class citizens and were deprived of
many rights.

Watch this video in which Professor Eric Foner - one of USA's most prominent historians - comments on
the Glorious Revolution and the principle of religious toleration. Then answer the given questions

What triggered off the Glorious Revolution? Fear in England that the monarch was moving towards
reestablishing Catholicism or giving greater toleration to roman Catholics.

How does the American historian describe the Glorious Revolution? What term does he use to define it?
Why? A group of protestants and supporters of Parliament brought in William of Orange, in a “coup d’
etat”, to overthrow James and become William III.

To what extent did the Glorious Revolution advance ideas of religious toleration, rights and liberties?
Shortly after William’s assumption a decree of religious toleration was passed for Protestant groups (it did
not include Catholics). People who were not members of the Church of England could not go to university
or hold public office, but they could practice their own religion without interference.

How did the principle of toleration impact on the American colonies? The English government forced
Massachusetts to adopt the principle of religious toleration.Puritans had been intolerant by that time: non
puritans were executed or expelled.The Glorious Revolution represented an attempt to end the years of
battles among different rpotestant denominations as to what would be the best official form of
worship.Religious liberty grows because of the need to attract settlers and the right to worship as you
please becomes a major incentive for people to migrate from Europe to the new world. So, in a sense, in the
competition for population, more and more colonies by the 18th century adopted religious toleration in order
to attract more people to settle; they had to build up their economies.

Effects and Significance

Scan the following excerpts by different scholars assessing the effects and significance of the Glorious
Revolution for the English nation. Then, based on them and on what you have read and analyzed, complete
the chart below considering its achievements and importance in the different fields. Finally, answer the
given questions

Like the Civil War of 1642, the Glorious Revolution, as the political results of the events of 1688 were called,
was completely unplanned and unprepared for. It was hardly a revolution, more a coup d’etate by the ruling
class. But the fact that Parliament made William king, not by inheritance but by their choice, was
revolutionary. Parliament was now beyond question more powerful than the king, and would remain so. Its
power over the monarch was written into the Bill of Rights in 1689. The king was now unable to raise taxes
or keep an army without the agreement of Parliament, or to act against any MP for what he said or did in
Parliament. (McDowall, D. An Illustrated History of Britain: 95)

With the arrival of king William, many of the religious and political issues that stemmed from the
Reformation had been settled, and Protestantism in its Anglican English and Presbyterian Scottish forms
had won decided victories. Although the monarchy was still powerful, the battle to impose limits on it had
been won. (Adapted from Burns, W. A Brief History of Great Britain: 124)
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By the Bill of Rights of 1689, Parliament assumed a power superior to the Crown, because it established the
principle of government by King and Parliament: an executive in harmony with a sovereign legislative. It has
been called the “Bible of English Liberty”; it was the victory of law upon arbitrary power; of democracy upon
monarchy. (Adapted from Elgue-Martini, C. The Growth of Democracy in England)

The Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 (…) was the keystone of the Whig (those opposed to a Catholic
succession) history of Britain […] The events of the revolution were bloodless and the revolution settlement
established the supremacy of parliament over the crown, setting Britain on the path towards constitutional
monarchy and parliamentary democracy. (Adapted from Vallance, E. The Glorious Revolution: 1688 and
Britain’s Fight for Liberty)

If we take the revolution to encompass the whole of William III’s reign, it certainly imposed limitations on
royal authority […] William’s wars profoundly changed the British state. Their massive cost led not only to
growth of modern financial institutions - most notably the Bank of England founded in 1694 - but also to
greater scrutiny of crown expenditure through parliamentary committees of accounts. The bureaucracy
required to harvest all this money grew exponentially too. (Adapted from Vallance, E. The Glorious
Revolution: 1688 and Britain’s Fight for Liberty)

The Glorious Revolution, also called Revolution of 1688 or Bloodless Revolution, in English history, the
events of 1688–89 that resulted in the deposition of James II and the accession of his daughter Mary II and
her husband, William III, Prince of Orange and stadtholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. […]
The settlement marked a considerable triumph for Whig views. If no Roman Catholic could be king, then no
kingship could be unconditional. The adoption of the exclusionist solution lent support to John Locke’s
contention that government was in the nature of a social contract between the king and his people
represented in Parliament. The revolution permanently established Parliament as the ruling power of
England. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Field Achievements

Political 1.The Constitutional or Parliamentary monarchy was established (a monarchy in which

(most the nation is represented through parliament, and parliament checks and limits the
important) power of the monarch: parliament became a permanent- cannot be dissolved- and
necessary- government is exercised through the passing of legislation- part in the
machine of government). Parliament finally became the supreme governing body.
2.It meant the end of the Divine Right of the monarch: the monarchs were not appointed
by God but by Parliament (William and Mary came to rule not by the grace of God but
invited by Parliament). “ It was hardly a revolution, more a coup d'etat by the ruling class.
But the fact that Parliament made William king, not by inheritance but by their choice,
was revolutionary.” (The Hereditary concept, however, was kept: still family succession
to the throne).
3.Checks and limits to royal powers (no standing army, for example).
4.Supremacy of Parliament: the monarch needs the consent and approval of parliament
to govern. It became a necessary and permanent part of the government, it was not to
be dissolved by the government.
5. Emergence of the Cabinet: ministerial group in charge of several departments (health,
finance, etc.). They belong to the same political party (the party in office; although at first
both Tories and Whigs were appointed, they ended up being only Whigs).
6. Marks the victory of the Whig party (liberal ideals) and period of Whig ascendancy.

Economic 1.Consolidation of Laissez-faire in home industry consolidated/strengthened (already

 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

attained in the Civil War)- opposite of Mercantilism. Mercantilism still remained in the
international sphere. Cromwell had already supported this ideal. State control in the
economy of the country was abandoned. (Free trade in foreign commerce had not been
achieved yet: Corn Laws and Navigation Acts meant governmental control).
2. Capitalism was consolidated.
3. Establishment of the Bank of England in 1694. Growth of modern financial institutions
-(Bank of England).

Social Triumph of the Whigs, who socially speaking were mainly from the higher middle classes
(merchants and traders, small landholders from the South, professional men: lawyers,
business men, etc.). It meant the further consolidation of the commercial and money
interests of the capitalists.

Religious 1.Religious toleration (achieved by means of the Toleration Act. Religious persecutions
finished, freedom of conscience was granted to dissenters/nonconformists: the focus
of the toleration was on Protestants), not equality (there were still civil disabilities for
those not belonging to the Anglican Church).
2. Protestantism in its Anglican English had won decided victories.

Legal 1.The royal right to suspend legislation was abolished.It meant the achievement of the
principle of the supremacy of the law. The monarch was to respect the law as any other
ordinary citizen.
2.Iindependence of the judiciary (the monarch had lost the prerogative to pardon with
the Bill of Right).
3. It also meant the consolidation of another legal principle that had been achieved with
Magna Carta but had also been disregarded: Habeas Corpus Act (safeguards the
individual right of liberty).

International Consolidation of the capitalist system and the further growth of trade and expansion of
the market. England consolidated as the dominant colonial, commercial and maritime
power. The Whigs were a pro-war party, since it implied the encouragement of the
military industry and victories meant acquisition of territories (=expansion of markets),
which benefited them. (Tories against war because of taxes).

*”Hereditary” is not correct because the hereditary principle was kept, since Mary (William’s wife) was
James II’s daughter.

Laissez-faire means “dejar hacer”.

Whose political victory did the Glorious Revolution embody? It was a victory for both the Tories and the
Whigs; it marked the restoration of upper class supremacy.

What ideology prevailed with the Glorious Revolution? That of the Whigs.

Whose political theory of the Social Contract succeeded and was materialized with the Glorious
Revolution of 1688-89? Explain and support your answer. Locke 's theory. (Quote Britannica above).

William III and the origins of the Cabinet

The cabinet system of government originated in Great Britain and developed from the Privy Council in the
17th and early 18th centuries. The English monarchs regularly consulted leading members of the Privy
Council in order to reach decisions before meeting with the more unwieldy full council. The Cabinet Council,
 Bassi, Azul- Donzelli, Martina

properly so-called, dates from the reign of William III and from the year 1693. It was some years after the
Revolution of 1688 that king William adopted the two basic and fundamental principles of cabinet
government. First, that a cabinet/ministry should be composed of members identified with each other and
holding the same political principles and, secondly, that the ministry should stand upon a parliamentary
basis, that is, its members are drawn from the party or political faction that holds a majority in the House
of Commons. Hence, for a cabinet to maintain itself in power it should have the support of a majority in the
Commons and, unity in a political party proved the best way to organize support for a cabinet within the
House of Commons.

Following the Glorious Revolution, the enactment of the Bill of Rights initiated a period of political
experiment. The balance of power had shifted significantly towards Parliament and King William, unwilling
to opt for “party” government, appointed a mixed ministry. However, disagreements within this mixed
ministry of Whigs and Tories did not take long to emerge, being William's costly policy of intervention in
Europe one of the main sources of tension. Once on the throne, one of William's main aims was to reinforce
the struggle against his traditional enemy Louis XIV. William's foreign policy was dominated by the priority
to contain French expansionism and protect his Dutch homeland. Thus, England and the Dutch once again
joined in a coalition against France during 1689-97. But the monarch's belligerent policy was costly in
terms of finance and his popularity. The war lurched from failure to failure, year by year the financial costs
and military expenditures mounted thus leading England to accumulate more debt. All of this turned out in
William's unpopularity and opposition to his foreign policy. Now the Tories, who had fully supported him at
the times of the Revolution, opposed and condemned his military campaigns. For the monarch, the most
pressing problem was money, an issue which the Whigs would soon help him deal with.

The first three general elections held under The Triennial Act (which ensured frequent general elections)
returned a Whig majority to Parliament. Traditionally associated with the money and business interests, the
Whigs stood for policies aimed at fueling production, boosting trade, ensuring stable markets, and acquiring
new ones. Naturally, the Whigs were pro-belligerence as wars and military campaigns would serve their
economic aims. Aware of this and recognising the advisability of selecting a Ministry from the political party
with the majority in the Commons, in 1696 William appointed a Ministry composed only of Whigs so as to
secure funds for his campaigns. It was the Whigs now who would assist William and, in doing so,
consolidate their position in government. Showing their support for the King’s interests and objectives, in
1694, the Whigs - in alliance with the London mercantile establishment - founded the Bank of England to
finance the monarch's war by borrowing. However, its foundation and the creation of a funded national
debt did not loosen the King's financial reliance on Parliament, as the national debt depended on
parliamentary guarantees. The establishment of the Bank of England greatly helped the government to prop
up its creditworthiness and avert the crisis. Likewise, it considerably enhanced the role of Parliament in
government and the power of the Whigs allowing them to dominate government despite William’s will.

Rounding off: XVII TH C: STUART ENGLAND

The history of the seventeenth century saw a contest between Parliament and the King for predominance
in the State. In the middle of the century the two sides took the sword and fought it out, and by the end of
the Stuart period Crown and Parliament had almost ceased to be rivals and again become partners, but with
their relative positions reversed from what they had been under the Tudors. (Ashley, M. England in the
Seventeenth Century: 43)

The Stuart monarchs, from James I onwards, were less successful than the Tudors. They quarrelled with
Parliament and this resulted in civil war. The only king of England ever to be tried and executed was a Stuart.
The republic that followed was even more unsuccessful, and by popular demand the dead king's son was
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called back to the throne. Another Stuart king was driven from his throne by his own daughter and her Dutch
husband, William of Orange. William became king by Parliament's election, not by right of birth. When the
last Stuart, Queen Anne, died in 1714, the monarchy was no longer absolutely powerful as it had been when
James VI rode south from Scotland in 1603. It had become a “parliamentary monarchy” controlled by a
constitution.

These important changes did not take place simply because the Stuarts were bad rulers. They resulted
from a basic change in society. During the seventeenth century economic power moved even faster into
the hands of the merchant and landowning farmer classes. The Crown could no longer raise money or
govern without their cooperation. These groups were represented by the House of Commons. In return for
money the Commons demanded political power. The victory of the Commons and the classes it
represented was unavoidable. (McDowall, David. (1989). An Illustrated History of Britain: 87)

(*):It is called “Glorious” because it was bloodless and because for its political significance (One of the most
important steps in the democratization of England because of the Constitutional Monarchy). Bloodless:
because both political parties got together and invited William and Mary for the sake of the constitution and
the church of the country.

England was not democratic in 1688 yet. Compositionally, just a small fraction of the people was
represented

Charity Schools
Charity schools began to save the poor from ignorance, but not to give them ideas above their station.
(Ashley, England in the Seventeenth Century, p. 159)

Type of English elementary school which aimed at educating the children of the poor.

● Sometimes known as ‘Blue schools’ or ‘Green schools’, after the colour of the distinctive uniform provided.

● Others were referred to as ‘hospitals’ → boarding (hospitality) for city orphans.

● Poor-teaching quality

Beginnings

Context → escalating numbers of children growing up in destitution due to rapid

urbanization and a rising population

Main aims:

To provide food, clothes, and lodging to destitute or orphaned children (to alleviate poverty).To provide an
elementary education and, possibly, an apprenticeship. To preserve social order. To give students the
grounding in the vernacular necessary before the study of Latin

Type of education

• Religious instruction was always prominent.

• The attitudes of frugality, gratitude, and subordination were emphasized.

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• By reading the Bible, they would discover God’s great plan and accept their humble place in society. The
schools did not exist to develop their intellectual powers, not to steer them towards equality of opportunity.
Such conceptions were outside their range. (Jones M.G., 1938, p.74)

The rise of science and the age of experiment

Almost everything that distinguishes the modern world from earlier centuries is attributable to science,
which achieved its most spectacular triumphs in the seventeenth century. (Russell, 1991, p. 512)

According to B. Russell, which are the two merits the men who founded modern science had? Why were
these virtues so important in the 16th and 17th centuries? The two merits were immense patience in
observation, and great boldness in framing hypotheses. The two virtues combined together led to
discoveries and hypotheses of unparalleled importance, which were based on empirical observation.

How did all the developments and discoveries in the field of science affect man and his position in the
universe? In the anthropocentric medieval era, man was believed to be the center of the universe. After
Copernicus’ heliocentric theory and the further discoveries of the 16 th and 17 th centuries (including the
relativity of space and time), man was no longer the center of the universe and the Earth was not the center
of heavens anymore.

What was the Royal Society? When was it founded? Which was its main aim? Mention two of its most
outstanding members. The Royal Society was a scientific association. Its origins can be traced back to
1645, when certain philosophers formed an ‘Invisible College’ and meetings took place at Oxford during the
Interregnum. In November 1660 the Society was founded, aiming at founding a permanent institution to
promote experiments in physics and mathematics. Two of the most outstanding members were Robert
Boyle and Isaac Newton.

SCIENTIST CONTRIBUTIONS

Rise of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Heliocentric theory of the solar systems (Earth
Science and planets go round the Sun)

Heavenly motions: circular, uniform and eternal

Galileo Galilei (1564-1641) telescope; empirical observations supporting the

heliocentric theory
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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) three laws of planetary motion; elliptical

planetary orbits

Age of Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Inductive Method

Experiment

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Law of universal gravitation

Hanoverian England
Introduction

Hanoverian England also often called “Georgian England” was a remarkably stable period. Stability, liberty,
and improvement were the 18th century’s defining characteristics. Politically, the era saw stability, the
consolidation of the constitutional monarchy, and of the parliamentary system dominated by a social elite.
For vast tracts of the eighteenth century, Whiggism dominated politics while Toryism diminished its
domination, mainly as a consequence of Whig victory in the Hanoverian succession. That is why the period
between 1714 and 1760 is often referred to as the Whig ascendancy. Also, in the political field, it was in this
period when the office of the first Prime Minister emerged, and important reforms of the franchise were
introduced to widen the electorate. Economically, in the course of this century, Britain built the world’s most
advanced economy. In the 18th century, the British economy was transformed by the so-called Industrial
Revolution. England had several advantages in being the first country to become industrialized. Economic
expansion was initially based on a series of technical, mechanical, and organizational innovations
introduced in the textile industry which led to new forms of labor. At the same time, the Industrial Revolution
brought about deep social changes, especially the rise of new social classes (the industrial capitalists and
working classes) and the growth of urbanization. It was also in this age that Britain built the world’s largest
empire. Although towards the end of the century she attended the outbreak of the American Revolution and
the subsequent loss of the American colonies, Britain came to acquire much of her overseas empire, largely
through foreign conquest in the various wars of the period against other European colonial powers
especially France. Overall, the 18th century displayed political stability and an era of prosperity and growth
for Britain. It was in this period that the United Kingdom of Great Britain consolidated as the dominant global
maritime power as witnessed by the fact that towards the end of the Hanoverian period, the British Empire
covered a third of the globe.

Last but not least, the 18th century is often identified as the century of the European Enlightenment, a period
that Thomas Paine called the Age of Reason. The Enlightenment, especially prominent in France, was a
philosophical, intellectual, and cultural movement during the 17th and 18th Centuries, which stressed the
use and celebration of reason, logic, and freedom of thought over dogma and blind faith. Central to
Enlightenment thought was the sovereignty of reason and science as the primary sources of knowledge
and as the driving forces behind progress and social advancement, the social goal by the movement
promoted. Heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, some
of the most important representatives of the Enlightenment were the French, especially the writer Voltaire
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and the political philosopher Montesquieu. Other important philosophers were the compilers of the
Encyclopédie, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, among other names. Other prominent
figures included Kant, Goethe, and Adam Smith.

Although it was not always the focus in the intellectual history of 18th-century England, the Enlightenment
was definitely a strong presence. Many of the most characteristic features of the Enlightenment originated
in England. Actually, some of the most prominent Enlightened intellectuals of late 18th-century England
were the chemist and materialist philosopher Joseph Priestley, the political philosopher Richard Price and
the historian Edward Gibbon, the 18th-century English writer most strongly identified with the
Enlightenment. Many of the ideas and values of the Enlightenment were spread in England by gatherings of
intellectuals and businessmen who highlighted the contributions of science and philosophy to economic
development, as these fields were also sources of the Industrial Revolution. These English thinkers of the
eighteenth century included remarkable names such as the leading Enlightenment philosopher and
scientist, Joseph Priestley, the great engineer James Watt (inventor of the steam engine), among others,
who made major contributions in different fields.

The Hanoverian succession

On James II's flight, forced by The Glorious Revolution of 1688-89, Prince William of Orange and his wife
Mary (James II's elder daughter) became joint sovereigns as William III and Mary II, after being invited to
come “to the rescue of the laws and religion of England.” Having produced no heir to the throne, and in
compliance with the Bill of Rights (1689) - which denied the crown to any Roman Catholic-, James and his
Catholic descendants were excluded from the throne. Thus, in 1701, to make sure only a Protestant could
inherit the Crown, Parliament passed the Act of Settlement securing the succession to Mary's protestant
sister, Anne. Likewise, the Act provided that if Anne also died without children, the crown would pass to
Sophia, electress of Hanover (a granddaughter of James I who had married Palatine, the German elector
of Hanover) and her children. Hence, on Queen Anne's death in 1714, according to the Act of Settlement,
Sophia's son and heir George Louis - Elector of Hanover - became the new King of England as George I,
thus marking the beginnings of a new dynasty, the House of Hanover, and bringing to an end an era of more
than one hundred years of Stuarts' rule since 1603.

Act of settlement: Act of Settlement, (June 12, 1701), act of Parliament that, since 1701, has regulated the
succession to the throne of Great Britain. It was designed to secure the Protestant succession to the throne,
and to strengthen the guarantees for ensuring a parliamentary system of government. The Act of
Settlement reinforced the Bill of Rights, in that it strengthened the principle that government was undertaken
by the Sovereign and his or her constitutional advisers (i.e. his or her Ministers), not by the Sovereign and
any personal advisers whom he or she happened to choose. The Act also laid down the conditions under
which the Crown could be held. No Roman Catholic, nor anyone married to a Roman Catholic, could hold
the Crown. The Sovereign now had to swear to maintain the Church of England. The Act of Settlement not
only addressed the dynastic and religious aspects of succession, it also further restricted the powers and
prerogatives of the Crown.

Electorate of Hanover: Hanover, German Hannover, former state of northwestern Germany, first an
electorate (1692–1806) of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Hanoverian dynasty provided six monarchs

George I (1714 -1727)

George II (1727-1760)
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George III (1760 - 1820)

George IV (1820 - 1830): Achievement of religious toleration*

William IV (1830 - 1837)

Victoria (1837–1901): Queen Victoria was the last reigning member of this Royal House. She died in 1901,
bringing an end to the House of Hanover. At her death, the throne passed to her eldest son Edward VII, a
member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (the family name of his father Prince Albert) which King
George V renamed the House of Windsor in 1917 due to the anti-German feeling during the First World War.
The British Royal Family's official name Windsor was adopted from Windsor Castle.

* The Catholic emancipation or Catholic relief was a process in the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland
in the late 18th century and early 19th century that involved reducing and removing many of the restrictions
on Roman Catholics introduced by the Act of Uniformity, the Test Acts and the penal laws. After the
Reformation, Roman Catholics in Britain had been bullied by numerous restrictions. In Britain, Roman
Catholics could not purchase land, hold civil or military offices or seats in Parliament, inherit property, or
practice their religion freely without incurring civil penalties. A Roman Catholic in Ireland could not vote in
Parliamentary elections and could be dispossessed of his land by Protestants. The passage of the Catholic
Relief Act of 1829 was a very significant measure as it removed the most substantial restrictions on Roman
Catholicism in the United Kingdom. Its passing was the outcome of a vigorous campaign that threatened
insurrection led by Irish lawyer Daniel O'Connell. Although initially opposed, in 1829, the Consevative Prime
Minister, the Duke of Wellington, and his Home Secretary, Robert Peel - to avoid civil conflicts - gave in and
introduced the proposals for the Roman Catholic Relief Bill which would admit Roman Catholics to
Parliament, enable them to hold most offices under the Crown, vote in elections, and serve in all municipal
and civil offices. The Act was finally passed also despite the initial serious opposition from both the House
of Lords and King George IV. The passing of the Catholic Relief Act of 1829 - together with the Repeal of
the Test and Corporation Acts in the previous year (1828) - marked a great breakthrough step in English
political power and in the achievement of religious equality. From now onwards, English and Irish Roman
Catholics were admitted to Parliament and to all but a handful of public offices: the Sovereign, the Regent
and the Lord Chancellor (even today).

Whig Ascendancy

In the political history of England in the eighteenth century, the balance of parties was determined on the
accession of George I. The Whigs acquired an ascendancy so complete that their adversaries were scarcely
able even to modify the course of legislation, and that dominance continued without intermission, and
almost without obstruction, for more than forty-five years. For this reason, this period of Whig ascendancy
roughly between 1714 and 1760 is often referred to as the Whig Oligarchy.

Shortly after George I’s succession, the Whigs seized power as they considered themselves the party of the
Hanoverian succession after having staunchly supported the German ruler's accession to the English throne
against the Stuarts’ claim. During the reigns of both George I and his son George II, the Whigs had a personal
ascendancy over both rulers. Much of the Whig leadership was accused of corruption which brought about
struggles and disagreement among Whig factions who opposed others in power. The control the Whigs
exercised over the Hanoverian kings made it unlikely that Tories would ever come back into power. Toryism
steadily diminished throughout this period, although it never entirely disappeared. Its main focus remained
the defense of the Church of England. Having ushered George I into power, the Whigs, soon gained control
of the government. George was aware that he owed his crown to the Whigs and that his position depended
on their loyalty and support. As might be expected, he formed a predominantly Whig ministry.
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GEORGE I, George Louis elector of Hanover (Germany) : First Hanoverian king of Great Britain and Ireland
who came to the throne fully supported by the Whigs on grounds of his protestant faith. He spoke little
English and did not like his new country. He returned to Hanover whenever he could. Both George I and his
successor George II were considered foreigners by many British people and at first neither king was much
liked.

GEORGE I, George Louis elector of Hanover (Germany)

Being a foreigner and not seeming very interested in his new kingdom, George was far from being a popular
king in England. This, added to the fact that he could not speak English forced him to rely on his ministers
for communication with his subjects. Despite these facts, George attempted diligently to fulfill his
obligations to his new kingdom. However, he often found it difficult to get his way in domestic politics for
what he often met with key ministers in private. Among the king's ministers was first Lord of the Treasury,
the Whig leader Robert Walpole, a man with great financial ability, on whose judgment the monarch came
to rely completely, giving him a free hand in the ministry and in supervising and coordinating the work of
government. For this reason, Sir Robert Walpole is generally regarded as the first British Prime Minister,
though the title of “Prime Minister” for the holder of the office did not officially exist at that point. Also, for
remaining in power as the preeminent cabinet member for over twenty years (1721–1742) during the reigns
of both George I and George II, Sir Walpole holds the record as the longest-serving Prime Minister in British
history.

First British Prime Minister: Sir Robert Walpole (1721–1742)

Walpole skilfully developed the idea that government ministers should work together in a small group, which
was called the "Cabinet". He introduced the idea that any minister who disagreed deeply with other Cabinet
ministers was expected to resign. From this basic idea grew another important rule in British politics: that
all members of the Cabinet were together responsible for policy decisions. Walpole built on the political
results of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. It was he who made sure that the power of the king would always
be limited by the constitution. From the days of Walpole onwards, the overall tendency in the 18th century
was toward a single individual as the head of a parliamentary government. In the context of Parliamentary
sovereignty, the leader of the dominant party within Parliament’s House of Commons gradually displaced
the king to become the real head of Britain’s government, the one to actually shape the national policies.
This leader would soon be called “Prime Minister.”

From 1721 to 1742, Walpole remained the most powerful man in Britain as the head of the king’s
government. His successful domination of politics, his control of the treasury, his management of
government, and the confidence he enjoyed under the first two Georges revealed in him the kind of
leadership that was demanded to give stability and order to 18th-century politics.

GEORGE II (George I's son)

The period of Whig domination continued. Sir Robert Walpole remained the Prime Minister. Though forced
from office in 1742 after disagreements within his party, he then regained the position. Britain grew more
powerful during the reign of George II. Much of India came under British control. The British also won
important victories against the French in what is now Canada. By the end of his reign, George II had become
a popular monarch. George II's son, Frederick, died in 1751 (nine years before his father). The next in line to
the throne was George II’s grandson, who became George III.

GEORGE III (George II's grandson)

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The first of the Hanoverians to be born in England and to speak English as his first language. As a result, he
was much more popular than his grandfather or great-grandfather had been. However, he lost some of this
popularity after Britain lost its thirteen colonies in America as a result of the American Revolution. Unlike
his father and grandfather, he had no interest in Hanover. He wanted to take a more active part in governing
Britain, and in particular, he wished to be free to choose his own ministers. His reign witnessed the opening
stages of the Industrial Revolution. On his accession to the throne, the long period of Whig rule came to an
end.

● New phase in the history of England.

● Different from his two predecessors.
● End of Whig oligarchy: Monarch no longer dependent on the Whig party.

Important events and developments:

● Opening stages of the Industrial Revolution

● American Wars of Independence
● The Loss of the American Colonies

HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION: Political significance

The Hanoverian succession, particularly under the first two Georges between 1714-1760, confirmed the
Glorious Revolution of 1688 as it meant the consolidation of its achievements. In this sense, it marked the
definite success of the liberal ideology and hence, as its corollary, the triumph of the Whigs’ project,
evidenced in their ascendancy in government in this period so called the Whig Oligarchy.

HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION: LEGACY

The Hanoverians ruled the country for nearly 200 years. During the course of their rule, Britain built a large
empire throughout the world. At home, there would be significant changes in the political life of the country.
More people would be allowed to vote, and the office of prime minister became a regular part of the
government.

What is each article’s view on the legacy and endurance of the Hanoverian succession?

“Over the centuries, the Hanoverians have served their adopted realms well and Britain should be proud of
them. The last eleven monarchs have borne different surnames: Welf, Wettin and Windsor, but they are all
Hanoverians, since their succession to the throne of Great Britain was due, in each case, to their legitimate
descent from the body of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, as had been laid down by the Act of Settlement of
1701.” J.N. Duggan

“Their success in holding onto the Crown over three centuries, probably owes a great deal to the fact that
they arrived with no illusions about their Divine Right, or entitlement to rule. They understood from the start
that they were there only by the Will of Parliament - which, over the 19th and 20th centuries, gradually
became the will of the people - and that they could be dismissed at any time, as easily as they had been
summoned.” J.N. Duggan

“As German princes, they also personified the deep connections between 18th-century Britain and the
geopolitics of continental Europe.(...) The emerging apparatus of the Hanoverian state – the Bank of
England, the national debt, the Royal Navy, the stock market, even the Union of England and Scotland –
were all developed to sustain Britain’s role in Europe” The Guardian
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The Industrial Revolution: Causes and Consequences

Read these definitions of the Industrial Revolution and answer:

When did the Industrial Revolution take place? 1750-1850

Why are the terms industrial and revolution used to describe this period? Industrial: certain industries
progressed from small-scale production, in some cases in domestic surroundings, to large-scale production
in factories, foundries and the like. Revolution: change was very rapid.

The Industrial Revolution [...] was made up of many strands: the development of transport, of metallurgy, of
engineering, of chemistry, the invention of new machines, and the harnessing of new sources of power [...]
The Industrial Revolution did not burst upon an astonished world overnight. It was the outcome of a
movement begun centuries earlier when the discoveries of new lands in the 15th and 16th centuries opened
the possibilities of increased trade and commerce. In the 18th century this movement gathered speed,
until, between about 1760 and 1830, change was so rapid as to deserve the term ‘revolutionary’. There
was an expansion of markets, of production, of population. (Gregg, P. A Social and Economic History of
Britain. p.46)

It [the term “Industrial Revolution”] is a very apt term, as long as it does not convey any idea that the
“revolution” happened dramatically overnight, or in all parts of the country, or in every industry. Properly
understood, it signifies the change, spread over at least the century between 1750 and 1850, but proceeding
perhaps fastest between 1780 and 1830, by which certain industries progressed from small-scale
production, in some cases in domestic surroundings, to large-scale production in factories, foundries and
the like –a change dependent on new inventions and technical processes and a growing use of
machinery.(Richards D.& J.W. Hunt. An Illustrated History of Modern Britain, p.14)

Causes

Factors that contributed to industrialization in Britain and that explain why Britain was the first country to
become industrialized:

★ Increase in population (demand for more goods).

★ Scientific development and inventions (exemplified by the foundation of the Royal Society in 1662-
Scientific development depended on a peaceful and tolerant environment in Britain (long internal peace
and neither riven by extreme political or religious feuds nor subjected to control of thought by a harshly
intolerant Church).
★ Well-developed comercial system (Britain was already a great trading nation and had developed a
commercial system capable of dealing with expanding industry).
★ Internal free trade (England, Scotland and Wales made up the largest free-trade unit in Europe;
from their trade British merchants had developed reserves of capital available for investment in new
industrial enterprises).

“…prior to the inventions, English industry, commerce and banking were constituted on lines which served
to make a large outlay on machinery and buildings a practicable as well as a profitable venture; nor could
manufacturers have utilized the inventions if England had not accumulated sufficient capital for
investment in productive enterprises” (Lipson, E. The growth of the English society, p. 190)

★ Resources of coal and iron

★ Improved internal communications (canals and roads)
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★ British Empire: The colonies had two purposes; they were sources of cheap raw material and they
were markets for manufactured products. Colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country- when
americans have independence 18th and 19th century england builds the second empire: asia africa
india caribbean.
★ The Agrarian Revolution (many people from the countryside had to move to towns, thus speeding
the industrial revolution).
★ Others: climate of opinion in the late 18th century favorable to change (Adam Smith, freer trade,
laissez-faire); Protestantism encouraged an outlook favorable to the development of wealth,
commerce and industry (Puritan virtues of hard work led to the accumulation of money which could
then be invested: early British industrialists were Protestant).

The Agrarian Revolution

By the 18th century, a good deal of land had already been enclosed. When, why, and in what regions of
the country had the land been enclosed even before the 18th century? In the south and south west, a good
deal of ploughland and pasture had been enclosed: the enclosure of the old manor’s demesne had begun
in medieval times, and with the growth of the cloth trade under the Tudors there had been much enclosure
for sheep-farming.

What were the main reasons why the land was enclosed in the 18th century? 1.To apply machinery and
fertilizers to yield more crops in order to feed the growing population, for the open field system was not as
productive as enclosures. 2. To graze cattle and avoid disease among animals. .

Was the open field system of cultivation an efficient one? Why (not)? No, it could not yield enough food for
the rising population and it had many defects.

Which were the main defects the open field system presented? In the first place it involved a waste of land,
since under the system one-third of the arable land was usually fallow. Secondly, there was waste of time
and labour, since each man’s strips were widely scattered. Thirdly, it was impossible to rear good cattle,
partly because there were no hedges to give them shelter, partly because the diseased mingled freely with
the rest, partly because there was insufficient winter food in the way of root trops. Furthermore, to apply
fresh practices to unenclosed land was virtually impossible. The small size of strips and the limited
equipment and capital of their holders made it out of the question to work each strip individually, and the
system depended on cooperation at times of ploughing and harvest. Any proposed change would thus have
to command general assent before it could be carried out.

According to Richards and Hunt (1983) "The need for enclosure was undeniable, its purely agricultural
results were excellent, and without it, there might have been widespread starvation -and a much smaller
population. Nevertheless, some of the social consequences of the way in which it was carried out were
deplorable" (p. 13). Why do the authors assert so? Although the main result of the enclosure movement
was an increase in the food supply because of the vital agricultural improvements that were applied by
enterprising individuals, it also had negative consequences. The lord’s legal right to the common was
enforced. Although the strip holders were given a little extra land in settlement of their common rights, this
was not nearly equal in value to the old extensive privileges. From the redistribution the richer owners
usually came off better than they should have done, and the poorer not so well. A further source of hardship
was the cost of enclosure. Even the smallest holder had to pay not only the cost of hedging and ditching
his own land but also a share towards the surveying, the redistribution and the map-making. Small men in
many cases were forced to dispose of their property because the costs proved too much for them.
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Which were the economic and social consequences of the Agrarian Revolution? Why could the Agrarian
Revolution be considered a cause of the Industrial Revolution? Economic consequences: animals grew
bigger with better meat, and animals were now valuable for their meat and not the skin. Also, the land now
yielded more crops.

Social consequences: the social class of yeomen disappeared.The fencing of the land was very expensive,
but through acts of parliament it was an obligation. Therefore, many yeomen (small landholders) could not
afford fencing. They had to sell their lands to big landholders and the social class disappeared. They moved
to the cities and became factory workers or remained in the countryside working for big landholders (rural
proletarian- gap between rich enterprising farmer and agricultural laborer widened).

*The agrarian revolution implied the fencing of the land that remained unenclosed. Thanks to the agrarian
revolution and the migration of yeomen, the working class is consolidated.

“Of those who sold their land, some small farmers went to towns, set up in business and became profiting
pioneers of the Industrial Revolution. Others went to town but were not so successful, and sank to be town
laborers. Others drank away their little capital in the local ale-house and finished up, like those squatters
who remained, in one of the worst-paid occupation of all -that of the landless agricultural labourers. The
direct results of the enclosure movement were to make ownership of land still more unequal, to drive
important rural elements to the towns, thereby speeding the Industrial Revolution, and in general to make
the rich richer and the poor poorer.”

Industries affected

The process of industrialization affected mainly three industries.

Which were these three industries? The textile, iron, coal and transport industries.

Which was their importance for the industrial development of the country? Coal was the most important
one, since without its development, other industries would not have developed (on the coal industry
depended every other industry). It allowed for a new motive-force: steam power (necessary to drive
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machinery). The textile industry led to the adoption of the factory system (abandoning the domestic system
and leading to the complete degradation of the working classes, which became completely dependent on
the industrialists). The iron industry was important as well because iron was used to make machinery, build
railways, trains, new roads and canals.

Because of several new inventions in the spinning and weaving of cotton, England could now produce all-
cotton fabric and the factory system began (bc of the size of the machines). Because of discoveries
regarding fuels used to smelt iron, it began to take a new place in national life. In cotton factories the early
wooden machines were now replaced by iron ones, far more accurate and durable. The extensive use of
coal to smelt iron meant that coal became more important as well and was no longer mined in a primitive
fashion with the many handicaps of the past: on the coal industry depended every other industry. As to
transportation, new roads and canals were built to transport manufactured products for the first time after
the romans. After the steam engine and the locomotive there was also a railway boom (1830) which
fastened the transportation of products.

First: roads

1830s: boom of railway system

Textile industry: new inventions such as Kay’s “Flying Shuttle”, Hagrcaves’s “The Jenny” (a moving
carrriage),Arkwright’s “Water-frame”(propelled by water power and led to the factory system because it
required greater motive-power than the hand), Samuel Crompton’s “Mule” (a crossbreed between The Jenny
and Water Frame), and Cartwright’s power loom. Mechanisation had triumphed in the weaving as well as
the spinning of cotton (it made possible the production of all-cotton fabric); and with it the factory system
soon completely replaced the old domestic system. The process was extended to wollen factories too
(though more slowly for technical reasons and legal restrictions).

Iron industry: At the beginning of the 18th century Britain’s great natural deposits of iron ore were almost
entirely unworked. The fuel employed for smelting and forging iron bars from pig iron was charcoal, and
sufficient charcoal could not be produced without great quantities of timber, which depended on the forests,
which were rapidly becoming extinct. Advances: 1. Darby’s coke-smelting process reduced coal to coke. He
found that good pig-iron could be produced from the rough ore. 2. Cort’s puddling process: The impure pigs
of iron were placed in a vessel heated by a reverberatory furnace. Iron oxide were mixed with the pigs; and
the heat, together with the stirring by long hooks caused the oxygen from these oxides to combine with the
remaining carbon in the pigs and come off in the form of gas, thereby leaving the iron freer from carbon and
so less brite. Darby’s invention had speeded up the production of pig-iron, now Cort had discovered how to
turn pig iron into bar iron. With timber no longer required, Britain could rely henceforth on her vast resources
of coal. Wooden machines were replaced by iron ones, far more accurate and durable.

Coal industry: Problems: bad ventilation, flooding, explosion and collapsing, difficulty of drawing the coal
to the surface. Advances: 1. Thomas Newcomes atmospheric steam-pump. 2.James Watt’s steam engine
and the addition of rotary motion to motive-power (the most far-reaching invention of the whole Industrial
Revolution). 3. Buddle’s exhaust fan (to avoid the danger of explosion in coal mines) 4. Davy’s safety lamp
(to avoid the danger of explosions). 5. pit propping 6. colliery transport: using rails among which wagons
were drawn by ponies, stationary engines, or, later, locomotives. 7. Wire ropes (which together with steam
haulage replaced human carrying.
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* John McAdam made new roads that were smoother, more durable, and less muddy.

Consequences

Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

Economic ● England became: primarily an industrial country and also consolidated as a

field commercial country (main pillar was no longer agriculture: secondary position). England
became “the workshop of the world”
● Factory system replaced domestic system (new system of production was adopted
bc older system could not meet the demands of the growing population; it was necessary
to house new pieces of machinery which did not fit in houses of the domestic system;
number of workers increased): meant the complete destruction of the craftsmen’s
independence (now working classes dependent on industrialists).
● Consolidation of the capitalist system (now capital was not only merchant,
commercial, but industrial too: invested in buying raw material, paying wages, factories,
etc.- served industrial purposes).
● Economic growth and prosperity for England
● Vast increase of production: surplus of production meant exports of manufactured
products
● England began to look for new markets to sell products (relation of England to sea
became even more acquisitive)
● Consolidation of laissez faire because AT FIRST the state didn’t control capitalists
so there were abuses (insanitary working conditions, long working hours, etc.). Eventually
the government would intervene so as to check these abuses.
● Free trade: merchants and traders were no longer restrained by state in their
commercial enterprises (up to now CL and NA, now repealed). First decades of 19th
century- 1840s (not immediate consequence).

Social field ● New social classes: industrial capitalists (owners of factories, inventors of new
machinery, investors, speculators, bank owners: owners of CAPITAL, deeply concerned
with the processes of production) and working class/wage-earning class/proletariat (to
Lipson, working classes already existed with the beginning of the domestic system). It
marks the birth of a class conscious working class, which resulted from them being all
under the same roof of factories (conscious of their living and working conditions, the
hardships of the system, their dependence on industrialists’ wages, aware that they’d lost
their economic independence. They would never be able to climb the social ladder).
● Growth of urbanization: emergence of cities and towns (result of migration from
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country to cities, from the agricultural south to north and midlands- because of the
presence of coal and iron mines). The north and the midlands became more populated.
● Exodus from rural areas and changes in distribution in population (explained
before)
● Emergence of slums (terrible living conditions).
● Harsh working conditions (loss of freedom, lack of schooling, women and children
worked long hours, low wages, physical punishments) (1833 Parliament passed the first
Factory Acts regulated the maximum of working hours, especially in child labor. State
intervention to limit abuses committed by industrialists but still laissez-faire and
capitalism)
● Disappearance of yeomen: expansion of cheap labor force (many people moving
from the south seeking jobs, paid low wages and exploited).

Political Need for political reform: First Great Year of Reform

field ● Adaptation and extension of the system of enfranchisement and of representation
to the new conditions of the Industrial Revolution: new social classes demanded
representation in parliament. Extension of the right to vote to other social classes. This
was achieved by the Reform Bill of 1832 (by which only the industrialists got
representation). The working classes of the cities were enfranchised in the second reform
bill 1867, and rural working classes in 1884. Through the reform bill of 1832 land was no
longer the qualification, it was capital, property in terms of money. It meant that from now
on the landed interests lost the monopoly of power and were challenged by industrialists.
(Direct correspondence between this and repeal of corn laws and navigation acts).

The principal effect of the inventions on English society was the shifting of the centre of gravity from
agriculture to industry. In the eighteenth century, England was primarily an agricultural country, although
industry and commerce had already attained considerable dimensions: in the nineteenth century, she
became primarily an industrial country. (Lipson, E. The growth of the English society, p. 217)

The industrial basis of this wealth was the steady spread of the technological advances and the improved
methods of industrial organization of the sixties and seventies. This was most obvious in the development
of the cotton industry in Lancashire where the factory system and power-driven machinery were most
commonly found. (Plumb, J. England in the Eighteenth Century. p. 149)

Which became Britain's most important economic activity? Industry

What new system of production had to be implemented? Why? The rise of population meant more
demands. It was not possible to satisfy the needs of this ever-increasing population applying the system of
production of the previous centuries. The need to change the system of production became urgent. This
was achieved through the introduction of machinery, applied especially to the textile industry. By 1820,
mechanization had triumphed in the weaving as well as the spinning of cotton; and with it the factory system
soon completely replaced the old domestic industry.

Did other countries industrialize at the same pace as Britain? The process of industrialization began in
England. It was the first country in the world to become industrialized. In the other countries, the process
of industrialization began later.

Spread of the Industrial Revolution across Europe:

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To what extent did the Industrial Revolution impact on the economic policy of the country? The liberal
ideals had already been achieved as regards home industry (laissez faire since the Stuarts). Now, in the
Victorian period, Mercantilism would no longer rule international trade since free trade was achieved with
the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) and Navigation Acts (1849).

When and why were the Corn Laws and Navigation Acts repealed?

Corn Laws: Confronted with the problems in Ireland (extreme poverty and risk of starvation), Peel (prime
minister) had to act. His whole party was pledged to the retention of the CL because great landlords were
the backbone of the Conservative party and they advocated protection for British agriculture against foreign
competition. Meanwhile, there were many factors leading to the repeal: there was a growing popular clamor
for the repeal of the CL; the Anti-Corn Law League (organization founded in 1839); arguments that this
would cheapen food and increase the purchasing power of the workers’ wages (some say that
manufacturers wanted to lower wages) and also avoid ill-feeling between nations; in 1845 there was a
famine in Ireland. The Repeal of the Corn Law was not easy but it was passed in June 1846.

Navigation Acts: They were a series of laws designed to restrict England’s carrying trade to English ships,
effective chiefly in the 17th (beginning of the colonial era) and 18th centuries (form of trade protectionism
during an era of mercantilism). They had the double purpose of protecting British shipping (and so in time
of war to strengthen the British Navy) and restricting the expansion of Britain’s chief naval rivals. They
excluded all non-British shipping from carrying trade between England and her overseas possessions, and
limited the import of foreign goods to ships of England or of the country from which the goods came (with
higher import duties). Now that the Corn Laws had gone and that British shipping had been consolidated
with a great superiority in the world, the Navigation Laws began to be questioned. The restrictions and
duties were considered to be to many (limited commerce with certain regions- limited markets). They were
repealed in 1849.
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How did the Industrial Revolution affect trade? Britain was, for fifty years, almost without competitors as
an industrial producer. The IR transformed the country for world markets and world power. After the repeal
of the Corn Laws and Navigation Acts, the country enjoyed a period of unrivalled material prosperity (British
exports grew considerably because they could export many manufactured products); Britain was made the
“workshop of the world”. Trade became more important than agriculture.

What social classes emerged in England as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution? The industrial
capitalists (new employers, owners of the new factories, men who financed the employers, investors and
speculators, inventors and innovators) and the working class (but remember that a wage-earning class had
already emerged with wage-paid rural laborers and with the workers in the domestic system).

“While the handworkers were being slowly superseded, the new order was producing other classes. There
were the owners of the new factories, the inventors of the new machinery, the investors and speculators,
and the men, women, children who worked in the factories.” (Gregg, p. 52)

How did industrialization contribute to city growth? Why did people move to cities and towns during the
Industrial Revolution? Where were these cities located? Why? The centres of population were practically
reversed. Whereas the south-east of the country had been the most populous area from the Norman
Conquest to 1750, people now began to settle where the new industries were arising -at first where there
was water-power, later near the great coalfields. Thus South Wales, Birmingham, Lancashire, the Newcastle
area, the Clyde Valley became the great new centres of population (north and west). And wherever industry
expanded, new towns sprang up or old ones grew bigger. (The south, with the exception of London, became
comparatively unimportant).
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For the first time since Anglo-Saxon days, the North-western half of England, the ancient Northumbria and
Mercia, became of importance in rivalry to the corn-bearing lands of South and East, and to London and its
satellite counties [ ... ] this shifting of the geographic balance of power in the island was to be a chief cause
of the demand for political change and Parliamentary redistribution in the approaching era. (Trevelyan, G.
A Shortened History of England, p. 451)

What were the living conditions like in the industrialized cities? The owners of the factories, or the raw
materials, or railways, or banks, lived in opulent mansions while the workers lived in dark and noisome
hovels, crowded in dirty slums. Overcrowded and polluted housing, growth of slums, insanitary living
conditions, dirty and dark streets, and fast spreading of disease were big issues.

What were the working conditions like in the factories for men, women, and children? Hours were very
long -twelve hours a day, six days a week, was normal, and as much as fifteen or sixteen hours a day at
busy times -and discipline was harsh, with corporal punishment for child workers and heavy fines on adults
for such offences as lateness. Child labour, too, became more common: because poverty and the need of
both parents to earn money, or sometimes from want of a child-minder or simply the parents lack of feeling,
children down to four years of age were forced to toil, in dangerous and insanitary conditions, from early
morning till late at night. Harsh working conditions also led to many health problems.

Liability of unemployment, low price of labor, irregular payment of wages, insanitary working conditions,
excessive hours of work, poverty, bad housing, malnutrition, disease, gross exploitation of female and child
labor.

What did the Reform Act of 1832 achieve? The first Reform Bill primarily served to transfer voting privileges
from the small boroughs controlled by the nobility and gentry to the heavily populated industrial towns. It
was necessitated chiefly by glaring inequalities in representation between traditionally enfranchised rural
areas and the rapidly growing cities of newly industrial England. It reformed the antiquated electoral system
of Britain by redistributing seats and changing the conditions of the franchise (the total electorate was
increased because electoral qualifications were lowered to permit many smaller property holders to vote
for the first time).

Which was its significance in the process of English democratization? It broke down the monopoly of
power the landed aristocracy had possessed for more than a century and the government became more
widely representative.
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To what extent did the the English nation gain representation in Parliament? Although the electorate was
increased, the bill left the working classes and large sections of the lower middle classes without the vote.

In what ways did the extension of the franchise influence on the distribution of seats in Parliament?

When were the urban and rural working classes enfranchised? The two subsequent bills provided a more
democratic representation by expanding voting privileges from the upper levels of property holders to less-
wealthy and broader segments of the population.The Second Reform Act, 1867, gave the vote to many
working men in the towns and cities and increased the number of voters. The Third Reform Act of 1884–
85 extended the vote to agricultural workers, while the Redistribution Act of 1885 equalized representation
(redistribution of seats in favor of larger towns).

When did Parliament finally become an assembly representative of all the English nation? In the year 1928,
universal suffrage was granted.

(*)

British consolidated power: royal navy, industrialized, empire