The Self in Philosophy 4. Thomas Aquinas 7.

Immanuel Kant
1. Socrates  Main Idea: The human person consists of both  Main Idea: The self organizes all our sensory
 Main Idea: "Know thyself"—the unexamined life is not matter and form. experiences.
worth living.  View of the Self: The human person is  View of the Self: The mind actively organizes
 View of the Self: Dualism—humans are composed of composed of matter (the body) and form (the impressions using internal structures like time and space.
two parts: the body (imperfect, temporary) and the soul soul)  Important Notes:
(perfect, eternal).  Important Notes:  Kant saw the self as an active intelligence that
 Important Notes:  Adapted Aristotle’s philosophy into synthesizes and structures knowledge.
 Socrates emphasized that self-knowledge is the true Christian theology.  Rejected Hume’s notion of the self as mere
task of philosophy.  The soul is the essence that makes a person impressions, arguing that the mind plays an essential
 Believed that most people were unaware of their true human; it animates the body. role in knowledge acquisition.
selves and lived without understanding their virtues.  The soul is rational and seeks higher truths,  The self is not just the seat of personality, but also
 Caring for the soul is more important than the body, aligning with God’s design. the seat of consciousness that makes sense of the
as the soul is immortal. world.
5. Descartes
2. Plato  Main Idea: "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito 8. Gilbert Ryle
 Main Idea: The self is just and harmonious when reason ergo sum).  Main Idea: Denied the concept of a distinct internal self.
governs.  View of the Self: The self consists of two  View of the Self: The self is not an entity or a thing but
 View of the Self: Tripartite Soul—composed of: distinct parts: rather the sum of behaviors people exhibit.
 Rational Soul(reason and intellect),  Mind (the thinking part—cogito),  Important Notes:
 Spirited Soul(emotions),  Body (the physical extension—extenza).  Ryle referred to the Cartesian dualism (mind-body
 Appetitive Soul (desires).  Important Notes: distinction) as a category mistake.
 Important Notes:  Descartes is the Father of Modern  His famous analogy: looking for a "university" after
 Justice in the soul is achieved when the rational Philosophy, advocating for a method of seeing the buildings, professors, and students is a
soul governs the spirited and appetitive parts. radical doubt. misunderstanding—just as looking for a separate
 Influenced by Socrates, but expanded with his  The only certainty is the existence of the self is a misunderstanding of what the self really is.
theory of the three parts of the soul in The Republic. thinking self.  The self is merely a label for the collection of
 Believed in an ideal realm of Forms, where the soul  The mind is the essence of the person, actions and behaviors we observe.
strives for true knowledge and virtue. while the body is a machine connected to
the mind. 9. Maurice Merleau-Ponty
3. Augustine  Main Idea: The mind and body are inseparable; all
 Main Idea: The soul’s eternal quest for union with God. 6. David Hume experience is embodied.
 View of the Self: Dualism—the body is imperfect and  Main Idea: The self is a bundle of perceptions.  View of the Self: The mind and body are deeply
will die, but the soul seeks immortality and communion  View of the Self: There is no permanent or intertwined—there is no experience that is not embodied.
with God. unified self—just a collection of sensory  Important Notes:
 Important Notes: experiences and impressions.  Phenomenology: Focused on lived experience, and
 Augustine merged Platonic philosophy with  Important Notes: how the body is our way of being in the world.
Christian doctrine.  -Empiricism: Knowledge comes only from  Rejected Cartesian dualism as a misunderstanding
 The soul must live virtuously on Earth to achieve sensory experience. —the mind is always embodied in the physical
eternal bliss in heaven.  -The self is in constant flux—we think we world.
 He emphasized the restless soul that yearns to return have a stable self, but it is merely a flow of  -ll perception, thought, and emotion are experienced
to God, a reflection of man’s eternal spiritual changing experiences. through the body, forming a unified self.
journey.  -Criticized the idea of a continuous self or
soul as an illusion, challenging earlier
philosophers like Descartes.
 Cultural Norms: Boys are often taught to be tough and
The Self (Stevens, 1996) unemotional, learning masculinity through societal rituals (e.g.,
Development of the Social World circumcision in the Philippines).
 Separate: The self is distinct and unique from others.
 Self-contained & Independent: It exists on its own  The self is actively shaped through social CONCEPT AND PERSPECTIVE
without needing other selves. interactions, not passively developed.
 Consistent: The self has enduring traits, making it stable  Language is crucial in this process, allowing us 1. The Self: Definition & Theories
and predictable. to engage with others and shape our internal The self refers to the sense of personal identity and
 Unitary: It is the center of thoughts, feelings, and world. individuality (Jhangiani & Tarry, 2014).
experiences. William James' Theory (1890): The self has two aspects:
 Private: Emotions and thoughts are processed internally,  The "I" – the thinking, acting, and feeling self.
Mead and Vygotsky's Views on Development
inaccessible to others.  The "Me" – the physical characteristics and psychological
capabilities.
 Language & Interaction: Both theorists argue
Social Constructionist Perspective that the mind is developed through language and Carl Rogers' Theory (1959):
social interactions.  The "I" – the actor and decision-maker.
 The self is dynamic and constantly shaped by external  Role-play: Children engage in role-playing to  The "Me" – how we perceive ourselves.
factors. understand different perspectives, shaping their
 Interconnected: The boundaries between the self and understanding of the self. 2. Identity & Self-Concept
social context are intertwined.  Internalization: Social dialogues are  Identity: Defined by personal characteristics, social roles,
 Fluid: The self is adaptable and adjusts to different social internalized, influencing how children think and responsibilities, and affiliations (Oyserman, Elmore &
roles and situations. behave. Smith, 2012).
 Example: Jon (professor, father, husband, church
 Self-concept: The immediate thoughts that come to mind
member) changes his behavior according to his roles, The Role of Family in Shaping the Self when asked "Who are you?" (Oyserman, Elmore &
showing the self's adaptability.
Smith, 2012).
 Primary Influence: The family is the key social These constructs are dynamic and evolve over time, like a
Marcel Mauss: Personne and Moi institution shaping the self. malleable metal or water that can change shape but retains its
 Learning through Imitation: Children learn essence.
 Moi: The basic, internal identity (who you are). behaviors, values, and language from their
 Personne: The social identity shaped by institutions, family environment. 3. Self-Schema & Social Interaction
culture, family, and expectations.  Example: Table manners, respect for elders, and  Self-schema: A collection of knowledge about who we
 Example: Jon maintains his core (moi) but shifts his even emotional expression are taught through are. Includes factors like hobbies, family, religion, and
personne depending on his role, like being strict at work direct and indirect family interactions. nationality.
but sweet at home.  Symbolic Interactionism (G.H. Mead, 1934): The self is
Gender and the Self developed through social interactions. Society shapes the
The Self and Culture foundations of who we are, affirming or challenging our
sense of identity.
 Dynamic: Gender is not fixed; it evolves and is
 Culture influences how we perceive and express the self. influenced by cultural and social expectations.
 Example: A Filipino jaywalking in the Philippines vs. 4. Social Identity & Group Influence
 Example: Feminist Nancy Chodorow argues  Social identity is formed through group membership and
strictly following traffic rules in Singapore demonstrates that girls often adopt caregiving roles by
how behavior changes based on cultural context. interaction.
imitating their mothers.  Roles and group affiliation affect our behaviors and sense
 Language and cultural background shape our self-
perception and social behavior. of identity.
 We often align ourselves with the characteristics and roles
expected in various groups (e.g., student, friend).
  Eastern: More focused on group harmony and
5. Self-Awareness & Self-Schema less on self-promotion.
 Private self: Internal standards, thoughts, and feelings. Types of Hermaphroditism:
 Public self: The image we present to others. ABSTRACTION OF REPRODUCTIVE
Three types of self-schema: DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTION  Pseudohermaphrodites: Individuals with accessory
reproductive structures that do not match their gonads.
 Actual Self: Who you are now. Gonadal Development  True Hermaphrodites: Rare individuals possessing both
 Ideal Self: Who you aspire to be. ovarian and testicular tissues.
 Ought Self: Who you think you should be.  Gonads Definition: Reproductive glands that
produce gametes (testis in males and ovaries in Testicular Descent
6. Self-Esteem & Social Comparison females).
Self-esteem: The positive or negative evaluation of oneself.  Embryonic Development Timeline: Gonads  Key Development Event: Male testes descend into the
begin to form around the 8th week of scrotum approximately one month before birth.
 Social Comparison Theory: We assess ourselves by embryonic development.
comparing with others.  Cryptorchidism: Failure of testicular descent can lead to
 Indifferent Stage: Early stages show male and sterility and increased risk of testicular cancer; surgery is
 Downward comparison: Comparing with those worse female embryonic reproductive structures are
off boosts self-esteem. often performed in childhood to correct this.
alike.
 Upward comparison: Comparing with those better off
may lower self-esteem but can also motivate. Chromosomal Abnormalities
 Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory (Tesser, 1988): Hormonal Influence on Sexual Development
We may feel threatened when outperformed by someone Meiosis Errors:
close to us, leading to distancing, redefining priorities, or Testosterone Role:
working harder.
 Abnormal separation during meiosis can lead to
 The presence of testosterone is crucial for congenital defects in the reproductive system.
7. Narcissism developing male structures.
Defined as excessive self-admiration and self-centeredness.  Male embryonic testes release testosterone,
Narcissists often seek validation and appreciation from others leading to the formation of male ducts and Examples:
and can struggle with healthy interpersonal relationships. external genitalia.
XXY (Klinefelter syndrome): Males with extra female
8. Eastern & Western Perspectives on the Self Female Development: chromosomes; typically sterile.
 Western (Individualistic): Focuses on personal XO (Turner syndrome): Females appear normal but lack
development and achievement. Encourages competition ovaries.
 In the absence of testosterone, female embryos YO: Males do not survive development.
and self-promotion.
develop ovaries and female ducts.
 Eastern (Collectivistic): Emphasizes social roles,
cooperation, and harmony within groups. The self is Puberty and Its Effects
intertwined with family and community roles. Sexual Development Abnormalities
 Confucianism: Values ethical conduct and social  Puberty Age Range: Generally occurs between ages 10-
harmony. Interference with Hormonal Production: 15.
 Taoism: Emphasizes living in harmony with the  Hormonal Influence: Rising levels of gonadal hormones
universe and being open to change.  If embryonic testes fail to produce testosterone, (testosterone in males, estrogen in females) lead to the
 Buddhism: Views the self as an illusion, with the genetic males may develop female accessory growth of reproductive organs and maturation.
goal of detaching from desires to eliminate suffering. structures.
 Exposure to testosterone in genetic females can Changes in Males:
9. Self-Esteem in Different Cultures lead to male structures and conditions like
 Western: Self-esteem is built on personal achievements. pseudohermaphroditism.
 Begins around age 13 with increased organ size and hair 3. Sexual Climax: Abrupt intense pleasure, rapid
growth in pubic and facial areas. physiological responses (e.g., contractions, ejaculation).
 Sexual maturation includes the production of mature Erogenous Zones 4. Resolution Phase: Return to normal state; males
sperm. experience a refractory period, while females can
 Definition: Areas of the body sensitive to touch achieve multiple orgasms.
Changes in Females: that increase sexual arousal (e.g., mouth, breasts,
genitals, anus). Nervous System Factors
 Begins with breast budding around age 11 and culminates  Variability: Sensitivity can vary significantly
in menarche (first menstrual period) about two years after among individuals. Role of the Nervous System:
puberty onset.
Human Sexual Behavior  Involved in regulating sexual responses via the autonomic
Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System system.
 Definition: Any activity (solitary or social) that  The brain interprets sensory inputs, dictating bodily
Infections: induces sexual arousal (Gebhard, P.H. 2017). responses.

 Common in adults, particularly in young and elderly Determinants: Key Brain Areas:
women.
 Common pathogens: Escherichia coli, STDs (e.g.,  Inherited sexual response patterns.  Hypothalamus and Limbic System: Regulate sexual
syphilis, gonorrhea), yeast infections.  Societal constraints on sexual expression. response.
 Untreated infections can lead to pelvic inflammatory  Reflexive sexual responses (erection, ejaculation)
disease and infertility. Types of Behavior: mediated by the spinal cord but can be overridden by
conscious thought.
Inflammatory Conditions in Males:  Solitary Behavior: Self-stimulation (self-
gratification) common before and during Reviewer on Sexual Problems and Sexually Transmitted
 Prostatitis, urethritis, epididymitis may arise from puberty. More frequent in unmarried individuals. Diseases (STDs)
STDs.  Sociosexual Behavior: Interactions involving
 Orchitis: Inflammation of testes, often following mumps; more than one person, including: I. Sexual Problems
can cause sterility.
 Heterosexual Behavior: Interaction A. Classification of Sexual Problems
Neoplasms: between male and female.
 Homosexual Behavior: Interaction Categories:
 Common reproductive cancers include breast and cervical between individuals of the same sex.
cancers in females and prostate cancer in males.  Mixed sociosexual behaviors can occur
when involving multiple participants.  Physiological: Physical or biological factors affecting
sexual function.
Menopause:  Psychological: Emotional and mental influences
Physiology of Human Sexual Response impacting sexual performance and desire.
 Natural decrease in ovarian function, typically begins in  Social: Cultural and societal factors that shape sexual
the late 20s, leading to reduced estrogen production, 1. Excitement Phase: Increased heart rate, blood attitudes and behaviors.
irregular ovulation, and cessation of menstruation. pressure, skin temperature, swelling of
 Post-menopause, reproductive organs atrophy, leading to reproductive structures, and muscle tension.
symptoms like vaginal dryness and increased risk of 2. Plateau Phase: Brief phase that leads to
infections and cardiovascular issues. orgasm.
B. Physiological Problems  Ignorance and Sexual Myths:  Associated with HIV/AIDS; certain STDs can increase
Misconceptions that lead to unrealistic susceptibility to HIV infection.
Overview: These problems are less common than expectations.
psychological issues and often have identifiable medical
causes. Specific Psychological Issues:
B. Long-term Health Complications
Common Physiological Conditions:  Premature Emission of Semen: Common in
young males, often stemming from anxiety STDs can lead to severe health problems, especially in women
 Vaginal Infections: Can cause pain and discomfort rather than a psychological disorder. and infants, including:
during intercourse.  Erectile Impotence:
 Retroverted Uterus: May result in discomfort or  Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: Can result in infertility.
pain during sexual activity.  Generally psychological in males under 40.  Cervical Cancer: Linked to certain strains of HPV.
 Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate that can  Can stem from fear of impotence or  Congenital Infections: Infections in mothers can affect
affect sexual function. disinterest in a partner. infants.
 Adrenal Tumors: Can disrupt hormone levels
impacting libido.  Ejaculatory Impotence: C. Key Sexually Transmitted Diseases
 Diabetes: May lead to nerve damage and sexual
dysfunction.  Inability to ejaculate during intercourse,
 Senile Changes in the Vagina: Age-related changes 1. Chlamydia:
often linked to psychological factors such
affecting comfort and sexual function. as trauma or fear of contamination.
 Cardiovascular Issues: Poor blood circulation can  Most common STD in the U.S., with 1,598,354
lead to erectile dysfunction. reported cases in 2016.
 Vaginismus:  Highest rates among adolescent and young adult
Treatment Options: females; 9.2% positive in 15-19 age group.
 Painful involuntary contraction of pelvic
muscles, preventing penetration. 2. Gonorrhea:
 Most physiological issues can be addressed with  Often a result of anti-sexual conditioning or
medication or surgery. trauma; treatment includes psychotherapy
 Conditions affecting the nervous system may  468,514 reported cases in 2016, an 18.5% increase
and gradual dilation techniques. from the previous year.
require specialized treatment and can be more
difficult to manage.  Rates highest among African Americans; increased
II. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) transmission among men who have sex with men
C. Psychological Problems (MSM).
A. Definition and Importance
Overview: By far the largest category of sexual problems, 3. Syphilis:
often rooted in mental and emotional factors. Overview: STDs are infections transmitted through
sexual contact, affecting individuals’ health  27,814 cases of Primary and Secondary syphilis
significantly. reported in 2016.
Common Causes:
 Significant increases among both men and women,
Significance: particularly in the 20-29 age group.
 Socially Induced Inhibitions: Cultural beliefs that
create pressure to perform.
 Maladaptive Attitudes: Negative perceptions about  Major global health issue with severe 4. Chancroid:
sex that hinder enjoyment. implications for women and infants.
  Caused by Haemophilus ducreyi, characterized by  Involves daily monitoring of body temperature  Removed in the fourth week to allow menstruation.
genital ulcers. before any activity.
 Only 7 cases reported in 2016, indicating a  Temperature drops before ovulation and rises 4. Subdermal Implants
significant decline. after due to progesterone.  Two rods inserted under the skin, releasing hormones
(etonogestrel, desogestrel, progestin).
4. Cervical Mucus Method  Effective for 3-5 years.
 Based on changes in cervical mucus, which
5. Human Papillomavirus (HPV): becomes thin, watery, and stretchy during
ovulation.
 Avoid intercourse when mucus is abundant and
 Most common STD; 42.5% of adults aged 18-59 watery. 5. Hormonal Injections
infected. 5. Symptothermal Method  Contains medroxyprogesterone, given every 12 weeks.
 High-risk types (16 and 18) are responsible for 66%  Combines BBT and cervical mucus methods.  Prevents ovulation and changes cervical mucus and
of cervical cancers.  Avoid intercourse for 3 days after the rise in endometrium.
temperature or after peak mucus change.
6. Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV): 6. Intrauterine Device (IUD)
6. Ovulation Detection Method  T-shaped device inserted into the uterus, prevents
 Commonly causes recurrent genital lesions; most  Uses an over-the-counter kit to detect luteinizing fertilization by creating sterile inflammation.
genital infections are HSV-2. hormone (LH) surge 12-24 hours before  Effective for 5-7 years.
 Often asymptomatic but can lead to painful ovulation.
outbreaks. 7. Chemical Barriers
7. Coitus Interruptus (Withdrawal)  Includes spermicides, vaginal gels, and creams to kill
7. Trichomonas Vaginalis:  The man withdraws before ejaculation. sperm and lower the pH.
 Risk: pre-ejaculation fluid may contain sperm,  Does not prevent STIs.
leading to possible conception.
 Protozoal infection linked to complications like
8. Diaphragm
preterm birth.
ARTIFICIAL METHOD OF  Rubber disk placed over the cervix before intercourse.
 Limited trend data; approximately 139,000 initial
CONTRACEPTION  More effective when used with spermicide and must
physician visits in 2015.
remain in place for 6 hours after intercourse.
1. Oral Contraceptives (The Pill)
NATURAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTIONS  Contains synthetic estrogen and progesterone to 9. Cervical Cap
prevent ovulation and thicken cervical mucus.  Soft rubber cap fitted over the cervix, can be worn for up
1. Abstinence  Taken on the first Sunday after menstrual flow to 48 hours.
 Completely refraining from sexual intercourse. 0% failure or as prescribed.
rate if followed strictly. 10. Male Condoms
 Most effective in preventing STIs. 2. Transdermal Patch  Latex or synthetic rubber sheath worn on the erect
  Applied weekly for 3 weeks, releasing estrogen reproductive organ.
2. Calendar (Rhythm) Method and progesterone.  Prevents STIs; ideal failure rate of 2%, typical failure rate
 Avoids intercourse during fertile days (3-4 days before  No patch is applied during the fourth week to of 15%.
and after ovulation). allow menstrual flow.
 Requires tracking the menstrual cycle for 6 months to 11. Female Condoms
determine safe days. 3. Vaginal Ring  Latex rubber sheath with two rings, inserted into the
 A silicone ring releasing estrogen and female reproductive organ.
3. Basal Body Temperature (BBT) Method progesterone, placed in the reproductive organ  Prevents fertilization and can be pre-lubricated with
for 3 weeks. spermicide.
12. Surgical Methods
 Vasectomy: Cutting or blocking the vas deferens in
males, preventing sperm from mixing with semen.
 Tubal Ligation: Cutting or blocking the fallopian tubes
in females to prevent the egg and sperm from meeting.