STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENT

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS (2)

• The strengths and limitations of different quantitative research methods, including
questionnaires, structured interviews and social surveys
QUESTIONNAIRES / SURVEYS A technique using a structured set of questions, for asking
a large sample of people about their views and behaviours. Questionnaire surveys may be
conducted in person, by telephone, by post and via the internet.
Questionnaires consist of written questions that take one of two forms:
SELF-COMPLETION OR SELF-ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRE: these are normally
completed in private without the researcher being present. For example, web-based or
emailed questionnaires. The most common type is the postal questionnaire, which can be
sent to a large sample via the post..
RESEARCHER-ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRES! these are completed in the
presence of the researcher, with respondents answering questions verbally: these are
structured interviews.TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN QUESTIONNAIRES & SURVEYS:
1. CLOSED-ENDED or 'PRE-CODED QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questions can be 'closed-ended which means they require a simple answer from the
respondent with no elaboration. The researcher provides a set of answers from which the
respondent can choose one (or sometimes more), so the researcher limits the responses
that can be given. Each answer is coded by being given a number or value that is then used
for analysing the responses.
TYPES OF CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONS
Scaled questions (type of close-ended question) include Likert scales, fixed choice options
and/or rating scales. A Likert scale is when the participant is provided with a series of
statements to say which one they agree with most. A rating scale is when participants are
given a scale i.e. from 1 to 5 to state how much they agree. These closed-ended questions
help provide quantitative data. There is a debate on whether it is better to have an odd or
even number of possible responses. With an odd number, such as five, most respondents
will choose the middle one because it avoid making a decision.With even numbers, you push
your respondents into making a decision. This helps to produce data that seem to prove
something, but runs the risk of making people agree (or disagree) when they really do not
have a preference.
Multiple-choice questions: They have a stem (an opening statement) and several
alternative answers from which the respondent has to choose. There is one correct. answer,
known as the key (they're usually used in educational assessments).

STRENG TA no masing the data Then es inhere heap on effective method

or there gin omarin Lot of ero can benethe gathere from large name of
resortens within a fainty short period of order analyse pro here i recate e
of guaninting or eding the responses in order to andlyse providing percentages ond
2. Simplicity - once constructed and pilo ed question streight be carried out with o statistics
that give clear detail.
minimum of training, They are easy to estionaire syrto reforward This simplicity makes the
process of distributing the questionaire easy to replicate and if the results are similar, it
makes them high in reliability.
LIMITATIONS
Problems with the wording of the questions - this may influence the responses given so
that answers are not a true reflection of what the respondent wants to answer. For example,
leading questions (where answers are suggested in the question or options provided) can
make questions be misinterpreted. This can invalidate the findings.
Biased Samples - the response rate is very low for some types of questionnaires (30% for
postal questionnaires). This is because only people interested in the topic area or highly
motivated for some reason will respond. This means the sample is not representative of the
population. Generalising from results such as these will question the integrity of the study.
Social Desirability Bias - Self-report method such as the questionnaire raises the issue of
social desirability bias. People may want to be seen positively by the investigators and this
may affect their responses. For instance, participants may leave out or underestimate certain
factors that are important to the research investigation. This is more of a problem for
questionnaires and many consider interviews as offering a more valid self-report method of
assessment than questionnaires that may limit the effect of social desirability.
2. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questions can also be 'open-ended' which means that the respondent is required to
develop and write answers in their own words. Open-ended questions allows the participant
to elaborate, give opinions and provide their own unique insight into the These cn topic.
Question examples such as 'please explain why... and please describe...These open-ended
questions help provide qualitative data.
STRENGTHS
1. Allows exploration of area studied in added detail - Open-ended questionnaires us.
questions which can enable complex issues to be explored in detail. By tailoring questions in
a way that lets respondents elaborate, the researcher may gain information

had not previously considered. This is not always possible with other methods such as
closed ended questionnaires.
2. Lots of rich data = Also due to the use of open-ended questions these types
ofquestionnaires can collect rich detailed data and INSIGHT of both complex and personal
issues that simple questionnaires may not uncover. With complicated issues like differential
educational performance, this is very useful.
LIMITATIONS
Difficulty codifying or quantifying respondents' answers - Open ended questionnaires
generates qualitative data that is much more difficult to analyse than data from closed ended
questionnaires. It is not easy to then categorise this information for ease in graphs and
tables.
Subjective data gained is difficult to replicate - Understanding the subjective individual
responses of respondents can be difficult, and although rich detail has been gained, the
generalisability of it may be questioned. It is not easy to make comparisons, identify patterns
or trends from such data, thus the findings are often difficult replicate.,
SOCIAL SURVEYS are a methodical gathering of social data from a sample of the target
population through standardised (structured) interviews or questionnaires. The data
collected is systematically analysed quantitatively. It provides descriptive information about
the variables studied between two or more variables looks for causal explanations.
SOCIAL SURVEYS
Social Surveys are a quantitative, positivist research method consisting of structured
questionnaires and interviews (look at definition above)
Social surveys can gather quantitative data in the form of demographic features (relating to
the structure of populations) such as age, household composition and marital status. They
can also gather data into social activities such as financial expenditure patterns, media
consumed and social mobility.
Some social survey's gain data on opinions and attitudes. Looking at views, values, and
perceptions of the people on various topics i.e. new government policies or voting behaviour.
STRENGTHS
1) Social Surveys support the ideas advocated by the positivist approach - Positivists favour
questionnaires because they are a detached and objective (unbiased) method, where the
sociologist's personal involvement with respondents is kept to a minimum. Each participant
is asked the same pre-set questions which makes the research replicable and aids
objectivity. An example of such a social survey is the 10-year Census in the UK, with the
next

one being conducted in 2021. This is a demographic survey of every individual in every
household in the UK. It is the largest social survey conducted in the
country.
Representativeness - Questionnaires and surveys allow the researcher to collect
information from a large number of people, so the results should be more representative of
the wider population than with more qualitative methods. This requires the researchers to
utilise an appropriate sampling technique to maximise this (ie. stratified sampling). If this is
done effectively, the results can be extremely powerful.
Practical Advantages of surveys - Surveys and Questionnaires are a quick and cheap
means of gathering large amounts of data from large numbers of people.
Even if possible respondents are not located in the same geographic area, they can be sent
by post or electronically very easily. For example, Connor and Dewson (2001) posted nearly
4000 questionnaires to students at 14 higher education institutions in their study of the
factors which influenced working class decisions to attend university. It is difficult to see how
any other research method could generate massive numbers (ie. in the millions of responses
as is the case with the UK national census).
LIMITATIONS
Questionnaires and Surveys are not always valid: Questionnaires often can lead to
findings that are not necessarily true. For example, research in the 1980s was conducted to
find out how many unsuitable films children had watched. There was a concern in media that
young children were being influenced by these horror films or video nasties. Surveys found
that many children did say they had seen some of these films but to check the validity of the
research a number of films that did not exist had been included in the survey. Children
claimed to have seen these and so their answers must have been invalid, affecting the
overall validity of the research.
Social Desirability Bias - With many social surveys, especially in the 215t century where
they are often distributed electronically, the researchers may not be present to check
whether respondents are giving socially desirable answers, or simply lying, or even to check
who is actually completing the questionnaire. People may want to be seen positively by the
investigators and this may affect their responses. For instance, participants may leave out or
underestimate certain factors that are important to the research investigation.

This has led many researchers to consider interviews as offering a more valid self-report
method of assessment than questionnaires as researchers tend to be present to check up
on such problems (by observing body language or probing further for example).
3) Low response rate can lead to biased samples - the response rate for questionnaires and
social surveys tend to be very low for some types of questionnaires (30% for postal
questionnaires). This is because only people interested in the topic area or highly motivated
for some reason will respond.For example, Hite's (1991) study of love, passion, and
emotional violence' in the America sent out 100, 000 questionnaires but only 4.5% of them
were returned.This means the sample data is not representative of the target population and
generalising from results such as these will question the integrity of the study.
Ways of improving the response rate:
Informed consent: sending an official letter explaining the research in some detail, making it
more likely that the participant will answer
Official: Sending a stamped, addressed envelope
Personal: Making the letter personal by including the participant's name will make them feel
more personally involved. following up those who do not respond with a further letter
reminding them about the questionnaire
Incentive: offering the participant an incentive of money or the chance of being entered in a
prize draw it the questionnaire is returned.

INTERVIEWS - Any active situation (i.e. face to face / over phone or skype) where one
person (the interviewer) asks a series of questions of another person (the respondent).
These questions can be pre-determined (structured), or created in response to answers
(unstructured) or a mixture of the two types (semi structured).
STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
This is when the interviewer asks the respondent a pre-set and already defined set of
questions. The questions need to be standardised, which means the same questions are
asked in the same fixed order. Once the participant has finished answering one question, the
interviewer will move onto the next until they have completed the interview. This can be done
as a telephone questionnaire or face-to-face.
STRENGTHS
Greater Data Analysis - Data from structured interviews can be analysed easily and
comparisons can be made between participants compared with unstructured interviews that
use open ended questions where the data is more difficult to quantify. Answers from
structured questions are easier to categorise and interpret.
Objectivity and replicability - By asking all participants the same question in the same fixed
order increases the replicability and consequently the reliability.Also by asking the same
questions, without any subjective input from the interviewer increases the objectivity.
Higher response rate: Structured interviews normally have a higher response rate than
postal questionnaires because the researcher can explain the purpose of the research and
reassure the participants about any issues they may have.The researcher may also be able
to give the interviewer prompts.
LIMITATIONS
1. Problems with misinterpreting questions - which may influence the responses given so
that answers are not a true reflection of what the respondent wants to answer. For example
leading questions where an answer is suggested in theinvalidate the findings.question or
option questions where the options can be misinterpreted. These can

2. Time consuming and expensive - As the interviewer needs to be present taking the
interviews personally, this method takes up more time and therefore costs more.
INTERVIEWER EFFECT
Interviewer effect: ways in which an interviewer may influence participants' responses, by
their characteristics or appearance or by verbal cues such as facial. expressions and tone of
voice.
Interview bias: intentional or unintentional effect of the way that the interviewer asks
questions or interprets answers.
INTERVIEWER EFFECT AS A LIMITATION OF QUALITATIVE (UNSTRUCTURED)
INTERVIEW
The ability to conduct an interview successfully involves a great deal of skill on the
researcher's part and an unskilful interviewer can easily allow the intrusion of bias into the
interview process. A biased interview will, of course, produce invalid data and since bias can
creep into the process in a number of different ways:
1) Leading questions: Positivists argue that bias is all too likely to enter the interview process
by the interviewer unintentionally prompting the respondent to answer in particular ways. For
example, in unstructured interviews, there is a tendency to interpret responses for the
respondent using phrases like:
So what you are really saying is...
What you mean by that is...
What you are trying to say is...
In structured interviews, the problem arises when a respondent is unsure of their answer
and the temptation for the interviewer is to try and interpret their uncertainty - to "help the
respondent decide"
2) Social characteristics: The researcher's social characteristics (age, gender, class or
ethnicity) may discourage the respondent from giving frank and honest answers, particularly
on sensitive topics such as racism, sexism, domestic violence etc. For example, young
people, working-class people, black people or women would find it difficult to be interviewed
about a sensitive topic by elderly people, upper class people, white people and men
respectively. It is therefore important that that people should be interviewed by sociologists
with similar social characteristics.

3) Researcher's body language: the researcher's ting a fully accuay inadvertenty lead the
respondent in a certain way, thus inhibiting a fully accurate picture. For example, if the
researcher is sitting back in a relaxed manner while discussing a sensitive topic such as
sexual abuse or racism, the interviewee may feel uncomfortable to speak openly, as they
feel the researcher is not interested or mocking them. This will limit the details they share,
reducing validity.
1) Tone of voice: An interviewer who gives the impression that she he is not really bothered
about what the respondent is saying, looks bored, reacts irritably and so forth is unlikely to
make the respondent feel that their responses are important and / or interesting. The tone of
their voice may intimidate the respondent from making a fully open and honest response,
which will impact validity of the data negatively.
5) Reaction of interviewer: the reaction of the interviewer to a response may lead to social
desirability on the part of the respondent, preventing an accurate picture of the respondent's
views emerging. For example, on an interview on lifestyle habits, if a respondent mentions
that they smoke and the interviewer changes their expression to seem shocked or
displeased, it could lead to the respondent adding a statement such as, "only sometimes",
, to be seen in a positive light.
EXAMPLE OF INTERVIEW EFFECT BEING POSITIVE
Hard Labour (2004) by Caroline Gatrell
 Gatrell carried out 20 in-depth unstructured interviews with women and 18 with their male
partners. Her research was looking at how women in top professional jobs in the UK
combined work with being a mother. The women all had at least one baby or preschool child.
She found that the women faced far more problems than men in combining being a parent
with paid work and that laws on equality were not very effective and did not prevent
discrimination.
The women were willing to talk openly because Gatrell won their trust: this increased the
validity of the findings. This was particularly important when asking about sensitive topics
such as whether the women thought they were good parents.
A limitation of the interview was that the sample was small and the couples were not
representative of the whole population because of their class background (middle & upper
class)

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENT

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS (3)
The strengths and limitations of different qualitative research methods, including overt and
covert participant and non-participant observation, unstructured interviews, semi-structured
interviews and group interviews.
WAYS OF CONDUCTING OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
This is when the observer becomes an active part of the situation being observed. They may
play an integral role in the observation to get a more integrated understanding of the
behaviour. For example, Philip Zimbardo's role as the prison super-intendant in his famous
1971 study.
COVERT PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
This is when an observational study has been conducted and the participants are not
aware that they are being studied. The observers or the observation equipment is hidden
from view. For example, observing behaviour, unknown from the other side of a room. This
can occur in both controlled and natural environments and must always be ethical.
Covert observation may be the only way to study people who would not normally allow
themselves to be researched. Such people may include:
Criminal or deviant groups: Ward (2008) was a member of the rave dance drugs culture
when she began her five-year study in London nightclubs, dance parties, bars, pubs and
people's houses'. Her knowledge of the 'dance scene, added to her friendship with those
involved, meant that she was able to gain easy access to this world.
Closed groups: Lofland and Stark (1965) secretly studied the behaviour of a religious sect
because this was the only way to gain access.
Defensive groups: Ray (1987) covertly studied Australian environmental groups who would
have been suspicious of his motives if he had tried to study them openly

Three major problems for the covert participant observer:

Goffman's study 'Stigma' in 1969 of a US mental institution
ASYLUMS
identified three major problems Goffman worked in an asylum
ESSAYS ON THE SOCIAL SITUATION OF
for the mentally ill pretending to be an Assistant Athletic
ANDOTHEKINHATT
Director. His research was mainly covert, with only a couple of staff being privy to the
knowledge of his research, and via this method he was able to uncover the 'unofficial reality
of life in a mental institution.
1. Getting in: while gaining covert entry to any group can be a
ERVING GOFFMAN
problem, some groups are more difficult to enter than others:
Entry to some groups is by invitation only.
Some groups have entry requirements. To covertly study accountants or doctors, the
researcher would need to hold these qualifications.
The characteristics of the observer must match those of the observed. A man, for example,
could not covertly participate in a group of female nuns.(There are, however, ways around
this problem. Goffman, while neither a doctor nor mentally ill, was able to covertly observe
by taking a manual job within the institution
2. Staying in: once inside, the researcher may not have access to all areas. For example, an
observer pretending to be a school student could not freely enter places, such as staff
rooms, reserved for teachers.
Someone being where they are not supposed to be would raise suspicions, and the
researcher runs the risk of being discovered by 'gatekeepers' - those whose job it is to limit
access.
The researcher has to quickly learn the culture and dynamics of a group if they are to
participate fully. This can require a range of skills, including the ability to mix easily with
strangers, create and maintain a believable and convincing 'back story' (past) and to think
quickly on their feet when questioned or challenged
If a researcher lacks the 'insider knowledge', they risk being found out. The ability to
successfully mix into a group carries its own problems. It can be difficult to separate the roles
of participant and observer:

At one extreme, the researcher atiy have to choose between participating (actively taking
part) and observation, for example if a group participates in criminal activities.
At the other extreme, the researcher may become so much a part of the group they go
native aed stop being an observer, which can raise doubts about the validity of the research.
3. Getting out: it can be dificult to stop participating. A member of a criminal gong, for
example, cent stop eave. In other groups leaving may raise ethical questions, such as the
effect of leaving people who have grown to trust and depend on the researcher. This type of
research raises further ethical questions, such as whether a researcher has the right to
pretend to be one of the group or use its members for their own purposes.
STRENGTHS
Less participant reactivity to the observation - the participants have no knowledge that the
observation is taking place, this increases the validity of the behaviour being observed as
they are less likely to show changes due to being observed i.e. as seen in the Hawthorne
effect.
Higher in validity - An advantage of covert observation is that it should be high in validity,
as people are observed in natural surroundings, and - as they are unaware of being
observed It does not disturb the normal behaviour of the group so there is higher validity.
The observer can thus dig deeper into the groups' natural behaviour, perhaps unlocking
details and behaviour which otherwise would not be revealed by the group
LIMITATIONS
 Ethical considerations - It can be difficult sometimes to conduct such studies i.e. shopping
is probably considered public behaviour, so you may be able to observe people in a mall and
where they shop, however, how much somebody spends on their shopping is probably
private, so it will be difficult to obtain information on actual expenditure.
Practical difficulty in recording data - many covert observations have difficulty in
documenting the behaviour they observe, either in video recording or notes. This is because
revealing this will alert the participants to the researcher. As such, investigators have to think
very carefully about how to record the data

OVERT OBSERVATION
This is when the participants are aware that they are taking part in the research observation
and are consenting participants. This can occur in both controlled and natural environments.
Participants will usually have given informed consent to the observation beforehand.
GANG LEADER FOR A DAY - SUDHIR VENKA TESH (2009)
As a young sociology student in Chicago, USA, Venkatesh decided to
A ROGUE SOCIOLOGIST TAKES TO THE STREETS
research the lives of people living in a poor area in the city. The area had many social
problems including a high rate of crime and drug use and poor-quality high-rise housing. The
people in the neighbourhood there were African-Americans living in poverty. People at his
university thought that Venkatesh was brave or foolish even to visit the area, which they
considered dangerous. Almost by chance, Venkatesh was able to win the support of J.T., the
leader of the Black
GANG LEADER
FOR A DAY
SUDHIR VENKATESH
Kings gang, who acted as the gatekeeper, taking Venkatesh around with him and in effect
showing him how the gang and social life in the area worked - which was very different from
what might have been expected from media and other accounts by outsiders. Venkatesh
found that the gang played an important part in the life of the area, providing support to
some of the most needy people and also
punishing people whose actions harmed others in the community. For several years he
spent most of his time in the neighbourhood
STRENGTHS
More ethical than covert observations - participants are not being observed without their
permission so the research is more likely to be line with BPS ethical guidelines. Participants
know the researcher is studying their behaviour and have consented to doing so.
Gain greater insight - when a researcher experiences what their participants do, they can
gain a deeper understanding of the psychological behaviours that are being studied because
they are taking an active role. Participant observation is based, in part, on what Weber
(1922) termed verstehen - to understand by experiencing or, as Mead (1934) described it,
the researcher's ability to take the part of the other and see things from their viewpoint
(empathy).
Can build trust in the people being studied and increase validity - By the researcher
committing to their research by participating in the real-life experiences of the individuals,
they can reduce suspicion and mistrust in the

research. Participant operation allows investigators to build a rapport with the participants
and hoper ellagain more valid information about particular groups and behaviours for
example, in venkateshi (2009) study of iack American gang, he was un able to access the
gang after he gained the trust of the gang leader IT who sponsored and protected him.
Sponsorship makes if easier to separate the roles of participant and observer. Participant
observation is useful for studying groups like gangs or sub-cultural groups in schools or
studying issues like juvenile delinquency, and religious sects.
LIMITATIONS
Possible loss of objectivity - However, because the investigator is engaged within the
study, they may become more attached personally and emotionally involved. This subjective
experience can lead to a loss of objectivity and focus on the research aims. Venkatesh
(2009) found there were times when his involvement was so complete that he acted like one
of them' and effectively ceased to be an objective and fair observer. This can affect the
validity and objectivity of the research.
Hawthorne effect: The knowledge that they are being observed, can influence the way
people behave. While people may be studied in their natural environment, an awareness of
the presence of the researcher may make them behave unnaturally. For example, Venkatesh
witnessed a fake punishment beating designed to demonstrate the limits of his observational
role; higher-level gang members were 'putting on a show' for his benefit. Overt observations
are criticised for recording artificial behaviour and being low in validity.
Costly and time consuming - Overt observation requires substantial amounts of time, effort
and money. Venkatesh, for example, spent around eight years on his study of a single gang.
If a group refuses to be studied, it can cause practical issues as well.
Ethical concerns limit participation: Ethical concerns, such as not participating in illegal
behaviour, may affect the extent to which the researcher is truly explaining how normal
people behave

NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
This is when the observer plays no direct role in the observation setting. They just observe
and record the behaviours being observed, for example, Mary Ainsworth's research with the
Strange Situation.
STRENGTHS
Researcher can maintain objectivity - When the investigator refrains from active
involvement in a study, this enables them to detach their personal feelings and opinions.
This stance can considered more objective lead to more valid and replicable findings. The
observer can stay focussed on the research aims as they're an outsider looking in and
therefore less likely to produce skewed data
More ethical if participants have given full consent to being observed - Most
non-participant observations will have reduced ethical issues if the overt form is used, as
people are aware they are being observed.
LIMITATIONS
Possible loss of insight - By not taking a participant role in the study, the researcher may
not experience what their participants do. They just record what has occurred.In this manner,
they may miss the opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of the psychological
behaviours that are being studied and the experiences of their participants through a lack of
shared understanding, by taking a non-participant role.
Artificial behaviour may arise it participants know they are being observed which can
reduce validity - non-participant observations can be criticised if individuals are aware they
are being observed. This may disturb the normal behaviour of the group. Although
participants may be observed in natural surroundings, researchers just watching and not
participating can prevent real behaviour being recorded.

INTERVIEWS - Any active situation ie. face to face /over phone or skype) where one person
(the interviewer) asks a series of questions of another person (the respondent).
These questions can beepre-de ermined (structured), or created in response
ro ansvers (unstructured) or a miature of the two types (semi structured),
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
An unstructured interview is more flexible than a structured one as it does not have a defined
set of questions. The interviewer may have several themes that they want to cover and it
takes the form of a more relaxed conversation. The interviewee is encouraged to expand on
their answers and the interaction is free flowing as the interviewer and interviewee can go
back and forth.
STRENGTHS
Flexibility - Unstructured and semi structured interviews can enable complex issues to be
explored in detail by tailoring questions based on what the interviewee has already said. The
interviewer may gain information that they had not previously thought about asking. This is
not possible with other methods such as structured interviews and questionnaires.
Lots of rich' data - Also due to the use of open-ended questions all types of interviews can
collect rich detailed data and INSIGHT of both complex and personal issues. Unstructured
interviews have the further advantage of being able to tailor questions to the responses of an
interviewee so that issues can be explored in further depth.
LIMITATIONS
Requires Skilled Personnel - interviewers/researchers need to be trained in effective
interviewing skills. They need to be able to make the interviewee feel comfortable enough to
give truthful answers without being affected by demand characteristics or social desirability
bias. This is important for the validity and integrity of the research. These skills are difficult to
find and would not be necessary with a questionnaire.
Practical Problems - Unstructured interviews can take long time to conduct.
This limits the number that any one research can carry out alone. Compared to estionnaires,
this reduces the number of participants in the research and results in the data being less
representative. There is also a loss of reliability is each interview is completely different from
the one before, often with

different questions being asked to different people. It is almost impossible to replicate.

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
A semi-structured interview is more flexible than a structured one, but not as free as an
unstructured interview. It has a defined set of questions, however the interviewer has the
capacity to develop these questions and go in different directions, if they believe useful
insight can be gained.
A semi structured interview tends to have a more relaxed tone than a structured interview.
The interviewee is encouraged to expand on their answers by the interviewer, if it is relevant,
if not they will stick to the pre-set question and answer.
STRENGTHS
Flexibility - Unstructured and semi structured interviews can enable complex issues to be
explored in detail by tailoring questions based on what the interviewee has already said. The
interviewer may gain information that they had not previously thought about asking. This is
not possible with other methods such as structured interviews and questionnaires.
 Lots of rich data as well as numerical data - Also due to the use of both open and closed
ended questions semi structured interviews can collect rich detailed data and INSIGHT of
both complex and personal issues, as well as statistical data that can be counted if needed.
Similar to unstructured interviews, semi-structured interviews have the further advantage of
being able to tailor questions to the responses of an interviewee so that issues can be
explored in further depth.
LIMITATIONS
Requires Skilled Personnel - interviewers/researchers need to be trained in effective
interviewing skills. They need to be able to make the interviewee feel comfortable enough to
give truthful answers without being affected by demand characteristics or social desirability
bias. This is important for the validity and integrity of the research. These skills are difficult to
find and would not be necessary with a questionnaire.
2. Practical Problems - Unstructured interviews can take long time to conduct.This limits
number the number that any one research can carry out alone.Compared to questionnaires,
this reduces the number of participants in the research and results in the data being less
representative. There is also a loss of reliability as each interview is completely different from
the one before, often with different questions being asked to different people. It is almost
impossible to replicate.

FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS

• Group
interviewing is the systematic questioning of several individuals simultaneously in formis or
informal settings (Fontana & Frey, 1994), Tis method of interviewing is not a frequent one in
sociology as the emphasis has been on individual interviews, but there are times that it has
its usefulness.
• The aim in bringing together a focus group is for the group to be representative of a larger
population. There will be some diversity in the group, which can be obtained by selecting a
stratified or quota sample. The researcher can then ask questions or observe the group,
whilst directing them on a specific issue or subject.
STRENGTHS
Being in groups can increase comfort and valid contributions - An advantage of group
interviews is that the focus is not completely on the researcher to raise and direct questions.
Paul Willis used group interviews in his research on young males and found that the method
helped the group act naturally and be more relaxed within the group.As such Willis could
analyse additional behaviours like body language and interpersonal interactions providing
even richer data.
Dual data collection - Researchers can use the group interview setting to combine
questioning with the opportunity to also observe group dynamics and norms. It allows
researchers to find out not just what respondents say but also how they respond to the views
of others. A skilled researcher can take this opportunity to not only interview but observe as
well and produce a different kind of qualitative data.
Other strengths:
discover how different groups think and feel about a topic and why they hold certain
opinions
they are useful to obtain detailed in-depth information about personal and group feelings,
perceptions and opinions
they can save time and money compared to individual interviews
they offer the opportunity to seek clarification
 focus groups are closer to real life than individual interviews enabling researchers to
achieve verstehen
LIMITATIONS
1) Conformity, peer pressure and participant reactivity - A disadvantage of group interviews
is the possibility that there could be peer pressure with people often conforming with the
majority view in the group, or on some occasions, participants reacting to other viewpoints
just to be argumentative rather than giving their own

true views. Therefore, groups can be hard to control and manage with many respondents
speaking at once it, making it difficult to both record and analyse data.
Practicalities and expertise required to keep group conversation focused - The researcher
must ensure the interview stays focussed on the topic. It is easy to get distracted which
wastes time, resources and money. For example, group interviews can be dominated by one
or two strong personalities. This can create a skewed dynamic that loses focus and validity.
A skilled researcher will be required to ensure others are not stopped from contributing to the
discussion.
Other limitations:
some participants may find a focus group situation intimidating or off-putting and therefore
may choose not to speak much or change their answers (social desirability bias)
they are often self-selected samples so they may not be representative, limiting the
generalisability of the findings.