Principle and Practice of Systematics
Introduction
Systematics is the study of diversification and relationships of life forms of extinct
extant. And According to Blackwelder and Boyden (1952), “systematic is the entire field
dealing with the kind of animals, their distinctions, classification, and evolution.
Padian (1999), added that systematic can be seen as the philosophy of organization nature,
taxonomy as the use of sets of organic data guided by systematic principles, and classification
as the tabular or hierarchical end result of this activity.
Kapoor (1998) considered that the relationship of taxonomy to systematics is
somewhat like that of theoretical physics to the whole field of physics. Taxonomy includes
classification and nomenclature but systematics includes both taxonomy and evolution. In
simple terms, actually there are two parts of systematic. The first part, taxonomy, is
concerned with describing and naming the different kinds of organisms, whether exist or
extinct. This science is supported by institutions holding collection of organisms which are
curated with relevant data. The second part of systematics, evolution, is concerned with
understanding just how all these kinds of animals arose in the first place and what processes
are at work today to maintain or change them. Systematics uses taxonomy as a means to
understand organisms. Systematics elucidate the new methods and theories that can be used
to classify species based on similarities of traits and possible mechanisms of evolution, a
change in gene pool of a population over time. According to Wagele (2005), although
theoretically the term taxonomy and systematic could be synonyms, in practice, however,
differences in uses are obvious and a systematist and a taxonomist can conduct different
analyses (https://sites.google.com/site/lutfurrahmansaikia/a-note-on-iczn/home/animal-
taxonomy).
Discussion
Systematics provides basic understanding about the components of biodiversity which
is necessary for effective decision making about conservation and sustainable use. Presently
we are faced with the acute problem of saving our crops and trees from the attack of various
kinds of pests. So, it is necessary to know the correct names of such pests; before their proper
control, and eradication. As a systematist, correct identification of pest species, which is vital
for its effective control. Similarly, many of the plant diseases are caused by certain vectors.
The correct identification of a particular vector is vital for bringing the vector under control
by killing its transmitters.
On the other hand, natural enemies of pests can be introduced for biological control of
pests. The biological control is much more economical than the chemical control. In 1940s a
parasite Archytus incertus was introduced from Uruguay and Argentina into the U.S.A. to
control armyworms. The sytematists are presently greatly involved in designing and
implementing the biological control programmes of pests and diseases most effectively. This
can be an eye opener to further widen knowledge through research to discover more
biological control that can help problem cause by pest.
Conclusion
Systematics is the key to understand fascinating biodiversity around us. Systematics
benefits the human beings by providing the fundamental knowledge about the sustainable
resource management, environmental protection, and landscape preservation to food security.
Systematic biology provides the skill to make policies for successful implementation of
preservation and management of our biodiversity, which is critical to have long term quality
of life for us as well as to our nature.
References
https://sites.google.com/site/lutfurrahmansaikia/a-note-on-iczn/home/animal-taxonomy
Principle and Practice of Systematics
Introduction
Sytematics is commonly defined as the study of biological diversity and the
relationships among organisms. It plays a central role by providing the means for
characterizing the organisms that being study. Through the production of classifications that
reflect evolutionary relationships it also allows predictions and testable hypotheses. By
allowing taxa (taxonomic groups) to be correctly identified classifications provide a key to
the literature and a means for organizing information (Danks 1988).
Discussion
The importance of sound systematics in pest management is obvious. Especially that
we are conducting researches on garlic were in pest incidence are one of the needed data to
be observed. Pest species and their natural enemies must be correctly identified before
adequate control measures can be contemplated. Researcher like me can be guided with these
principles of systematic: Armed with identification something about the biology and
distribution of the pest organism can be automatically known. If the species has previously
been studied the literature can be tapped for information. If it has not been studied some
preliminary measures can be taken based on knowledge accumulated on related species. If it
is an exotic pest and biological control is contemplated, the identification can help determine
the original home of the species and the area where foreign exploration for parasites,
predators or pathogens is likely to be most productive. Similarly, identification of the natural
enemies already in place allows some estimate of the importance of natural control and the
likelihood that the introduction of exotics will be required.
Conclusion
Many new pests and diseases of plants, animals and even human beings are being
rising. Prompt identification of these pests and diseases of taxonomist or systematist is
important.
References
Danks, H. V. 1988. Systematics in support of entomology. Annual Review of Entomology
33:271-296.
General Biology
Introduction
Biology helps understand how cells and organisms work. It involves the study of life
and it is very important as it tells us about the natural world. It tells us about human body,
helping many scientists develop cures and treatments for many diseases. It also tells about the
bodies of other animals and it can provide clinical treatment for farm animals and also pets. It
also tells about plants and how they can be beneficial to human life. It also gives method to
classify animals and help us understand animals. It gives us a thorough picture of human
body and the organisms inside us, also about the metabolism and other processes inside the
human body. It also tells us about the behavioural acts of humans and animals.
As a science biology helps human life in many ways. It helps in increasing production
of food, combating diseases and also aids in protecting and conserving our environment. The
advances in the field of biology have resulted in high standard of living in the field of food
and health. Production of plants has been increased by improving the varieties and
development of high-yield and diseases resistant varieties of plants and animals that are used
as food.
Discussion
Learning the importance of biology can be the answer to some world problems. It will
provide answers to large-scale concerns that may affect anyone from different parts of the
world. It can even offer solutions to environmental issues without compromising or
sacrificing anything along the way. For example when our country is experiencing food
shortages the biological ideologies anchored with agriculture can utilized to develop efficient
and long lasting methods for producing more food to sustain life.
Furthermore the significance of biology can be the key to the formation of a healthy
biosphere where all living things and nonliving things have a balanced interaction. As of
press time human beings have became the primary cause why other living organisms start to
deplete in number. With this, we can propose for a research activity to find a way of bringing
back the sustainability of life here on earth.
Perhaps one of the best importances of biology is the paving way for humans to
conduct scientific investigations, which are very useful in discovering new things through the
scientific method. We can do experiments to learn significant and interesting facts about the
world. We can also do fieldwork having expedition and explorations into unknown lands to
gather more information about life.
Conclusion
The science of biology is mainly studying about life. It provides an in-depth, scientific
understanding of how all living and nonliving organisms interact with each other. It gives
insights on how diverse life forms are. Moreover, biology encompasses other fields of
research that are related to the sustainability of life including the environment, ecosystem,
food quality, causes of illnesses and development of medicines. Apparently the study of life
has somehow helped in shaping the world. It also gives so many credible and reliable answers
that explain why things happen in a more scientific manner.
References
https://www.britannica.com/science/biology
https://www.bioexplorer.net/importance-of-biology.html/
General Biology
Introduction
Biology is an interesting subject that has been intriguing scientific minds for several
centuries. Despite exponential developments in technology over the past few centuries, the
origin of life on earth is still one of the biggest mysteries yet to be unraveled.
The study of biology has helped humans to understand the similarities between all
forms of life. For example, the genetic code that helps to construct all living organisms is
very similar in all life forms. The genetic material is stored in the form of DNA for all plants,
animals, bacteria and fungi. By studying the DNA of all these different life forms, biologists
have determined that all living creatures are related to each other.
Discussion
Knowledge gain in biology can help me understand how plants and organisms interact
with each other, what are their traits, evolutionary ancestors and many more. Not to mention,
it helps us be safe from dangerous animals, and allows us to understand how to
prevent bacteria and viruses from entering our body and also how to prevent bacteria, viruses
and fungi from entering into animals and plants.
Biology also studies the origin of diseases and plagues, such as infections, pathologies
of animals and damage to plants and trees. Biology encompasses the study of the functions of
living beings, enhancement of useful species, factors that cause illnesses, discovery and
production of medicines and sustainable use of natural resources. Through biotechnology,
biologists find efficient ways to produce food and other supplies for people. They investigate
the processes involved in producing various nutritional substances.
Conclusion
Biology provides and is continuously providing everyone with vital information about
the existence of living organisms here on earth. It does not stop in looking for solutions that
can completely eradicate the different environmental issues still persisting today. It pursues in
getting strong evidence on how life came to be.
References
https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-importance-of-biology
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-importance-of-Biology-in-our-daily-life
Phylophenologic of Hexapods
Introduction
Phylogenetic analyses of single genes and transcriptomes confirm that Hexapoda are a
subgroup of Pancrustacea, arguably most closely related with the specialized cave-dwelling
Remipedia. The earliest evolutionary history in the marine environment remains unknown.
The monophyly of Hexapoda is clearly supported by molecular evidence, by the specific
tagmosis, and by morphological apomorphies implied by the Pancrustacea concept. The basal
branching pattern, i.e., the interrelationships of the entognathous orders remain ambivalent
(Beutel et. al).
Discussion
Systematics takes that information and organizes it into a system (hence the name).
This system is hierarchical that is, each group is joined with others in a larger group, which in
turn is joined with other larger groups into a yet larger group, and so on. All members of any
one of these groups share certain characteristics, and so phylogeny and systematics, taken
together, allow one to make predictions about organisms once their position in a classification
(and thus their evolutionary relationships) are known.
Some of the predictions may be of great importance to the practical (applied)
entomologist for example, in ascertaining what insects may become pests when a crop is
introduced into a new area, in deciding what methods may most effectively control or
manage pests already established in a crop, and in one instance perhaps in determining
whether a group of disease vectors presents a threat. Or, to put the argument more basically
and more simply: This is how a knowledge of systematic and phylogeny can help
entomologists with practical problems: If we know something about one species of organism,
then we can extend that knowledge to its relatives.
The closer these relatives are, the more closely related they are phylogenetically, then
the closer and the more exact and the more detailed is the knowledge that we can extend.
Two species in the same genus share many characteristics. Two genera in the same family
share fewer characteristics, but they share more characteristics than two families in the same
order. Some of this shared information can be useful in practical entomology. But of course
before it can be useful, we must know accurately what these systematic and phylogenetic
relationships are.
Conclusion
Like other limited character sets, it is insufficient to resolve the phylogenetic
relationships in a highly diverse group like Hexapoda. It is apparent that the future
perspective of insect phylogenetics lies in a complex, multifaceted approach.
References
Beutel,R.G., Yavorskaya M.I., Mashimo, Y., Fukui M., and Meusemann, K. The Phylogeny
Of Hexapoda (Arthropoda) And The Evolution Of Megadiversity. Proc. Arthropod. Embryol.
Soc. Jpn. 51, 1-15(2017)
Fossil history and evolutions of hexapods
Introduction
The Hexapoda is the most diverse clade of the history of life. They cannot be
considered as the oldest terrestrial animals and the first Hexapoda were small apterous
animals of the Devonian soil fauna, apparently not very diverse and „dominated‟ by
myriapods and arachnids at that time. Things dramatically changed during the Early
Carboniferous with the appearance and the expansion of the winged insects. This crucial
innovation allowed this clade to diversify in a spectacular way in the Late Carboniferous. The
main clades were already present at the end of this period, viz. Paleoptera, „Polyneoptera‟,
Paraneoptera and Holometabola.
The latter two groups became truly diverse and began to dominate the animal
kingdom after the major Permo-Triassic biodiversity crisis. Nevertheless no one can really
judge a causal link between the two phenomena. After the Triassic, all insect orders are
present and many modern families are as old as the Jurassic, a situation completely
Discussion
Fossil insects can be found as compressions in lacustrine or fluviatile rocks, or
included in fossil resins (ambers). Compressed fossils are generally preserved in two
dimensions, which is not a real problem for the study of the wing venation but can render
very difficult that of the body structures. Inclusions in amber have the great advantages of
being three-dimensional and sometime exquisitely preserved, even with internal organs such
as genital structures, now observable with the modern tools of the X-ray tomography.
But inclusions in fossil resins are generally small fossils due to the size of the amber
pieces and to the facility with which large and powerful living insects can escape from fresh
resin. Also, fossil resins with significant arthropod faunas are rather young (Early Cretaceous
of Lebanon) compared to the antiquity of the Hexapoda (Devonian). On the contrary,
compressed fossils can be very large, and in some outcrops also exquisitely preserved with
very delicate details (as is typical of the Middle Jurassic volcanic ash of Inner Mongolia,
China).
Some fossil insects are preserved in more exotic ways, included in selenite, salts,
gypsum, cave stalactite, or sedimentary quartz. They can be three-dimensional replicas in
silica, phosphate, or iron hydroxide (Cenozoic of Quercy, France; Early Cretaceous Crato
Formation, Brazil).
Knowledge on those earliest winged insects will be a good help. The fact that these insect
assemblages comprise taxa with a high morphological disparity corresponding to very different
ecological niches, comprising detritivorous, herbivorous, and carnivorous insects will give us
more idea on how they interact with the other organism present in the environment. Interestingly
the terrestrial plants seem to have diversified quite earlier than the phytophagous insects.
Conclusion
For all these reasons, fossil insects are much more frequent than what was supposed
before the 1990s. It is now possible to use them as direct witnesses of the hexapod evolution,
to complete, date, and test phylogenies based on recent taxa.
References
Nel, A and Garrouste R. Evolution of phylogenetic tree of life - Origin and Evolution of
Hexapoda
Fossil history and evolutions of hexapods
Introduction
Hexapods are one of the earliest known lineages of terrestrial based insects, dating all
the way back to the Early Devonian period about 412 million years ago or possibly even to
the Late Silurian period (Misof et. al, 2014). These early fossils are that of Rhynies
(Rhyniognatha hirsti), or springtails (Collembola). Some basal insect fossils could date to 379
million years ago, however the fossil evidence is sparse and therefore scientists are unable to
say definitively what lineage these fossils are from.
However, fossils of other early insects include those of bristletails (Archaeognatha)
that date to about 390 million years ago (Engel et. al, 2004). Most of this evidence suggests
that insects were one of the first terrestrial organisms and were major selectors on land based
plant life (Engel et. al, 2004).
Discussion
Fossil evidence of key structures has helped scientists to determine if such structures
allowed for the massive speciation of the Hexapod lineage (Nicholson et. al, 2014). The fossil
record can be a good way to show early existence of particular groups and can help to infer
earlier origins if some groups are more diverse or abundant than others (Thomas & Ware,
2011). However, the fossil record is not as complete for certain groups of Hexapods, thus
making it not as reliable as other dating methods (Thomas & Ware, 2011).
On the other hand nmolecular clock evidence unlike the fossil record, it can be seen as
more reliable in some cases. Using genomes of living Hexapods, estimates for divergence
dates of certain groups can be found even in the midst of a sparse fossil record (Thomas &
Ware, 2011). In a study on the evolutionary history of insects, molecular clock data led
scientists to conclude that Hexapods may have originated earlier than the Silurian period in
the Cambrian or Early Ordovician periods (Misof et. al, 2014). These results have been
controversial, as there are little to no actual fossils of Hexapods from the Cambrian to the
Silurian periods (Misof et. al, 2014). Indeed, some scientists have hypothesized that Hexapod
evolution happened drastically earlier than paleontological evidence based on molecular
evidence (Thomas & Ware, 2011).
Though there are benefits to using molecular clock data, there are also drawbacks as
well. Using molecular clock data can help to fill gaps in the fossil record, but data can only be
obtained from living or recently extinct species. This is due to the fact that molecular clock
data relies on using DNA sequencing to infer genetic changes over time, but genetic material
cannot be obtained from ancient species (Thomas & Ware, 2011). Despite these limitations,
molecular clock data has supported the idea of Hexapods being a monophyletic group, and
even helped to confirm previous hypotheses about the close relation between Hexapoda and
Crustacea (Misof et. al, 2014).
This knowledge on fossil history can be guide while studying insect systematic
because its gives an idea and background on how they begin. It can be then help in properly
detecting insects that may be encountered in the field while conducting researches.
Conclusion
Hexapods are one of the most diverse classes in the animal kingdom. In fact,
Hexapods alone make up over half of all recorded species. With such diversity and success,
you can bet there a few innovations that have warranted their success.
References
Engel, M. S., & Grimaldi, D. A. (January 01, 2004). New light shed on the oldest
insect. Nature, 427, 6975, 627-30.
Misof, B., Liu, S., Meusemann, K., Peters, R. S., Donath, A., Mayer, C., Frandsen, P. B.,
Zhou, X. (November 06, 2014). Phylogenomics resolves the timing and pattern of insect
evolution. Science, 346, 6210, 763-767.
Nicholson, D.B., Ross, A.J., Mayhew, P.J. Fossil evidence for key innovations in the
evolution of insect diversity. Proc. R. Soc. B: 2014; 282(1803).
Nicholson, D.B., Ross, A.J., Mayhew, P.J. Fossil evidence for key innovations in the
evolution of insect diversity. Proc. R. Soc. B: 2014; 282(1803).
