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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Introduction to thinkers of the Chapter

Alfred Zimmern:
Sir Alfred Eckhard Zimmern was an English classical scholar, historian, and political scientist working
on international relations. He was born in 1879 in UK. His book „The Third British Empire‟ was
among the first to apply the expression "British Commonwealth" to the British Empire. He was a
prominent liberal internationalist.
Works
S. No. Name of work Year of
Publishing
1. Henry Grattan 1902
2. Nationality and Government with other war-time essays 1919
3. Greek Political Thought an essay in The Legacy of Greece 1921
4. Europe in Convalescence 1922
5. America and Europe 1929
6. Prospects of Democracy & Other Essays
7. The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth Century Athens 1911
8. The Economic Weapon Against Germany, London 1918
9. The Third British Empire 1926
10. The League of Nations and the Rule of Law 1918–1935 1936
A G Frank
He was born in 1929 in Germany and died in 2005 in Luxemburg. He was a German-American
sociologist and economic historian who promoted dependency theory after 1970 and world-systems
theory after 1984. He employed some Marxian concepts on political economy, but rejected Marx's
stages of history, and economic history generally.
Books
S. No. Work Pub. Year
1. The Development of Underdevelopment 1966
2. Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America 1967
3. Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution 1969
4. On Capitalist Underdevelopment 1975
5. World Accumulation, 1492–1789 1978
6. Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment 1978
7. Crisis: In the World Economy 1980
8. Crisis: In the Third World 1981
9. Reflections on the World Economic Crisis 1981
10. Dynamics of Global Crisis 1982
11. The European Challenge 1983
12. Critique and Anti-Critique 1984
13. The World System: Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand? 1996
14. Re Orient: Global Economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley 1998
15. Re Orienting the 19th Century: Global Economy in the Continuing Asian 2013
Age
Bernard Brodie
(May 20, 1910 – November 24, 1978) was an American military strategist well known for establishing
the basics of nuclear strategy. He was known as „The American Clausewitz‟ and „the original nuclear
strategist‟. He was an initial architect of nuclear deterrence strategy and tried to ascertain the role and
value of nuclear weapons after their creation.
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Book
1. Sea Power in the Machine Age 1941
2. A Layman‟s Guide to Naval Strategy 1942
3. The Absolute Weapon: Atomic Power and World Order
4. Strategy in the Missile Age 1959
5. From Cross-Bow to H-Bomb 1960
6. Escalation and the Nuclear Option 1966
7. Bureaucracy, Politics, and Strategy (with Henry Kissinger) 1968
8. The Future of Deterrence in U.S. Strategy 1968
9. War and Politics 1973
10. A Guide to the Reading of "On War" 1976
Barry Buzan
barry buzan is Professor of International Relations at the London School of Economics. He was born in
1946. From 1988 to 2002 he was Project Director at the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute (COPRI).
From 1995 to 2002 he was research Professor of International Studies at the University of Westminster.
His research interest includes the conceptual and regional aspects of international security, structural
realism, international society, and the 'English School' approach to International Relations.
Books
S. No. Work Year
1. People, States & Fear: The National Security Problem in International Relations 1983
2. The Logic of Anarchy: Neo-realism to Structural Realism 1993
3. Security: A New Framework for Analysis 1997
4. The Arms Dynamic in World Politics 1998
5. The Mind Map Book 2000
6. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security 2003
7. The United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First 2004
Century
8. From International to World Society? English School Theory and the Social 2004
Structure of Globalisation
9. The Evolution of International Security Studies 2009
10. Non-Western International Relations Theory: Perspectives on and beyond Asia 2010
11. An Introduction to the English School of International Relations: The Societal 2014
Approach
12. The Global Transformation: History, Modernity and the Making of International 2015
Relations
13. The Making of Global International Relations 2019
Charles McClelland
He is a social historian with a particular focus on the history of the professions. He is professor emeritus
of History at the University of New Mexico and an associate faculty member of the Institute for the
Medical Humanities at the University of Texas Medical Branch. He was born on April 25, 1917 and
died on March 31, 2006. He was among the first to introduce General Systems Theory in the field of
International Relations. With Walter F. Buckley, Morton A. Kaplan, Karl W. Deutsch, Robert A. Dahl
and David Easton McClelland was among the first to introduce General Systems Theory in the social
sciences. In his 1966 book „Theory and the International System‟ McClelland introduced the idea to
apply general systems ideas in the study of international relations from different perspectives, which led
to the definition of different approaches. In 1969 McClelland postulated the "wisdom approach", an
approach that "invites scholars to prudently examine history and appreciate the precarious nature of
human conduct, rather than being overwhelmed by masses of data, which more often than not lead to
blind spots of partisanship.

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Works
S. No. Work Year
1. Applications of General Systems Theory in International Relations 1955
2. The United Nations: the Continuing Debate. Chandler publishing 1960
3. Nuclear weapons, missiles, and future war: problem for the sixties 1960
4. Theory of the International System 1967
5. An Interaction Survey of the Middle East, with Anne Ancoli 1970
Carl W. Deutsch
Karl Wolfgang Deutsch (21 July 1912 – 1 November 1992) He was born in 1912 and died I 1992. He
was a social and political scientist from Prague. He was the Stanfield Professor of International Peace at
Harvard University. His work focused on the study of war and peace, nationalism, co-operation, and
communication. He is also well known for his interest in introducing quantitative methods and formal
system analysis and model-thinking into the field of political and social sciences and is one of the best
known social scientists of the 20th century.
Works
 The Nerves of Government: Models of Political Communication and Control (1966)
 Arms Control and the Atlantic Alliance (1967)
 Nationalism and its Alternatives (1969
 Problems of World Modeling: Political and Social Implications (1977),
 The Analysis of International Relations (1978),
 Tides Among Nations (1979)
 Politics and Government (1980)
 Comparative Government: Politics of Industrialized and Developing Nations (1981
 Voyage of the Mind
David Mittarany
He was born in 1888 in Romania and died 0n 1975. He became a naturalized British scholar, historian
and political theorist. The richest source of information concerning Mitrany‟s life and intellectual
activity are the memoirs he published in 1975 in The Functional Theory of Politics.
Works
 The Problem of International Sanctions (1925)
 The Land and the Peasant in Romania: the War and Agrarian Reform, 1917-1921 (1930)
 The Progress of International Government (1933)
 The Effect of the War in South Eastern Europe (1936)
 A Working Peace System (1943)
 The Road to Security (1944)
 American Interpretations (1946)
 World Unity and the Nations (1950)
 Marx against the Peasant: a Study in Social Dogmatism (1951)
 Food and Freedom (1954)
 The Functional Theory of Politics. New York: St. Martin's Press., 1975
E. Haas
Ernst Bernard Haas was born in 1924 and died on March 6, 2003. He was a German-American political
scientist who made numerous contributions to theoretical discussions in the field of international
relations. He was a leading authority on international relations theory and was the founder of neo-
functionalism. Haas was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and acted as a
consultant to many national and international organizations. Haas was born in Frankfurt, Germany, in
1924 to a secular Jewish family. In 1997, The Uniting of Europe was chosen as one of the 50 most
significant books in international relations in the twentieth century by the journal Foreign Affairs. His
works are given below.
 The balance of power as a guide to policy-making, 1953
 The Uniting of Europe. Stanford, 1958
 Beyond the Nation State. Stanford, 1964
 Human Rights and International Action, 1970.
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 Nationalism, Liberalism and Progress, 2000.
 The Uniting of Europe, 2004.
E. H. Carr
Edward Hallett was born on 28 June 1892 and died on 3 November 1982. He was a British historian,
diplomat, journalist and international relations theorist, and an opponent of empiricism within
historiography. Carr was best known for A History of Soviet Russia, a 14-volume history of the Soviet
Union from 1917 to 1929, for his writings on international relations, particularly The Twenty Years'
Crisis, and for his book What Is History? in which he laid out historio-graphical principles rejecting
traditional historical methods and practices. He also participated at the Paris Peace Conference as a
member of the British delegation.
Works
 Karl Marx: A Study in Fanaticism, 1934.
 International Relations since the Peace Treaties, 1937.
 The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919–1939: an Introduction to the Study of International Relations,
1939
 Britain: A Study of Foreign Policy from the Versailles Treaty to the Outbreak of War, 1939.
 Conditions of Peace, 1942.
 Nationalism and After, 945.
 The Soviet Impact on the Western World, 1946.
 A History of Soviet Russia, 1950–1978. Collection of 14 volumes:
F Zakaria
Fareed Rafiq Zakaria was born 20 January 1964 and is an Indian-American journalist, political
commentator, and author. He is the host of CNN's Fareed Zakaria GPS and writes a weekly paid column
for The Washington Post. He has been a columnist for Newsweek, editor of Newsweek International,
and an editor at large of Time.
Books
 Ten Lessons for a Post-Pandemic World 2020
 In Defence of a Liberal Education, 2015
 The Post-American World, Release 2011
 The Post-American World, 2008
 The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad 2003
 From Wealth to Power, 1998
Francis Fukuyama
Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama was born on October 27, 1952 and is an American political scientist,
political economist, and writer. Fukuyama is known for his book The End of History and the Last Man
(1992), which argues that the worldwide spread of liberal democracies and free-market capitalism of the
West and its lifestyle may signal the end point of humanity's socio-cultural evolution and become the
final form of human government. However, his subsequent book Trust: Social Virtues and Creation of
Prosperity (1995) modified his earlier position to acknowledge that culture cannot be cleanly separated
from economics. Fukuyama is also associated with the rise of the neoconservative movement, from
which he has since distanced himself.
Books
 The End of History and the Last Man, 1992
 Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity., 1995
 The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order, 1999
 State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st century, 2004
 America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy 2006
 After the Neo Cons: Where the Right went Wrong, 2006
 Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Present Day. 2014
 Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment, 2018
Gunnar Myrdal
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was born on 6 December 1898 and died on 17 May 1987. He was a Swedish
economist and sociologist. In 1974, he received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences along
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with Friedrich Hayek for "their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and
for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena."
When his wife, Alva Myrdal, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1982, they became the fourth ever
married couple to have won Nobel Prizes, and the first to win independent of each other.
He is best known in the United States for his study of race relations, which culminated in his book An
American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. The study was influential in the
1954 landmark U.S. Supreme Court Decision Brown v. Board of Education. In Sweden, his work and
political influence were important to the establishment of the Folkhemmet and the welfare state. Myrdal
and his wife were staunch believers in Social engineering (political science).
Works
S. No. Works Year
1. The Political Element in the Development of Economic Theory 1930
2. Contact With America 1941
3. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy 1944
4. An International Economy, Problems and Prospects 1956
5. Rich Lands and Poor 1957
6. Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions 1957
7. Myrdal Beyond the Welfare State 1960
8. America and Vietnam 1967
9. Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations 1968
10. The Challenge of World Poverty: A World Anti-Poverty Program in Outline. 1970
George F Kennan
George Frost Kennan was born on February 16, 1904 and died on March 17, 2005.He was an American
diplomat and historian. He was best known as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet
expansion during the Cold War. He lectured widely and wrote scholarly histories of the relations
between the USSR and the United States. He was also one of the groups of foreign policy elders known
as "The Wise Men"
S. No. Work Year
1. "X" "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" 1947
2. American Diplomacy 1951
3. Realities of American Foreign Policy 1954
4. Russia, the Atom, and the West 1958
5. Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin 1961
6. The Nuclear Delusion: Soviet-American Relations in the Atomic Age 1982
7. The Kennan Diaries 2014
Hedley Bull
He was born in Australia in 1931. Hedley Norman Bull FBA was Professor of International Relations at
the Australian National University, the London School of Economics and the University of Oxford until
his death from cancer in 1985. He was Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at Oxford
from 1977 to 1985, and died there.
S. No. Work Year
1. The control of the arms race: Disarmament and arms control in the missile age 1965
2. Strategic studies and its critics 1967
3. The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics 1977
4. The Expansion of International Society, co-edited with Adam Watson 1984
5. Intervention in World Politics 1984
6. Justice in international relations 1984
7. The Challenge of the Third Reich 1986

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Holsti
Olavi Rudolf Holsti was born in Geneva, Switzerland, on August 7, 1933. He received his Bachelor of
Arts degree from Stanford University in 1954, his Master of Arts in Teaching from Wesleyan
University in 1956, and his Ph.D. from Stanford University in 1962. He was professor of Political
Science in Duke University. . He was noted for his writings on international affairs, American foreign
policy, and content analysis, decision-making in politics and diplomacy, and crises. He died in 2020.
Henry Kissinger
Henry Alfred Kissinger born on May 27, 1923 and was a German-born American politician, diplomat,
and geopolitical consultant who served as United States Secretary of State and National Security
Advisor under the presidential administrations of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. A Jewish refugee
who fled Nazi Germany with his family in 1938, he became National Security Advisor in 1969 and U.S.
Secretary of State in 1973. For his actions negotiating a ceasefire in Vietnam, Kissinger received the
1973 Nobel Peace Prize under controversial circumstances, with two members of the committee
resigning in protest. A practitioner of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a prominent role in United States
foreign policy between 1969 and 1977.
Works
 Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy 1957
 The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy 1961
 American Foreign Policy: Three Essays 1969
 Diplomacy 1994
 Does America Need a Foreign Policy? Toward a Diplomacy for the 21st Century 2001
 On China 2011
 World Order 2014
Immanuel Wallenstein
Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein was born on September 28, 1930 and died on August 31, 2019. He was
an American sociologist and economic historian. He is perhaps best known for his development of the
general approach in sociology which led to the emergence of his world-systems approach. He was a
Senior Research Scholar at Yale University from 2000 until his death in 2019, and published bimonthly
syndicated commentaries through Agence Global on world affairs from October 1998 to July 2019.
J. Mearsheimer
John Joseph Mearsheimer was born on December 14, 1947 is an American political scientist and
international relations scholar, who belongs to the realist school of thought. He is the Professor at the
University of Chicago. He has been described as the most influential realist of his generation.
Mearsheimer is best known for developing the theory of offensive realism, which describes the
interaction between great powers as being primarily driven by the rational desire to achieve regional
hegemony in an anarchic international system. He was a vocal opponent of the Iraq War in 2003 and
was almost alone in opposing Ukraine's decision to give up its nuclear weapons in 1994, predicting that
it would invariably face Russian aggression without a nuclear deterrent.
Books
 Conventional Deterrence 1983
 Liddell Hart and the Weight of History 1988
 The Tragedy of Great Power Politics 2001
 The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy 2007
 Why Leaders Lie: The Truth About Lying in International Politics 2011
 The Great Delusion: Liberal Dreams and International Realities 2018
Joseph Nye
Joseph Samuel Nye Jr. was born on January 19, 1937 in American. He was a political scientist. He is the
co-founder, along with Robert Keohane, of the international relations theory of neo-liberalism,
developed in their 1977 book Power and Interdependence. Together with Keohane, he developed the
concepts of asymmetrical and complex interdependence. They also explored transnational relations and
world politics in an edited volume in the 1970s. More recently, he explained the distinction between
hard power and soft power, and pioneered the theory of soft power. His notion of "smart power" ("the

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ability to combine hard and soft power into a successful strategy") became popular with the use of this
phrase by members of the Clinton Administration, and more recently the Obama Administration.
Work
 Pan Africanism and East African integration 1965
 Peace in Parts: Integration and Conflict in Regional 1971
 Transnational Relations and World Politics, co-authored with Robert O. Keohane, 1972
 Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition, co-authored with Keohane 2000
 Living with Nuclear Weapons, 1983
 Hawks, Doves and Owls: An Agenda for Avoiding Nuclear War 1985
 Nuclear Ethics 1986
 Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power 1990
 The Paradox of American Power: Why the World‟s Only Superpower Can‟t Go it Alone 2002
 Power in the Global Information Age: From Realism to Globalization 2004
 Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (Public Affairs, 2004)
 "Soft Power and American Foreign Policy." Political Science Quarterly (2004).
 The Power Game: A Washington Novel 2004
 The Powers to Lead 2008
 The Future of Power 2011
 Is the American Century Over? 2015
 Do Morals Matter? Presidents and Foreign Policy from FDR to Trump 2020
Johan Galtung
Johan Vincent Galtung was born on 24 October 1930 and was a Norwegian sociologist, and the
principal founder of the discipline of peace and conflict studies. He was the main founder of the Peace
Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) in 1959 and served as its first director until 1970. He also established
the Journal of Peace Research in 1964. In 1969 he was appointed to the world's first chair in peace and
conflict studies, at the University of Oslo. He resigned his Oslo professorship in 1977 and has since held
professorships at several other universities; from 1993 to 2000 he taught as Distinguished Professor of
Peace Studies at the University of Hawaii. He has been based in Kuala Lumpur, where he was the first
Tun Mahathir Professor of Global Peace at the International Islamic University Malaysia until 2015.
Works
 Gandhis politiske etikk (Gandhi's political ethics, 1955, with philosopher Arne Næss)
 Violence, Peace and Peace Research (1969)
 Members of Two Worlds (1971)
 Peace: Research – Education – Action (1975)
 Europe in the Making (1989)
 Peace By Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization (1996)
 50 Years: 100 Peace and Conflict Perspectives (2008)
 Democracy – Peace – Development (2008, with Paul D. Scott)
 50 Years: 25 Intellectual Landscapes Explored (2008)
 Globalizing God: Religion, Spirituality and Peace (2008)
Kenneth Waltz
Kenneth Neal Waltz was born on June 8, 1924 and died on May 12, 2013. He was an American political
scientist who was a member of the faculty both at the University of California, Berkeley and Columbia
University and one of the most prominent scholars in the field of international relations. He was a
veteran of both World War II and the Korean War. Waltz was one of the original founders of neo-
realism, or structural realism, in international relations theory and later became associated with the
school of defensive neo-realism. Waltz's theories have been extensively debated within the field of
international relations. His 1979 book Theory of International Politics is the most assigned book in
International Relations graduate training at U.S. universities.
Works
 Man, the State, and War 1959.
 Foreign Policy and Democratic Politics: The American and British Experience 1967.
 Theory of International Politics 1979
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 The Use of Force: Military Power and International Politics 1983
 Reflections on Theory of International Politics. A Response to My Critics, in: Keohane, Robert:
Neo-realism and Its Critics. 1986.
 The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate Renewed 1995.
 Realism and International Politics 2008.
Kenneth W. Thompson
Kenneth W. Thompson was born on August 29, 1921 and died on February 2, 2013. He was an
American academic and author known for his contributions to normative theory in international
relations. In 1978 he became director of the Miller Centre of Public Affairs at the University of
Virginia. He retired as director in 1998, but continued to head its Forum Program until 2004.
Works
 Principles and Problems of International Politics: Selected Readings. With Hans Morgenthau,
1951.
 Political Realism and the Crisis of World Politics: An American Approach to Foreign Policy.
Princeton, 1960
 The Moral Issue in Statecraft. Baton Rouge, 1966.
 Interpreters and Critics of the Cold War, 1978
 Morality and Foreign Policy. Baton Rouge, 1980.
 Cold War Theories. Baton Rouge, 1981
 Toynbee's World Politics and History, 1985.
 Traditions and Values in Politics and Diplomacy, 1992.
 Schools of Thought in International Relations: Interpreters, Issues, and Morality. Baton Rouge,
1996.
Kenneth Boulding
Kenneth Ewart Boulding was born on January 18, 1910 and died on March 18, 1993 He was an English-
born American economist, educator, peace activist, and interdisciplinary philosopher. He published over
36 books and over 112 articles. Boulding was the author of two citation classics: The Image:
Knowledge in Life and Society (1956) and Conflict and Defence: A General Theory (1962). He was
co-founder of general systems theory and founder of numerous ongoing intellectual projects in
economics and social science. He was married to sociologist Elise M. Boulding.
Books
 Economic Analysis, 1941
 Evolutionary economics
 The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth, 1966
K.J. Holsti
Kal Holsti was born in Geneva, while his father Rudolf served as Finland's ambassador to the League of
Nations. Following the outbreak of World War II, the Holsti family was unable to return to Finland, and
instead settled in the United States, where Rudolf held a visiting professorship at Stanford University.
Kal Holsti entered Stanford as an undergraduate in 1952 and completed a doctorate at the institution in
1961. He later immigrated to Canada and became a professor at the University of British Columbia
(UBC) in 1970.
Morgenthau:
Hans Joachim Morgenthau was born in 1904 and died in 1980. He was one of the major twentieth-
century figures in the study of international relations. Morgenthau's works belong to the tradition of
realism in international relations theory, and he is usually considered among the most influential realists
of the post-World War II period. Morgenthau made landmark contributions to international relations
theory and the study of international law. His Politics Among Nations, first published in 1948, went
through five editions during his lifetime and was widely adopted as a textbook in U.S. universities.
In addition to his books, Morgenthau wrote widely about international politics and U.S. foreign policy
for general-circulation publications such as The New Leader, Commentary, Worldview, The New York
Review of Books, and The New Republic. He knew and corresponded with many of the leading
intellectuals and writers of his era, such as Reinhold Niebuhr, George F. Kennan, Carl Schmitt and
Hannah Arendt. At one point in the early Cold War, Morgenthau was a consultant to the U.S.
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Department of State when Kennan headed its Policy Planning Staff and a second time during the
Kennedy and Johnson administrations until he was dismissed by Johnson when he began to publicly
criticize American policy in Vietnam. For most of his career, however, Morgenthau was esteemed as an
academic interpreter of U.S. foreign policy
Works
 Scientific Man versus Power Politics (1946)
 Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace
 In Defence of the National Interest (1951)
 The Purpose of American Politics (1960)
 Crossroad Papers: A Look into the American Future (ed.) (1965)
 Truth and Power: Essays of a Decade, 1960–70 (1970)
Michael Doyle
Michael W. Doyle is an American international relations scholar who is a theorist of the liberal
„democratic peace‟ and author of Liberalism and World Politics. He has also written on the comparative
history of empires and the evaluation of UN peace-keeping. He is a University professor of International
Affairs, Law and Political Science at Columbia University - School of International and Public Affairs.
He is the former director of Columbia Global Policy Initiative. He co-directs the Centre on Global
Governance at Columbia Law School.
Works
 The Question of Intervention: John Stuart Mill and the Responsibility to Protect
 Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism
 Empires
 Liberal Peace: Selected Essays
 UN Peacekeeping in Cambodia: UNTAC's Civil Mandate
 Striking First: Preemption and Prevention of International Conflict
 Making War and Building Peace
 Keeping the Peace
 Peacemaking and Peacekeeping for the New Century
 New Thinking in International Relations Theory
 The Globalization of Human Rights
Michael Laban Walzer
He is an American political theorist and public intellectual. A professor emeritus at the Institute for
Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he is editor emeritus of Dissent, an intellectual magazine that
he has been affiliated with since his years as an undergraduate at Brandeis University. He was born on 3
March 1935 (age 86 years), New York, New York, United States
Morton A Kaplan
Morton A. Kaplan (May 9, 1921 – September 26, 2017) was Distinguished Service Professor of
Political Science, Emeritus, at the University of Chicago. He was also President of the Professors World
Peace Academy International; and Editor of the World &I magazine, published by the Washington
Times Corporation, from its founding in 1986 until 2004.
He attended Temple University and Stanford University, and received his Ph.D. from Columbia
University in 1951. He has held fellowships from the Centre of International Studies at Princeton
University and from the Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences. He was also a
Carnegie Travelling Fellow. Kaplan has published extensively in the areas international relations and
international politics.
His many books include Science, Language and the Human Condition, Law in a Democratic Society,
and System and Process in International Politics (1957), a seminal work in the scientific study of
international relations. He was a critic of communism and of the policies of the Soviet Union. In 1979
he edited The Many Faces of Communism.
Martin Wight
Robert James Martin Wight (1913–1972), also known as Martin Wight, was one of the foremost British
scholars of international relations in the twentieth century. He was the author of Power Politics (1946;
revised and expanded edition 1978), as well as the seminal essay "Why Is There No International
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Theory?" (first published in the journal International Relations in 1960 and republished in the edited
collection Diplomatic Investigations in 1966). He was a teacher of some renown at both the London
School of Economics and the University of Sussex, where he served as the founding Dean of European
Studies.
Books
Neibuhr
Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971) was an American Reformed theologian, ethicist, commentator
on politics and public affairs, and professor at Union Theological Seminary for more than 30 years.
Niebuhr was one of America's leading public intellectuals for several decades of the 20th century and
received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964. A public theologian, he wrote and spoke frequently
about the intersection of religion, politics, and public policy, with his most influential books including
Moral Man and Immoral Society and The Nature and Destiny of Man. Andrew Bacevich labelled
Niebuhr's book The Irony of American History "the most important book ever written on U.S. foreign
policy." The historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. described Niebuhr as "the most influential American
theologian of the 20th century" and Time posthumously called Niebuhr "the greatest Protestant
theologian in America since Jonathan Edwards.
Books
 Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study of Ethics and Politics (1932)
 Christianity and Power Politics (1940)
 The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (1944)
 The Irony of American History (1952)
 Christian Realism and Political Problems (1953)
 Pious and Secular America (1958)
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic,
and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major
figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. Born: 7
December 1928 (age 93 years), East Oak Lane, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
Books
 American Power and the New Mandarins (1969)
 Counter-Revolutionary Violence (1973)
 The Political Economy of Human Rights (1979)
 Towards a New Cold War (1982)
 The Fateful Triangle (1983)
 Pirates and Emperors (1986)
 Manufacturing Consent (1988)
 Necessary Illusions (1989)
 Deterring Democracy (1991)
 Letters from Lexington (1993)
 The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many (1993)
 World Orders Old and New (1994)
 Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship (1997)
Norman Angell
Sir Ralph Norman Angell was born in 1872 and died in 1967. He was an English Nobel Peace Prize
winner. He was a lecturer, journalist, author and Member of Parliament for the Labour Party. Angell
was one of the principal founders of the Union of Democratic Control. He served on the Council of the
Royal Institute of International Affairs, was an executive for the World Committee against War and
Fascism, a member of the executive committee of the League of Nations Union, and the president of
the Abyssinia Association. He was made a Knight Bachelor in 1931 and awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
in 1933.
Norman Durban Palmer: He was born in 1909 in USA and died in 1996.
Works
 The Indian Political System 1961
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 The National Interest: Alone or with others 1952
 International Relations: Communist World in Transition 1954
 Elections and political Development: The South Asian Experience 1976
Norman J. Padelford
He studies Ph.D. from Harvard University and was the professor of Political Science from MIT USA.
He is well known for his work Author of The Panama Canal in Peace and War. He was born in USA
in 1903. He helped in formulation of UN Charter. He authored most of his work with Prof Lincoln.
 The dynamics of international politics by padelford and Lincoln
Raymond Aron
Raymond Claude Ferdinand Aron was born on 14 March 1905 and died on 17 October in 1983. He was
a French philosopher, sociologist, political scientist and journalist, one of the country's most prominent
thinkers of the 20th century. Aron is best known for his book The Opium of the Intellectuals, the title
of which inverts Karl Marx's claim that religion was the opium of the people; he argues that Marxism
was the opium of the intellectuals in post-war France. In the book, Aron chastised French intellectuals
for what he described as their harsh criticism of capitalism and democracy and their simultaneous
defence of Marxist oppression, atrocities and intolerance. Critic Roger Kimball suggests that Opium is
"a seminal book of the twentieth century". Aron is also known for his lifelong friendship, sometimes
fractious, with philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre.
Robert Kaplan
Robert David Kaplan was born on June 23, 1952 in America. His books are on politics, primarily
foreign affairs, and travel. His work over three decades has appeared in The Atlantic, The Washington
Post, The New York Times, The New Republic, The National Interest, Foreign Affairs and The Wall
Street Journal, among other newspapers and publications. One of Kaplan's most influential articles is
"The Coming Anarchy", published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1994. Critics of the article have
compared it to Huntington's Clash of Civilizations thesis, since Kaplan presents conflicts in the
contemporary world as the struggle between primitivism and civilizations. Another frequent theme in
Kaplan's work is the re-emergence of cultural and historical tensions temporarily suspended during the
Cold War.
Works
 Imperial Grunts: The American Military On The Ground 2005
 Hog Pilots, Blue Water Grunts: The American Military in the Air, at Sea, and on the Ground,
2007
 Monsoon: The Indian Ocean and the Future of American Power 2010
 The Revenge of Geography: What the Map Tells Us About Coming Conflicts and the Battle
Against Fate 2012
 Asia's Cauldron 2014
 In Europe's Shadow 2016
 The Return of Marco Polo's World: War, Strategy, and American Interests in the Twenty-first
Century 2018
 The Good American: The Epic Life of Bob Gersony, The U.S. Government's Greatest
Humanitarian 2021
Robert Keohane
Robert Owen Keohane is an American academic working within the fields of International Relations
and International Political Economy. He was born in 1941 in USA. After Hegemony (1984), he has
become widely associated with the theory of neoliberal institutionalism in international relations, as
well as transnational relations and world politics in international relations in the 1970s. He is Professor
Emeritus of International Affairs at the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, and has
also taught at Swarthmore College, Duke University, Harvard University and Stanford University.
Books
 Transnational Relations and World Politics 1972
 After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy 1984
 Neo-realism and Its Critics 1986
 International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory 1989
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 Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition 1977
 Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World 2002
 Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas 2003
 The Regime Complex for Climate Change with David G. Victor (2010)
Richard C. Synder: He was born in 1916 at USA and died in 1997. He was an American Professor
with specialization in foreign policy.
Works
 The Most Favoured Nation Clause
 American Foreign Policy
 Roots of Political Behaviour
Stanley Hoffman
Stanley Hoffmann was born in 1928 at Vienna in Austria and died in 2015. He was a University
Professor at Harvard University, specializing in French politics and society, European politics, U.S.
foreign policy, and international relations.
Works
 The State of War: Essays on the Theory and Practice of International Politics 1965
 Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s 1974
 Primacy or World Order: American Foreign Policy since the Cold War 1978
 Duties beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Politics 1981
 Dead Ends: American Foreign Policy in the New Cold War 1983
 Janus and Minerva: Essays in the Theory and Practice of International Politics 1987
 The European Sisyphus: Essays on Europe 1995
 World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era 1998
Thomas C. Schelling: He was born in 1921 in USA and died in 2016. He was an American economist
and professor of foreign policy, national security, nuclear strategy, and arms control at the School of
Public Policy at University of Maryland, College Park. He was also co-faculty at the New England
Complex Systems Institute.
Books
 The Strategy of Conflict 1960
 Arms and Influence 1966
 Micromotives and Macrobehavior 1978
Woodrow Wilson:
He was born in 1856 and died in 1924 in USA. Wilson was an American politician and academic who
served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic
Party, Wilson served as the president of Princeton University and as the governor of New Jersey before
winning the 1912 presidential election.
Works
 Congressional Government: A Study in American Politic 1885.
 The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics 1889.
 An Old Master and Other Political Essays 1893.
 Mere Literature and Other Essays. Boston 1896.
 The History of the American People
 Constitutional Government in the United States 1908.
 The Free Life: A Baccalaureate Address 1908.
 The New Freedom: 1913
 The Road Away from Revolution. 1923
 The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson 1925–27.
 Study of public administration 1955
 A Crossroads of Freedom 1956.
 The Papers of Woodrow 1967–1994.

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Quincy Wright: He was born in 1890 and died in 1970 in USA. He was an American political scientist
based at the University of Chicago known for his pioneering work and expertise in international law and
international relations. He is also a pioneer in the field of security studies.
Works
 The Control of American Foreign Relations 1922
 Mandates Under the League of Nations 1930
 A Study of War 1942
 The Study of International Relations 1955
 The Strengthening of International Law 1960
 International Law and the United States 1960
 The Role of International Law in the Elimination of War 1961
Definitions of IR:
Morgenthau: Struggle for Power among sovereign nations
Padeford and Lincoln: relationship between states.
Palmer and Perkins: The totality of the relations among peoples and group in the world society.
Hoffman: It is concerned the factors and activities which affect the external policies and the power of
the basic unit into which the world is divided.
Wright: Relation between many entities of uncertain sovereignties.
Mathiesen: All human behaviour originating on one side of the state boundary and affecting human
behaviour on the other side of the boundary.
Lawson: Study of relations between states.
Development or Evolution of International Politics:
Thucydides History of Peloponnesian War
Chanakya Artashastra
Machiavelli II Principe (The Prince)
Before 1st World war IR was studies as a branch of History, Law Philosophy, Political Science and
others etc. After First World war IR started as an academic discipline in its own. This gave birth to the
Liberal approaches to IR which is collectively known as Idealism or sometimes as Utopianism. There
focus was what ought to be, human being are rational and they can apply reason to IR, they can set up
organizations for the benefit of all. Therefore main focus during this approach was outlawing war,
disarmament, international law and international organization. The chief advocates of this approach
were Alfred Zimmern (1879-1957), Norman Angell (1872-1967), James T. Shotwell (1874-1965) and
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924). Wilson Delivered 14 Points before the US Congress in 1918
1. Making the world safe for democracy
2. Creation of International Organization for promotion of peaceful cooperation among national
states.
As a result of Wilsonian 14 points League of Nations was created. These thinkers adopted Legalistic-
moralistic assumptions.
IR soon made its appearance in American Universities. The first chair that formally established the
discipline was the Woodrow Wilson Chair of International Politics at the University of Wales,
Aberystwyth in 1919. It was endowed by Philanthropist David Davies. Sir Alfred Zimmern was the first
holder of the prestigious chair. Similar hairs were established in Jerusalem 1929, Oxford University
1930, London School of Economics 1936, and University of Edinburgh 1948. Hence Zimmern, Wilson
and Davies laid foundation of its academic discipline.
They were an idealistic and got shocked on outbreak of W.W.2nd. As a result of rise of Fascism and
Nazism, Germany Joined the League of Nations in 1926 and left in early 1930. Following its invasion
of Manchuria, Japan Left the League. Russia joined it in 1934 but expelled in 1940 following an attack
on Finland. Britain and France has never regards for League. USA was a forerunner of creation but
could not join it because of Senate‟s refusal to ratify.
After out broke of W. W. 2nd idealists were criticized and a new group of thinkers emerged know as
Realist also known as Realpolitik. It was known as antithesis of Liberals. These thinkers were E. H.
Carr 1939, George F Kennan 1954, Hans J Morgenthau, Reinhold Neibuhr, Kenneth W. Thompson
and others. This was the emergence of 1st great debate in IR.
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Realists were of the view that State is the principle actor and their activities are guided by their interest.
Conflict is inevitable which results in an anarchical international system.
With the coming of behavior approach in IR, the second great debate originated between realist and
behaviouralists. The first debate was among Idealists and Realists about the subject matter of IR and the
second debate was among the Realists and Behaviouralists about the methodology.
Wittkopf: Its central focus was on theorizing about theory rather than theorizing about international
relations.
Quincy Wright A Study of War
Morton A Kaplan System and Processes in International Politics
Charles McClelland Theory of the International System
As a result of great debate new avatars of Idealism and Realism emerged in the shape of Neo-Idealism
and Neo-Realism respectively.
The Neo-liberals adopted the idea of progress and change but discarded the idealism of liberals. They
tried to formulate theories and apply new methods which are scientific. Among various branches of this
neo-liberalism most important was Pluralism and its model Interdependence model.
The chief exponent of neo-liberal approach was E. Haas, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye. They
rejected the idea of state as single actor in IR and stressed on the pluralist or multiplicity of actors such
as UN, EU, AU, ASEAN, IMF, World Bank, Red Cross, Amnesty International and others etc. They
also gave concept of complex interdependence which means that instead of govt. to govt. relation
between two states there is also other Trans links between societies including transnational links
between business corporations etc. Here military power is not given so much importance. Therefore it
can be said that Neo-liberals put forward a non-military paradigm of IR which focuses much on peace
and cooperation.
Kenneth Waltz renewed the realism into neo-realism. This new branch tried to build upon the principles
of classical realism especially Morgenthau and tried to update it to suit it to the condition of late 20th
century. His path breaking work Theory of International Politics 1979 laid essential basis of Neo-
realist debate. He focused on the structure of International System. International system is Anarchical.
State were power seeking and security conscious not because of human nature view as plain bad by
classical realist but because the structure of the international system compels them to do so. Therefore,
neo-realist did not overlook the prospects of cooperation among the states. States while cooperating
with each other tried to maximize their relative power and preserve their autonomy.
During 1980 scholars tried to bring the realist as well idealist school close. Notable among them were
Robert Keohane & Barry Buzan, Barry Buzan along with Charles Jones and Richard Little tried to
synthesize neo-realist and neo-liberal institutionalists position and they introduced the concept of deep
structure, which meant that political structure encompasses anarchy as well as hierarchy and it included
not only power and institution but also rules and norms.
Both neo-liberal and neo-realist got another challenge from the neo-Marxist scholars. The main
contribution came from A G Frank, Immanuel Wallenstein and others who formed the School of
International Political Economy (IPE). They were of the view that international system is divided into
dominant north and dependent south. World System theory and Dependency theory were its 2 important
contribution. A core-periphery bifurcation of the world was developed by dependency theorist and they
took its clue from the Lenin‟s work i.e. Imperialism: The Highest stage of Capitalism. Immanuel
Wallenstein added a third category i.e. semi-periphery between core and periphery. They suggested that
there is transfer of wealth and resources from the peripheral countries to the core countries. Its result is
rich countries getting richer and poor getting poor.
Core = Countries in North American Europe as well as Japan
Semi-periphery = Soviet
Periphery = Poor Countries
1970s and 1980s were occupied by neo-liberal and neo-realist but after the end of cold war there
emerged another strong branch of scholars known as English School and it emphasis on the society of
states or international society. Its dominant figures were Hedley Bull, E H Carr, C A W Manning, F S
Northedge , Martin Wright, Adam Watson, R J Vincent, James Mayall, Robert Jackson and new

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scholars like Timothy Dunne and Nicholas Wheeler. They tried to provide an alternative of Hobbesian
nor Utopian view about international society. They are of the view that there is presence of a world of
sovereign states where both power and law are present. Power and national interest do matter but norms
and institutions also have great significance.
Zimmerin is known as first Professor of International Politics or International Relation.
Some of the main debates in IR are between
 Utopian Liberalism/Idealism and Realism
 Traditional Approaches and Behaviouralism
 Neo Liberalism/Neo-Realism and neo-Marxism
 Positivism and post-Positivist approach.
Abdul A Said ----- Five categories of theories
Theory of Theory, System analysis, Action Theories, Interaction theories and newer research techniques
Scholars related to following approaches
 Post Modernist theories --- Richard Ashley, R B J Walker, James Derian and others.
 Critical theories --- Andrew Linklater, Robert Cox and others.
 Historical Sociology --- Michael Mann, Charles Tilly, ThedaSkocpol and others.
 Feminist Theories --- J Ann Tickner, Cynthis Enloe and Christine Sylvester.
Development as an academic Discipline:
International Relation is integrally related to W. W. 1st. After W. W. 1st, its study was initiated by the
North American and West Europeans. The first chair of IP was founded in 1919 at the University
College of Wales (UK) under the name of Woodrow Wilson. Several prominent historians like
Zimmern, C.K. Webster, E. H. Carr and etc were the early occupants of this chair. In 1920s the rise of
USA as global power encouraged the teaching of IR as an independent subject. But in USSR it was not
recognized as a separate discipline even after the 2nd WW. It was still part of history even in mid sixties.
An Introduction to the study of International Relations was the earliest text book in the discipline. It
was written jointly by Gant, Hughes, Greenwood, Kerr and Urguhart and was published in 1916 in
Britain. Lord Brice delivered a series of 8 lectures in USA in 1921 and was published as International
Relations. In 1922, E. A. Walsh edited a volume on The History and Nature of International Relation
from New York. In 1925, Professor Buell, Research Director, Foreign Policy Association USA
published a lengthy text on IR. In 1926 Prof. Moon published a Syllabus on International Relations.
In 1919 University of Wales set up separate chair on IR. Its first two incumbents were Sir Alfred
Zimmern and Charles Webstwe both historian. In USA School of Foreign Services set up at
Georgetown University in 19191 and School of International Relations at University of Southern
California in 1924. In Paris Institute of Advanced International Studies was founded in 1923.
Research Bodies:
In USA 1910, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace at Washington DC
1918 two research bodies i.e. Foreign Policy Association and Council on Foreign Relations. Headline
series and Foreign affairs were their journals.
In 1920, Royal Institute of International Affairs was established in London. Survey of International
affairs and International Affairs wee its journal. In 1934 New Commonwealth Institute was renamed as
London Institute of world affairs. World affairs and the year book of world affairs were its journals. In
1935 Institute of world affairs, a research organization was formed in Paris. In 1943 Indian Council of
World affairs was established in New Delhi. India Quarterly was its journal.
Creation of institutions like WTO, IMF, IBRD also made the scope of IR broad. The UN and its
specialized agencies such as FAO, ICAO, ILO, IUU, UPU, WHO, UNESCO etc also helped in her
development. UNESCO has also sponsored The University Teaching of Social Sciences: International
Relations and this international survey was edited by Prof Manning of University of London in 1954.
World Order Model Project (WOMP) was an international trend both as an institution as well as an
intellectual tradition. It was a trans-national research initiative.
Stages of Development
Kenneth Thompson has give following 4 stages of IR
1. First Stage: Up to end of 1 WW. Their main concern was description of past events rather than
the analysis of present and their projection for future.
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2. 2nd Stage: Starts from the end of First World War and stressed only on current events.
3. 3rd Stage: Started from WW 1 and continued even after war period. Their approach was
moralistic-legalistic and their objective was to establish a healthy world order. Much hope was
from League of Nations. Wilson, Potter, Shotwell, Fenwick belonged to this approach.
4. 4th Stage: Came after Second World War and their emphasis was to making a scientific analysis
of IP. In 1950s and 1960s Realists became the prevailing schools & these were E H Carr, Hans
J Morgenthau, Kenneth W. Thompson, Reinhold Niebuhr, George F. Kennan, Henry A.
Kissinger. According to them power is a means as well as end in itself. International politics is
nothing but struggle for power. Deterrence theory as well as Game theory in 50s and 60s also
contributed in this stage.
In addition to these four stages some others stages were also added by various other scholars.
5. 5th Stage: may be counted from sixties to seventies. In this stage the quantitative study of IR
was done by Singer, Zinnes, Hoole, La Barr and Rousseau.
6. 6th Stage: Late seventies to first half of eighties. Efficiency of Détente, New Cold War Star war
programe etc. scholars of the west particularly USA showed interest in third world countries.
7. 7th Stage: Began in 1985 when Mikhail Gorbachev came in scene.
8. 8th Stage: commenced in early nineties. Disintegration of USSR, formation of EU. Most
important issue of this stage is creation of new world order. Some of the theories related to
creation of new world order are given below
 Pax Americana - George Bush, Goodby and Morel
 Liberal democracy or Pax Democratica – James Robert Huntley, Richardson, Miles
Kahler
 Constitutionalism and Global governance – Martin Wight, Butterfield, Linklater
 International Society - Ken Booth and Smith
This stage also covers the Power diffusion as given by Nye, Newmann and Halliday
This stage also consists of four security models as suggested in post cold war period
 Unipolar security model like NATO
 Balance of power model like NATO, EU, ASEAN, CIS etc.
 Concert of power model like IMF, OECD, IMF WORLD BANK, IAEA etc.
 Universal security models like UNO
9. 9th stage: involve drawn of 21st century, in this stage William R Thompson suggests
nomenclature World politics in place of IR and Walker talks of a transition from International
relation to world politics.
Scope and subject matter of IR:
Traditionally it was known as International Politics and with the passage of time it was known as
International Relations and present days it is known as Global Politics.
Schleicher: It includes all inter-state relation in international politics.
Padelford and Lincoln: The interaction of state policies within the changing pattern of power
relationship.
Morgenthau: It deals mainly with political relations and the problem of power and peace.
It is struggle for and use of power among nations.
Burton: It is a system of peaceful communication whereby states consciously like to avoid conflict
because of costs of conflict is very high.
Harold and Margaret Sprout: Those aspects of interactions and relations of Independent political
communities in which some elements of opposition, resistance or conflict of purpose or interest is
present.
Thompson: It is study of rivalry among nations and the conditions and institutions which ameliorate or
exacerbate these relationships.
Quincy Wright: The art of influencing, manipulating or controlling major groups so as to advance the
purpose of some against the opposition of others.
It is a process by which power is acquired, maintained and explained.
Mohinder Kumar: A process in which nations try to serve their national interests which may be in

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conflict with those of others nations by means of their policies and actions.
R T Jangan: The existence of nations; friendly or unfriendly relations, struggle for acquisition,
retention and extension of power and other stakes.
Baral: Three components of IP are international system, the state and the individual.
Quincy Wright: It includes various types of groups – nations, states, governments, peoples, religions,
alliances etc. He coined the term “relations between powerful nations” to designate the relations
between groups of major importance in the life of the world at any period of history.
Hoffmann: “It is concerned with the factors and the activities which affect the external policies and the
power of the basic units into which the world is divided”.
Palmer and Perkins: It encompasses much more than the relations among nation-states. It includes a
variety of transitional relationships.
Frankel: This new discipline is more than a combination of the studies of the foreign affairs of the
various countries and of international history. He suggested using the term World Politics. Rosenau,
Calvocoressi, kegley, wittkopf, William R Thompson, Walker Baylis and Smith also suggested using
term World Politics.
Rosenau: World politics comprises primarily the nation-states as the prime-actor.
Trygve Mathiesen: All kind of relations traversing state boundaries, no matter whether they are of
economic, legal, political or any other character, they can be private or official. „All human behaviuour
originating on one side of the state boundary and affecting the human behaviour on the other side of the
boundary‟.
Holsti: It refers to all forms of interaction between the members of separate societies, weather govt.
sponsored or not.
Adi H. Doctor: Those interested in oppositional relations label their study as International Politics and
those who also include cooperative relations name their study as International Relations.
Liberal Approach:
Traditional Liberal thinkers are Immanuel Kant, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, J S Mill, Locke,
Hume Rousseau and Adam Smith. Chief proponents of post W W 1 liberalism were Zimmern, Norman
Angell, James T Shotwell and Woodrow Wilson. These are some time also known as liberal idealist or
simply idealists and E H Carr described them as utopians. They try to justify the irrational and immoral
behaviour of the individuals as not the manifestation of flawed human nature but the result of ignorance
and misunderstanding, which is possible to overcome through education and reforming of social and
political institutions. They also believe in greatest happiness of greatest number. They lay emphasis on
the common interest. The majority of the interactions among nations are cooperative and not conflictual.
Majority of the nation like to live in peace and peace is not because of any balance of power. Human
beings by nature are rational creatures.
Liberalism can be classified as
a) Liberal Internationalism: Faith in human reason and believes that it could delivered freedom
and justice in IR. They emphasis on transformation of individual consciousness, abolishing war,
setting up of world govt. promoting free trade and maintaining peace. Jeremy Bentham and
Immanuel Kant were its leading figures. It was criticized by E H Carr in his famous essay The
Twenty year Crisis 1939.
b) Idealism: They believe that peace and prosperity is not a natural condition but is one which
must be constructed and it is possible by „consciously devised machinery‟. They talked about
establishment of an international institution to secure peace. They supported League of Nations,
UN etc.
c) Liberal Institutionalism: They were of the view that integration through international and
regional institutions would help to solve common problems. David Mitrany and Ernst Haas
were its supported and Koehane Nye were the supported of later liberal institutionalism.
d) Neo-Liberal Institutionalism: They were mainly supported of democratic peace theory. They
believe that „liberal states do not go war with other liberal states. Francis Fukuyama in his
article „The End of History‟ championed the victory of liberalism over all ideologies. He
believes that liberal states have established pacific union within which war becomes
unthinkable.
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e) Neo-idealism: They believe that global politics must be democratized. Its advocates include
David Held, Norberto Bobbio and Danielle Archibugi. David Held even prescribes a
„cosmopolitan model of democracy‟ in place of Westphalian and UN models. They support
extension of regional organizations such as EU as well as democratize the UN, creation of new
International Court of Human Rights.
f) Neo-Liberal institutionalism: It was a response to Kenneth Waltz‟s theory of realism in his
famous work Theory of International politics 1979. They share the assumption with realist that
states are the most significant actors and the international environment is anarchical but they try
to focus on the task of initiating and maintaining cooperation among states under anarchical
condition.
Reinhold Niebuhr in his work The Children of Light and Children of Darkness 1944 opines that it
is possible to combine the wisdom of realist with the optimism of the idealist. Children of light
regard subordination of self-interest to universal law whereas children of darkness regard self
interest as the prime guiding principle.
Robert Gilpin ------- War and change in world politics
Political Realism:
It has been the most dominant school of thought after W. W. 2nd. It focuses on power and its exercise
by states. It is chiefly concerned with realpolitik.
Realism can be traced to
History of Peloponnesian war Thucydides
Arthashastra Chanakya
ll Principe/The Prince Machiavelli
Leviathan Hobbes
Otto Von Bismarck coined the term „Balance of Power‟
On War Carl Von Clausewitz
C V Clausewitz said „war is nothing but continuation of policies by other means‟.
Machiavelli suggests qualities of man and beast, lion and fox in a prince. He provides the masculine
character to the statecraft by saying „fortune as a female‟
Chanakya wrote Arthashashtra which means the „science of material gain or science of polity‟ his book
1 chapter XI is „the institution of spies‟
Hobbes too wrote his leviathan in Latin and gave concept of the common wealth i.e. civitas after social
contract.
E. H. Carr criticized the liberals in his work Twenth years Crisis 1919-1939. He opines that the inner
meaning of modern international crisis is the collapse of whole structure of utopianism based on the
concept of harmony of interest. He was of the opinion that to get sound political theories in IR both
elements of utopianism and realism namely power and moral values are required.
Morgenthau and realism
Political realism reached its zenith during the times of Morgenthau. Morgenthau in his work Politics
among nations: the struggle for power and peace 1948 gave following six elements
 Politics is governed by objective laws which are based on human nature.
 National interest defined in terms of power.
 National interest is not fixed and changes with environment.
 Universal moral principles cannot be applied to state‟s action.
 There is no identity between moral aspiration of a nation and the moral law which governs the
universal law.
 Maintain autonomy of the political sphere.
He insists that „let the justice be done even if the world perish‟.
Morgenthau defines power as „psychological relationship between states‟.
Realism can be classified as below
a) Neo-Realism: Realism suffered a setback due to the emergence of the neo-liberalism especially
by the pluralists. The pluralists were of the view that state may be a significant factor in
international relations but it is not the sole actor. The acknowledged the plurality of actors in
international relation. This pluralist challenge was soon met by a new branch of realist the
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forerunner of which was Kenneth Waltz. Waltz in his famous works „Man, the State and War‟
1959 and Theory of International Politics 1979 came up with idea of world politics which is
known as neo-realism. Waltz uses game theory for this. Neo-realist did not overlook the
prospects of cooperation among states also but also holds that states while cooperating with
each other tried to maximize their relative power and preserve their autonomy. The cause of
conflict or war does not rest on human nature but within the framework of the anarchic structure
of International relations.
Benno Wasserman, Robert Tucker & Stanley Haffman criticized the classical realist. Quincy
Wright and Robert Tucker also criticized it. She criticized the masculine character of realism.
b) Pluralism: They are of the view that state is not the alone actor and there are also other
important actors such as MNCs, NGO, etc. important pluralists are Alexander George, Ole
Holsti, Robert Jervis, Richard C. Sunder, Keohane and Nye.
Transnational Relations and World Politics Power and Interdependence Joseph Nye
Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition Keohane and Nye
They give following three main characteristics of complex interdependence
 Societies connected by multiple channels of communication.
 An absence of hierarchy among issues
 Lesser importance of military force
Prof Arun Bose is of the view that basic framework of international politics includes four basic tents
Proletarian internationalism, Anti-imperialism, Self-Determination and Peaceful Coexistence
Security Dilemma: when one nation increases its security than in return the other nation also increase
their security so as to save itself from the first. This leads to competition which is known as security
dilemma.
Eclecticism: It is a school of thought which does not regard either the realist approach or the idealist
approach as completely satisfactory. They offer a synthesis of the pessimism of the realist and the
optimism of idealists. E. H. Carr has also suggested that the combination of realism and idealism is the
best solution.
Dependency Model/World System Theory: Its traces can be found in Lenins‟s work Imperialism: The
Highest Stage of Capitalism. He provided a two tier structure of the world economy i.e. Core and
Periphery. Galtung and Wallerstein further developed this concept. Capitalism and underdevelopment in
Latin America 1976 A G Frank
Raul Prebisch - First executive director of United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
John Gallagher, Ronald Robinson Gunnar Myrdal the author of Asian Drama. Their main argument of
the World System theorists is that the dependency situation of the developing countries is the direct
result of the economic exploitation by the advanced countries.
Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the origin of the Economy in the Sixteenth Century
1974 ---- Immanuel Wallenstein
He added semi-Periphery between core and periphery and placed countries like Russia in it.
Johan Galtung --------- A Structural theory of Imperialism
Prof Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya North Over South – A Non Western Perspective of International
Relations 1984
Theories of international Politics: Systems Theory: Decision making.
System Theory: This theory originated due to behavioural revolution in social sciences. Easton, Kaplan,
McClelland, Rosenau and Boulding are related to this theory. Easton is the chief exponent of system
theory in comparative politics where as Kaplan is the chief exponent of system theory in international
relation. Kaplan gave six models of international relations
1. The Balance of Power: It golden period was from 1815 to 1914. It collapsed with the outbreak
of WW1 in 1914.
2. The Loose bipolar system: It was during cold war period consisting two super powers i.e.
USA & USSR along with others such as Non-alignment and UN etc.
3. The Tight bipolar system: It consists, only two super powers and others like Non-alignment
either disappear or become less significant. Even the international organization becomes too
weak to mediate.
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4. The Universal System: This system emerges when world gets transformed into a world
federation.
5. The Hierarchical System: It comes into existence when single universal actor absorbs all other
states either through conquest or treaty.
6. The Unit Veto System: It comes into existence when every state has nuclear weapons i.e. every
state is in a position to destroy the other states.
Communication Theory: The term communication has borrowed from the concept of cybernetics
which means steering. Nobert Weiner developed the concept of Cybernetics in his work Cybernetics to
signify the concept of Political System. This approach in international relations was adopted by Karl
Deutsch in his work The Nerves of Government: Model of Political Communication and Control 1963.
Decision making approach: This approach became more popular in USA. Richard C Snyder, H W
Bruck and Burton Sapin gave work „Decision making as an approach to the study of international
relation‟. 1954.
Definitions of International Politics
David V. Edwards: It is made up of incidents in which the units or actors generally nations or
combinations of nations, differ over power, resources, status or other desired ends and attempts to
resolve differences by whatever means available and accepted.
Quincy Wright: It consists of relations between groups of major importance in the life of world at any
period of history.
Morgenthau: International politics is struggle for power among nations.
Schleicher: It is „relations among nations‟.
Harold and Marget Sprout: It consists of those aspects of interactions and relations of independent
political communities in which some elements of opposition, resistance of conflict of purpose or interest
is present.
Robert Purnell: It includes those political aspects which are concerned with disagreement,
competition, oval claims and various outcomes.
Charles Reynold: It refers to the process by which conflict arise and are resolved at international level.
Debate on International Politics as independent discipline:
Robert Loring Allen is not willing to accept IP as an independent branch of study. Prof. Quincy Wright
regards IP/IR as an independent discipline.
Palmer and Perkins are of the view that IP lack clear cut conceptual framework and hence is not
independent discipline.
Same is the case with Mortan Kaplan i.e. he is also not willing to accept independent character of IP.
Frederick Dunn regards this controversy of independent discipline as a futile.
George Schwarzenberger --- Power Politics 1941
Hubert Butterfield ---- Christianity, Diplomacy and War 1953
George Kennan ---- American Diplomacy 1952
The term „International‟ was coined by Jeremy Bentham in 1780 when he talks of „international
jurisprudence‟
Feliks Gross and Russell Fifield are of the view that IP is identical to the study of foreign policy.
Harold Sprout and Margaret Sprout call foreign policy as a subcategory of IP.
Charles Schleicher includes all IR in IP but not all IP in IR.
Norman Padelford and George Schleicher define IP as the interaction of state policies within the
changing pattern of power relationship.
John Burton defined IR as a system of peaceful communication.
Richard Rosecrance regards peace and war as the essence of international politics and so does Raymond
Aron.
National Power, National Interest and Foreign Policy
National Power:
Hartmann: „Power lurks in the background of all relations between sovereign states‟.
Kautilya: Power is the „possession of strength‟ derived from three elements i.e. Knowledge, military and
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Morgenthau: „Power is relationship between two political actors in which actor A has the ability to
control the mind and the actions of actor B‟.
„Power is anything that establishes and maintains control of man over man‟.
„A psychological relation between those who exercise it and those over whom power is exercised‟
Schwarzenberger „Capacity to impose one‟s will on the other by reliance on effective sanctions in case
of non-compliance‟. He also makes a distinction between power and influence.
Dahl „ability to shift the probability of outcomes‟
„A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise‟.
Duchacek „The capacity to produce intended effects to realize one‟s will‟.
Couloumbis and Wolfe define power as an umbrella concept. „It is anything that establishes and
maintains the control of actor A over actor B‟. They gave three ingredients of power i.e. force, influence
and authority.
Padelford and Lincoln „National power is the sum total of the strength and capabilities of state‟.
Hartmann „The strength or capacity that a sovereign state can use to achieve its national interest‟.
Anam Jaitly: „a capacity to influence people domestically and other nations externally towards certain
desired national preferences‟.
Ebenstein: National power is more than the sum total of population, raw material and quantitative
factors.
Organski “Ability to influence the behaviour of others in according with one‟s own ends”.
Mackinder “who rules Eastern Europe commands Heartland, who rules the Heartlands rules the world
islands and who rules the world islands rules the world”.
Spykman “Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia, who controls Eurasia controls the destiny of the
world” .
Foreign Policy:
Definitions of Foreign Policy:
C. C. Rodee: The formulation and implementations of a group of principles which shape the behaviour
of a state while negotiating with other states to protect or further its vital interest.
Charles Burton Marshall in his book The Exercise of sovereignty 1965 defines foreign policy as “the
course of action undertaken by authority of state and intended to affect situation beyond the span of its
jurisdiction”.
F. S. Northedge wrote The Foreign Policies Powers, 1968
George Madelski (A Theory of Foreign Policy, 1962) The system of activities evolved by
communities for changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the
international law.
Karl Von Clausewitz „War is the continuation of policy by other means”.
Schleicher “the actions of government officials to influence human behavior beyond the jurisdiction of
their own states”.
Lincoln “Foreign policy is the key element in the process by which a state translates its broadly
conceived goals and interests into concrete courses of action to attain those objectives preserve its
interest”.
Oxford Dictionary – the management of international relations by negotiations
James Rosenau -- Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy
Do The Scientific Study of Foreign Policy
Sir Ernest Satow -- Guide to Diplomacy 1922
Sir Harold Nicolson – The Congress of Vienna
Von Kriegg -- On War
Quincy Wright Study of War
Do Causes of war and conditions of peace 1935
E. H. Carr --- Twenty Years Crisis
Morgenthau The art of Diplomatic Negotiation
Henry Wriston - Executive Agents in American Foreign Policy
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Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya -- The Making of India‟s Foreign Policy.
Military Industrial Complex – The whole concept of military-industrial complex includes both labour
unions and politicians whose districts would benefit from military spending.
Holsti gave 4 objectives of states
Security, Autonomy, Welfare in the broadest sense, Status and prestige
Padelford and Lincoln identified 4 aims of states
National Security, Economic Advancement, Safeguarding or augmenting national power to other states
and International prestige
Mohinder Kumar gives 4 components of Foreign Policy
Policy makers, Interest and objectives, Principles of foreign policy and Means of foreign policy
Palmer and Perkins gave 4 functions of diplomacy
Representation, Negotiation, Reporting and Protection
Poullada gave 5 functions of diplomacy
Conflict Management, Problem Solving, Cross Cultural interaction and Programme management
White gave five functions of diplomacy
Information gathering, Policy advice, Representation, Negotiation and Consular services
Policy of peaceful coexistence was adopted in 20th congress of communist party in February 1956
Communist imperialism is known as Red imperialism, Dollar Imperialism is known as USA
imperialism and new imperialism are known as economic imperialism, dollar imperialism, red
imperialism etc.
After congress of Vienna 1815, The Regalement of 1815 and subsequently regulations of Aix-la-
Chappelle established diplomatic services on agreed basis. There are 4 categories of representatives
Ambassadors, Extraordinary envoys, Ministers residents and Charge d‟affairs
Main actors of Concerrt of Europe are England, France, Prussia, Austria and Spain. During
It made peace between 1814 – 1914
Atlantic Charter 1941 Ist Hague Conference 1899
Treaty of Holy 1815 2nd Hague Conference 1907
Alliance
Tehran Meeting 1945 Paris Peace Conference 1918
Potsdam Conference 1945 Disarmament Conference Geneva 1927
Bandung Conference 1955 London Conference 1930
Belgrade Conference 1961 San Francisco Conference 1945
Treaty of Utrecht 1713 Breton Woods Conference 1945
Quadruple Alliance Formed by Britain,
France, Prussia and
Austria in 1815
Cairo Conference 1964
Truman Doctrine: USA helped Greece and Turkey to check Communist expansion.
Marshall Plan: it was a comprehensive economic recovery programme. It was to contain the
communism and growing Soviet influence in Europe.
Point Four Programme: Economic and technical assistance to the Afro-Asian nations.
Camp David Agreement --- Negotiation settlement between Egypt and Israel.
Molotov Plan was a response from USSR to American Marshall Plan.
US called Evil Empire to USSA and Axis of Evil to Libya, Iraq and North Korea. Communists‟
countries called constitutional govt. as capitalist cliques.
Hitler established a National Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda headed by Joseph
Goebbles.
Pax Britannica: Pax means peace or stop quarrelling. When a powerful country enforces peace on
other states, the pax is usually prefixed with the name of enforcing country. E.g. Pax Romana, peace
enforced on states in the Roman Empire. Pax Britannica, peace and principles enforced in the Britain
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Empire. Pax America is associated with the dominant role of USA in the period after Second World
War.
The age of Pax Britannixca was over after W W 2 and Pax Sovietia died in 1991 but Pax America is still
intact.
Middle Kingdom Complex was given by Mao. It is also known by name of intermediate zone. He
wanted to make a group other than 1st and second block during cold war. But countries preferred to join
Non-Alignment than Middle Kingdom of Mao.
Till the end of eighteenth century diplomacy was known as traditional or old diplomacy. Nineteenth
century diplomacy was known as Modern Diplomacy. Open Diplomacy was greatly emphasized by
American President Woodrow Wilson.
Elements of National Power: Tangible and Intangible
Morgenthau gives the three ways in which national morale operates to protect human life i.e.
Protect human life in peace, Operates in times of war and Moral condemnation of war
Limitations of National Power
Balance of Power, International Morality, The World Public Opinion, International Law, Disarmament
and International Organizations
Evaluation of National Power
According to Morgenthau nations commits three type errors in evaluating their own power and power of
other nations i.e.
Relativity of Power, The permanency of a certain factors and The fallacy of a single factors
Methods of using power
Organski gave 4 ways to use power
Persuasion, Rewards, Punishment and Force
Dimension of power: Deutsch gave three dimensions of power i.e.
Domain of power, Range of power and Scope of power
Morgenthau divided power into 2 categories i.e.
Permanent and Changing
Organski classified it into 2 categories i.e.
Natural and Social
E. H. Carr divided into 2 categories i.e.
Military power, Economic power and Power over opinion
Mohinder kumar divided it 2 categories i.e.
Natural, Social and Ideational
Palmer and Perkind divided it into 2 categories i.e.
a) Tangible --- geography, raw material, natural resources and population
b) Intangible -- morale and ideology
Lerche and Said, Couloumbis and Wolfe, Adi H. Doctor, Anam Jaitly also classified it into 2
categories i.e. tangible and intangible
Morgenthau divided Ideology into tree types i.e.
Ideologies of status quo, Ideology of imperialism and Ambiguous ideologies
National Interest:
Frankel divided the approaches to national interest into 2 types i.e. Objective and subjective
He defined national interest as “amounts to the sum total of all the national volumes”
Types of national interest:
Robinson divided it into 6 types
Primary interest, Secondary interest, Permanent interest, Variable interest, General interest and Specific
interest
In addition to six types he also gives three more i.e. Identical interest, Complementary interestand
Conflicting interest
Promotion of national interest:

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Diplomacy, Alliance, Propaganda, Psychological and political warfare, Economic methods, Imperialism
and colonialism and Coercive methods and war
Some Points to remember:
 Brazil has rich deposits of Iron
 Japan attacked China in 1937
 Trueman Doctrine 1946
 Monroe Doctrine 1823
US law PL 480 was linked with food supply from US to India.
The Geneva Convention of 1864, 1906, 1929 & 1949 as well as Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
are related to sick and wounded soldiers in war.
Italy attacked Ethopia in 1936, Iraq‟s annexation of Kuwait in 1990s.
Chapter VII of the UN Charter incorporates the theory of collective security.
Balance of Power-
The traditional relations among independent states are often explained in terms of balance of power.
Contemporary writers have called this theory as „a basic principle of international relations‟. Idealist
have long condemned balance of power because it is related in their view to power politics. On the other
hand realists have defended it on the ground that moral rules cannot be applied in international life and
that the pursuit of balance of power leads to the greatest goods of the greatest number. Winston
Churchill, Kenneth Thompson and Hans Morgenthau treat it as a foreign policy. Martin Wright, A J P
Taylor and Charles Lerche see balance of power as a system. Woodrow Wilson disregards for balance
of power stems from the tendency to treat balance of power as a symbol of the realists philosophy.
Louise Halle, John Morton Blum and Reinhold Neibuhr have all maintained that Wilson denied the
reality of power in IR. Dina Zinnes have discussed seven and Martin Wight have discussed nine
meaning of balance of power.
Balance of Power

A B+C+D
Hitler came to power in 1933 and announced German rearmament in 1935 and remilitarization of the
Rhineland in 1936. Poland was a buffer state between Russia and Germany. USSR intervened in
Afghanistan in 1979.
Herbert Butterfield refers balance of power as „mechanistically self-adjusting and self-rectifying‟. Inis
Claude treat it as „semi-automatics‟. The balance of power of 18th century rested on the existence of five
or six major powers.
John Herz and Ernst Haas would choose the 18th century whereas Gulielmo Ferro and Henry
Kissinger would choose 19th century as the period of greatest success of balance of power. But the
period from end of Napoleon war to the 1st world war i.e. 1815 to 1914 are supposed to the golden days
of balance of power. During the Napoleon era England and France were two powerful countries. After
Napoleon defeat England, Prussia, Russia and Austria together balance France. After the end of 19 th
century France and Russia was together balanced by Germany, Italy and Austria. Some of the scholars
hold that the concept of balance of power is relevant today as well as in future and these are Louis
Halle, Arnold Wolfers and Dewitt Poole. Waltz is of the view that if other countries were allowed to
acquire nuclear weapons, the present bipolar system would be transformed into multipolar system.
Along with him, Karl Deutsch, David Singer and John Stoessinger also hold the same view. Today‟s
world is bi-Multipolarity, which means two bigger power USA and USSR with other multipolar
countries.
Louis Halle, John Morton Blum and Reinhold Niebuhr have all treated balance of power as realist
philosophy.
Morgenthau have used in four different ways i.e.As a policy aimed at a certain state of affairs, As an
actual state of affairs, As an approximately equal distribution of power and As any distribution of power

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Haas points its eight meanings.
Schleicher has discussed three, Zinnes seven and Wight nine meanings of balance of power.
David Hume ----- Essays and Treatise on Several Subjects
Period between Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 French Revolution of 1789 is regarded as 1st golden age
of balance of power.
Participation of Poland 1772, 1793, 1795 provides the example of balance of power.
Treaty of Utrecht 1713 is also an example of balance of power in Europe. The Congress of Vienna 1815
also established new balance of power. Triple Entente was found in 1907 by France England and Russia
and Triple Alliance in 1882 by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Morgenthau has criticized balance of power on three counts
On its Uncertainty, Its unreality and its inadequacy
Methods of attaining balance of power
a) Alliance and Counter Alliance: Alliances are formed to make a strong power group. In order
to counter the alliance the opponent countries make another alliance to balance the first alliance.
b) Compensation: Annexation of division of territory e.g. Treaty of Utrecht divided the Spanish
procession in Europe and outside among the Hapsburg and Bourbons. Participation of Germany
under treaty of Versailles.
c) Buffer State: A state which comes between two states is called buffer state. Nepal is a buffer
state between India and China.
d) Armament and Disarmament: Treaty of Versailles 1919, Washington Naval Treaty 1922,
Partial Test Ban Treaty 1963, Strategic Arms Limited Treaty (SALT 1) 1972, SALT 11 1979,
Intermediate Range Nuclear Force (INF) 1987, Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)
1991. Some other done under UN are Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Comprehensive Test Ban
Treaty (CTBT),
e) Intervention and non-intervention: A third country may intervene between two or more states
to balance the power. USSR made her intervention in 1971 Indo-Pak war to balance the power
of USA by Supporting India against Pakistan and USA.
f) Divide and Rule: It is one of the oldest policies and also used by Britishers to make India a
weak state.
Richard Cobden is of the view that “the balance of power is a chimera”.
Others were of the view that there is no balance of power and there is „balance of terror‟.
Concept of Power- Vacuum
Before 2nd world war Britain, France, Germany Spain, Portugal, Holland etc. were very powerful. They
established their colonies. After ww2 these countries become weak and the countries under their
colonial rule got independence. Sine these countries were newly independent and poor and their
governing master countries under colonial rule were not in a position to help them. This opportunity of
helping was captured by USA and USSR commonly known as super power countries after Second
World War. So this Vacuum of power in third world countries was captured by two countries. This is
the concept of vacuum. The term „power vacuum‟ was coined by USA during cold war.
This vacuum theory was rejected by India. Indera Gandhi said if there is any power vacuum, it must be
filled by domestic power and not by outsider. Even the US Congress did not approve it but department
of defence, USA carried it on.
Because of this theory USA has established control over Simonstown at entrance of Atlantic Oceans,
Masirah in Persian Gulf, Diego Garcia in Indian Oceans and Malacca Straits in Pacific oceans.
Palmer and Perkins were of the view that the term „balance of power‟ itself suggests equilibrium but it
is subjected to constant changes i.e. from equilibrium to disequilibrium.
Nicholas J Spykman remarked „the balance of power is not a gift of God‟, it must be achieved by the
active intervention of man.
Hartman identifies 4 types of balance of power process since 1815. .
Collective Security- The basic purpose of international organization is to help in the evolution of
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fulfilled. One such way is collective security. It was the basis of League of Nations as well as United
Nations. UN by its collective security is seeking its goal by providing a deterrent to the aggressor.
The traces of collective security can be found in Treaty of Osnabruck concluded in 17th century and
William Penn‟s Scheme of European Order. The League of Nations made provision from Art 10 to 15
for collective security. Treaty of Mutual assistance 1923 declared aggression as an international crime.
In 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact was concluded under which the member states condemned recourse to
war for solution of international controversies renounced war as an instrument of national policy.
Hans Morgenthau defines it as “one for all and all for one”.
Realist theory of international politics stresses that war cannot be eliminated from international
society, hence we can only try to control power which is the root cause of power. Collective security is
a device of control of power. Inis Claude calls it as “management of power”. President Woodrow
Wilson of the USA was the key figure beyond the project for collective enforcement of peace. The Art
51 of the UN Charter permits collective defence as an inherent and legal right of nation.
Treaty of Versailles 1919:
Kellogg-Briand Pact
The nine power treaty
The USA, Germany and Japan were not the member of League of Nations.
One experiment of collective security of UN was in 1950 when North Korea attacked South Korea.
This incident is important because it gave birth to Uniting for peace resolution, which gives power to
decide the matter to General Assembly if there is no clear cut decision due to difference between
Security Council. It gives its decision by 2/3rd majority. United Nations Emergency Force was formed
during Suez Canal Crises in 1956. United Nations provides three pillars for maintenance of peace i.e.
peaceful change, pacific settlement of disputes, collective security. Security at a regional level can best
be collective defence and not collective security.
Against the UN Brezhnev, the premier of Russia gave his concept of Asian Collective Security having
three principles
a) The renunciation of the use of force
b) Inviolability of nations frontiers
c) Non-interference in internal affairs
The Chinese were of the view that this concept of Asian Security is against the interest of China.
Tashkent conference of 1966 was to increase soviet influence in Asia. Bilateral treaties with Egypt in
1971, India in 1971 and Iraq in 1972 were also in this interest.
Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty was enunciated in the wake of Czechoslovakian crisis in 1968.
The Functional theory of international organization maintains that we should first of all build habit of
cooperation among nations in the non-political sphere and then transfer these habits of cooperation to
the political sphere.
France withdrew from military activities of NATO in 1963 on some issue with Washington but
continued in Political Activities llatter.
Distinction from Collective Defense: Collaboration policy pursued outside the United Nations is
identified as collective defence, while collaboration policy pursued within the United Nations is
identified as Collective Security.
Collective Security under the UN character, General Evaluation
Franklin Roosevelt was in favour of a global peacekeeping agency and Roosevelt himself coined the
name „United Nations‟. This urge for an international organization led to the signing of the historic
Atlantic Charter on 14 August 1941 by Franklin and Winston Churchill on HMS Prince of Wales.
Next step was the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942. Twenty six allied nations signed
the “Declaration of United Nations” in Washington DC. This document coined the first official use of
the term „United Nations‟. This initiative was boosted by Moscow Declaration on 30 October 1943.
Tehran Declaration 1943, Yalta Conference of 11th February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin
declared their resolved to established „a general international organization to maintain peace and
security‟. Finally largest conference for UN was held from 25th April to 26 June 1945 at San Francisco
and it was attended by 280 delegates from 50 invitee countries. This charted came into effect from 24
October 1945. 24 October is celebrated as United Nations Day. This UN document contains more than
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ten thousand words, with 111 Articles divided into 19 Articles. Originally UNO has 51 countries. First
General Assembly opened in the Central Hall, Westminster on 10 January 1946 with representatives
from 51 nations. The Security Council met for the first time in London on 17 January 1946. Trygve Lie
of Norway became the first Secretary General on 1st February 1946.
Structure of the UN document: This document contain more than the thousands words with 111
articles divided into 19 chapters.
Chapter I Purposes and Principles (Art. 1,2)
Chapter II Membership (Art. 3,4,5,6)
Chapter III Organs (7,8)
Chapter IV The General Assembly (9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22
Chapter V The Security Council (23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32)
Chapter VI Pacific Settlement of Disputes (33,34,35,36,37,38)
Chapter VII Action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace and acts
of Aggression (39,40,41,42,43, 44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51)
Chapter VIII Regional Arrangements (52, 53, 54)
Chapter IX International Economic and Social Cooperation (55, 56, 57,58,59,60)
Chapter X The Economic and Social Council (61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,7071,72,)
Chapter XI Declaration Regarding non-governing territories (73, 74)
Chapter XII International Trusteeship System (75,76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85)
Chapter XIII The Trusteeship Council (86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91)
Chapter XIV International Court of Justice (Art. 92, 93, 94, 95, 96)
Chapter XV The Secretariat (97, 98, 99, 100, 101)
Chapter XVI Miscellaneous (102, 103, 104, 105)
Chapter XVII Transitional Security Arrangements (106, 107)
Chapter XVIII Amendments (108, 109)
Chapter XIX Ratification and Signature (110, 111)
Article 1 Purposes of UN
Article 2(7) UN cannot interfere in domestic matters of a Membership state.
Articles 3,4,5,6 Acquisition and revocation of membership of UN.
Article 4 Membership of UN is open to all peace loving countries.
Article 5 Suspension of exercise rights and privileges of members against who
action is taken by Security Council.
Article 6 Member of UN can be expelled from it on violation of its principles.
Organs of UN
Article 7(1) outlines the principle organ of the UN
 General Assembly
 Security Council
 Economic and Social Council
 Trusteeship Council
 International Court of Justice
 Secretariat
Article 9 states that General Assembly is composed of all the members of UN. Every country can sent
5 representatives but has only one vote. All important matters are decided by two/third majority. The
General Assembly meets once a year in regular session commencing on the third Tuesday in
September. This session lasts for about three months. There is also a session of special as well as
emergency session. In League Assembly there was a provision of three representatives. Article 19
debars a member from voting in UN if it had not given its financial contribution to UN of last two
years. At each session of the General Assembly elects its one president twenty one vice-presidents
(twenty vice-presidents after election of president). These Vice-Presidents are elected on regional basis
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S. No. Region No. of representatives
1. African States 6
2. Asian States 5
3. Permanent member of Security Council 5
4 Latin America 3
5. Western Europe 2
6. Eastern Europe 1
This total becomes 22 and after the election of president, a post of vice-president will be deducted from
the region of elected president. Hence we have a total of 22 - 1=21 vice presidents.
The first session of general assembly was held in the Central Hall of Westminster on 26 th birthday of
League i.e. on 10 January 1946.
Special Session of UN
S. No. Session Year Issue
1. 1st Session 1947 On Palestine
2. 2nd Session 1948 Do
3. 3rd Session 1061 Tunisia
4. Session 2001 AIDS
5. Session 2002 World Summit for Children
Chapter IV of the UN Charter embodies the provisions pertaining to the composition, power and
functions of General Assembly. On the matter of Korea crisis in 1950, USA and USSR were against
each other and hence the Security Council was not able to function properly because of Veto by the
permanent members. This problem was solved by adopting the “The Uniting for Peace Resolution”
which says that if there is lake of unanimity between the permanent members of security council, the
general assembly could solve the matter by 2/3rd majority.
Committee of General Assembly
The 1st Committee: Disarmament & International Security Committee
The 2nd Committee: Economic and Financial Committee
The 3rd Committee: Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee
The 4th Committee: Special Political & Decolonization Committee
The 5th Committee: Administrative and Budgetary Committee
The 6th Committee: Legal Committee
In addition to it, there are also Commissions in General Assembly like Disarmament Commission,
International Civil Service Commission and United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine,
United Nations Peace Building Commission (GA Resolution no 60/180 & UN Security Council
Resolutions no 1645, 2005 & 1646, 2005)
It also has an agency called „International Atomic Energy Agency‟ established by (GA Resolution no
347.)
Article 108 deals with amendment in UN adopted by 2/3 majority of General assembly with the
willing i.e. vote of all 5 permanent members of Security Council.
Emergency session of the UN starts within 24 hours. Such request for emergency session should be
supported by either 7 members of Security Council or majority of the members of UN. General
Assembly is the largest gathering of UN and it is also known as the Town meeting of the World.
Security Council
Article 23 of Chapter V deals with the provisions related to membership of the Security Council.
Permanent members of UN are
USA, France, USSR/Russia, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and People‟s
Republic of China in 1971
Before 1971 before it the Nationalist China or Taiwan was the member of UN and People‟s Republic
of China were not added because of Veto by USA.
The non-permanent members in the UN are 10 and these ten are selected based on geographical region
i.e. from Asian, African, Latin American and the Caribbean, East Europe and West Europe states.
These 10 members were increased from 6 to 10 in 1965. Each member of security shall have one
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member. The president of the Security Council is selected for one calendar month from the all
members based on the English Alphabets. The decisions are made based on at least 9 votes out of 15
members. There is also a Peace Building Commission (PCB), 1540 Committee and United Nations
Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC).
Chapter VI deals with the Pacific Settlement of Disputes
Art. 33: Disputes shall be solved peacefully by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation,
arbitration and judicial settlement.
Art. 34: Powers Security Council to investigate any dispute or any situation
Art. 35: Any member of the UN may bring the dispute.
Art. 36: recommend the appropriate procedure or methods of adjustment and refer it to ICJ if it is a
legal dispute
Art. 46: It provides for use of Armed forces with assistance of Military Staff Committee. Military Staff
Committee consists of Chiefs of Staff of permanent members of Security Council.
Some incidents from history
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962, Cyprus Question 1964, Arab-Israel War 1967, 1973, Indo-Pak War 1971
Gulf Crisis 1991, 2003.
India, Brazil, Germany and Japan are trying for their entry in Security Council as permanent members.
UN Secretariat and the Secretary General
He is the Chief Executive Officer of UN. He is elected by General Assembly on recommendation of
Security Council. The term of office of president is not fixed by UN charter but General Assembly has
fixed it for five years. He can also be reappointed. The post of Deputy Secretary General was created
in 1997. Ms Louise Chette of Canada was elected as first Deputy Secretary General. The Secretary
General and assistant secretary general enjoy from legal process for all their statements and are
exempted from Taxes for their salaries. UN has about 18 different agencies.
List of UN Secretary General
S. No. Name Country
1. Trygve Le Norway 1946-1953
2. Dag Hammarskjoeld Sweden 1953-1961
3. U Thant Burma 1961-1971
4. Kurt Waldheim Austria 1972-1981
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar Peru 1982-1991
6. Dr. Boutros Boutros Ghali Egypt 1992-1996
7. Kofi Annan Ghana 1997-2007
8. Ban-ki-moon South Korea 2007-2017
9. Antonio Guterres Portugal 2017.
B. B. Ghali gave his report for UN reform named “Agenda for Peace”. Kofi Annan the 7th Secretary
General of UN was accused of corruption related to the Oil for Food Programme.
First UN Peacekeeping mission was established in 1948.
Reports by Kofi Annan for reform in UN
a) Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform 1997
b) Strengthening the United Nations: An Agenda for Further Change 2002
c) In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for all 2005
d) Investing in the United Nations: for a strong organization worldwide of 2006
Rezail Formula also proposed an addition of five new permanent members – two from developed,
three from the developing (one each from Asia, Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean) and four
non-permanent members.
Brahimi Report was submitted by a panel during the tenure of Kofi Annan sought pragmatic and
practical solution to matter related to peacekeeping
a) Shortcomings in the existing system
b) Frank and Realistic recommendations for change
c) Political and Strategic issues
d) Operational and organizational issues
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Zeid Report “A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United
Nations Peacekeeping Operations” made recommendations for remedial measures.
Chapter XVIII deals with revision of UN Charter. Art. 108 states that any amendment shall be passed
by 2/3rd majority of General Assembly & ratified by all the permanent members of UN.
International Court of Justice: It was established in 1945 by UN Charter and began to work in April
1964. The seat of Court is at The Peace Place in the Huge (Netherlands). This court consists of 15
Judges selected on basis of qualification but not on basis of region whoever two judges cannot be from
the same country. They are elected for a period of 9 years with five judges expiring every third year.
These 15 Judges also select their President, Vice-President and Registrar for 3 years. Cases are
decided by majority votes of Judges. 9 Judges constitute a quorum and in case of a tie the president of
the court has a casting vote. Currently Justice Dalveer Bhandari is the one of the 15 Judges in ICJ. He
was Supreme Court of India Judge. He was elected to ICJ in 2012 and re-elected in 2017 till 2027. The
ICJ does not have compulsory jurisdiction.
The Trusteeship Council: Chapter XII of the UN Charter deals with its composition. It consists of
only permanent members. Its function is over since 1994.
The Economic and Social Council
Chapter X, Article 61 specifies guidelines for its composition. Originally it had 18 members, latter
increased to 27 and finally to 54. Today there are 54 members elected for a term of three years. They
are also eligible for re-election. 1/3 i.e. 18 members are elected every year for a term of three years.
Every member has only one vote and all decisions are made on majority of member voting and
present.
Official Languages of UN
Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
Head quarter of UN is First Avenue, UN Plazza, New York
NATO
It was formed in 1949. Originally there were twelve members but today there are twenty eight
members.
Founder members are Albonia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherland,
Norway, U.K, USA, Portugal
Other members are Bulgaria, Croatia, Crech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Lativa,
Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey.
Greece, Turkey and Italy are not geographically a part of North Atlantic region and still they are in
NATO.
Disarmament and and Control: Major efforts within and outside UN since World War-II
The modern times of armed race can be traced back to the late sixties of the nineteenth century when
Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany started the system of conscription and tried to make Germany a
world power.
Prof Philip Noelbarker “armament produces fear and fear produces more armament with disastrous
results for the national security of all concerned”.
The history of disarmament can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. However the first
systematic proposal for reduction of armaments was mooted by Czar of Russia in 1816. The most
systematic effort was made by Tsar of Russia in 1898. His proposal was received welcome in First
Huge Peace Conference in 1899. This conference was attended by 28 states. The conference appointed
a committee of military and naval experts to study the problem of arm control. The next conference was
held in 1907. Both these conferences were related to arm control.
President Wilson in his one of the 14 points insisted that armaments should be reduced to „lowest point
consistent with domestic safety‟. The Treaty of Versailles was signed after W W 1 and after 1st World
War, League of Nations was formed. In 1920 the Assembly of the League urged the council to appoint a
new commission called „Temporary Mixed Commission‟ this commission tried to secure fixation of
land forces of the various countries. In 1925 League established a Preparatory Commission, this
commission after hard work of six years its documents are drafter and was considered in Geneva
Conference of 1923 attended by 23 states including 5 non-members of the League. In 1933 Germany
formally withdrew from Disarmament Conference.
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Efforts outside the League:
In Washington Conference of 1921-22 five major powers i.e. Britain, USA, France, Japan and Italy
agreed to fix their respective naval strength. In 1930 these nations met at London (London Conference)
to affect Naval Disarmament.
Disarmament after W W 2: There are three articles related to disarmament. These are
a) Article 11(1): Empowers general assembly to make recommendations to the member states
regarding
b) Article 26: Insists that International Peace Order should be promoted with „least diversion for
armaments of the world human and economic resources‟. It entrusted the Security Council with
the responsibility of formulating a plan for the establishment of a system for regulation of
armaments.
c) Article 47(1): It provides for establishment of Military Staff Committee (consisting of Army
Chief of permanent Security Council members) to assist the Security Council on the regulation
of armaments and possible disarmaments.
Atomic Energy Commission: UN General Assembly decided on 26 January, 1946 to establish it
consisting of Permanent Members of Security Council and Canada. Its functions were
a) Extending b/w nations the exchange of basic scientific information for peaceful.
b) Control of atomic energy to the extent to peaceful use only.
c) The elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons.
d) Effective safeguards by way of inspection.
On 14 June 1946, the first meeting of this commission difference emerged between two plans of USA &
USSR. Mr. Baruch of USA presented a plan commonly known as Baruch Plan. This plan insisted on
managerial control or ownership of all atomic energy activities potentially dangerous to the world
security. He also offered to destroy all atomic bombs of USA and stop further production.
On the other hand USSR suggested the prohibition of the production and employment of weapons based
on the use of atomic energy for the purpose of mass destruction. She also suggested two committees
dealing with exchange of scientific information for peaceful purpose.
Commission on Conventional Armaments: It was set up by Security Council on the recommendation
of Security Council. Soviet Union refused to cooperate with commission and withdrew from both
Atomic Energy Commission and Commission for Conventional Armaments.
Atom for Peace Plan: It was proposed in 1953 by Eisenhower the President of USA. He suggested for
creation of an international pool of fissionable material to be used for peaceful purpose. It was also
turned down by Soviet Union.
Anglo-French Plan: This plan was submitted by Britain and France in 1954. It suggested three phases
of disarmament i.e.
a) A Control Organ was to be set up, military expenditure and manpower of member states was to
be frozen at a specific level.
b) First half of the agreed reduction of armed forces, conventional weapons, military expenditure
and manufacturing of nuclear weapon to be stopped.
c) Reduction of the second half of the agreed reduction and total prohibition of nuclear weapons.
Geneva Summit and Open Skies Plan: In July 1955, the chiefs of the states from France, UK, USA
and USSR met at Geneva to discuss the problem of disarmament. At this meeting USA proposed Open
Skies Plan. Under this plan USA & USSR were to exchange military information which could be
verified by mutual aerial reconnaissance. USSR too agreed but was having doubts as how the inspection
could be carried on.
Six Point Plan of USA: In 1957, the US representative Henry Cabbot Lodge presented this plan. The
basic aim of this plan was to check the trend towards large stockpiles of nuclear weapons and reduce the
further nuclear threat.
Nuclear Test Ban: Encouraged by the announcement of Soviet Union in march 1958 regarding
unilateral ban on tests of atom and hydrogen bombs, three countries i.e. USA, USSR & Britain held a
conference at Geneva from October 1958 to April 1961. These powers agreed to suspend forthwith all
tests in the earth‟s atmosphere, in outer space, in ocean and underground. After few time Soviet Union
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violated it by explosion of Megaton Bomb.
Antarctica Treaty: It was signed in 1959 for demilitarization of Antarctica. This treaty was put in
practice of Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. It prohibited in Antarctica region all military manpower,
weapon tests, building of installations or disposal or radioactive wastes produced by military activity.
Ten Nations Disarmament Conference: It was signed in 1960 by ten nations, five from each block i.e.
USA, UK, Canada, France and Italy from Western Bloc whereas Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Poland,
Rumania and Bulgaria from the Communist Bloc at Geneva. Soviet Union announced that she was
willing to prohibit atomic weapons and even offered to destroy the atomic and hydrogen bomb if
western power reciprocated. She proposed a five year disarmament plan spread over three stages.
Eighteen Nations Disarmament Conference: This Conference was held in Geneva in 1961. Almost all
power except France was present in it. USA & USSR proposed two different plans. USA proposed a 30
% cut in nuclear delivery vehicles and major conventional armaments within three years. USSR
proposed disarmament in three stages. They proposed destruction of all means of delivery of nuclear
weapons and elimination of all foreign bases. This conference was important as neutral nations other
than 2 powers also proposed their respective plans.
Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT): It was signed in Moscow on 5 August 1963 on the advice of
President Kennedy. It prohibited the states from carrying out any nuclear weapon test explosion or any
other nuclear explosion at any place under their jurisdiction or control viz.
a) Atmosphere beyond its limits, outer space, under water including territorial sea and high seas.
b) Any other environment if such explosion causes radioactive debris.
Initially this treaty was concluded by three nuclear powers USA, USSR & UK it was made open to all.
This treaty made no provision for control through posts, spot inspection or international bodies. It made
no effort to reduce nuclear stockpiles. China and France refused to sign it as there was no provision to
check stockpiles of USA & USSR. In 1963 it also put a ban on underground tests which was not
covered under 1963 treaty.
Seven Point Plan: It was presented by President Johnson of USA at Geneva Conference in 1966. This
plan was made to stop the spread of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear states.
Outer Space Treaty: It was signed on 27 January 1967 and came into force on 10 October 1967. It
prohibited nuclear weapons and their landing on the moon. It prohibits to place in orbit around the earth
any objectives carrying nuclear weapons or any kind of weapon of mass destruction. It also forbade the
use of military personnel for scientific research for peaceful purposes.
Treaty of Tlatelolco: It was signed in 1967 by Mexico and El Salavador at Mexico to make Latin
America free from nuclear weapons.
Conference of Non-Nuclear Weapons States: It was signed in 1968. It was attended by 96 states
including nuclear powers USA, USSR, France and UK. This conference adopted fourteen resolutions
and declaration concerning four subjects
a) Security of the non-nuclear weapon states.
b) Establishment of nuclear weapon free zones.
c) Effective measures for prevention of proliferation of nuclear weapons.
d) Peaceful use of non-nuclear weapons states.
Non-Proliferation Treaty: This treaty was simultaneously signed at London, Moscow and Washington
on July 1968 and came into force on 5 March 1970. It prohibited the transfer by nuclear weapon state to
any recipient.
Disarmament Decade: 1970‟s was observed by General Assembly as disarmament decade.
Sea Bed Treaty: It was signed in February 1971. It prohibited the emplacement of nuclear weapons and
other weapons of mass destruction on the seabed and ocean floor. It was signed by UK, USA & USSR.
It came into force on 18 may 1972. It prohibits placing or testing any nuclear weapon beyond the outer
limit of sea bed zone (12 miles)
Biological Weapons Convention: It was signed in on 10 April 1972 at London, Moscow and
Washington. It came into force on 26 March 1975.
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT): It was signed by USSR & USA on 26 May, 1972. It
includes two separate treaties viz. Treaty on the Limitations of Anti-Ballistic Missile System and
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Interim Agreement on Certain Measures with respect to the limitation of the Strategic Offensive Arms.
While the former was concluded for an unlimited period, the latter was of five years duration. It limited
the two super powers to only two sites for ballistic missile defence, one for the protection of their
national capital area and other for field of Inter Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) Each area not to
have more than six ABM Launchers and 100 ABM Interceptors missiles at launching sites. The national
capital area was not to have more than 133 ABM radars each with not exceeding more than 3 Km
diameter.
Both Land and sea based ICBM was fixed at 1618 for USSR 1054 for USA.
US-Soviet Accord on Limitation of Arms: It was signed in 1973 for checking the armament race
between USSR & USA.
The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT): It was signed by USSR & USA on 3 July 1974 and
proposed a ban on underground nuclear test having a yield of more than 150 Kilotons. But this treaty
could not be enforced because of refusal by senate.
US-Soviet Arms Pact: It was signed by USSR & USA in July 1974 for ten years. It it also banned
underground testing of more than 150 Kilo tons.
The Peaceful Nuclear Explosion Treaty (PNET): It was signed in 1976 by USA & USSR on 28 May
1976 but could not be enforced because of not ratified by Senate.
First Special Session on Disarmament was held from 23 May to 1 July 1978 and General Assembly
declared 1980‟s as second Disarmament Decade.
SALT – II: Salt – I lapsed in October 1977 and they again signed SALT – II on 1 June 1979 up to 31
December 1985.
Reagan Plan: President Reagan of USA proposed a plan on 18 November 1981 suggesting a four point
agenda
a) USA prepared to cancel deployment of Preshing II and Ground launched cruise missile if USSR
dismantles its SS-20, SL-4 & SS-5.
b) USA would seek to negotiate substantial reduction in nuclear arms.
c) The action would be taken to achieve equality in conventional forces in Europe.
d) USA urged the USSR to join with it and many other nations to establish a western proposed
conference on disarmament in Europe.
START: US President suggested this negotiation and were held in Geneva. He proposed two stages
during the first stage the number of ballistic missile war heads was to be reduced by at least 1/3 rd below
current level. During the 2nd phase they were to achieve equal ceiling on ballistic missiles.
Second Special session on Disarmament was held in 1982.
Hotline: In July 1984 USA & USSR agreed to add a facsimile transmission capability to the Direct
Communication Link (DCL) popularly known as hotline. It was first established in 1963.
Intermediate range nuclear force (INF): This treaty was the first to abolish an entire category of
nuclear weapons and was signed by President Reagan and Gorbachev at Washington in 1987.
New Six Nations Disarmament Plan: It was signed by six nations i.e. India, Argentina, Greece,
Mexico, Sweden and Tanzania.
Third special session on this disarmament 1988
Washington Summit: It was held in 1990 between Gorbachev and Bush. Two countries concluded
agreements on nuclear, chemical and conventional arms. Two sides agreed to destroy thousands of
tons of these mass destruction weapons and reduce stockpiles to five thousand tons each. It was decided
that the destruction would began in 1992 and would lost up to 2002.
START: It was signed by Gorbachev and Bush on 31th July 1991. The two super powers agreed to
reduce two equal levels in defined strategic offensive arms over a period of seven years. USSR agreed
to reduce 35% and USA agreed to 25%.
US announced unilateral disarmament: Bush announced unilateral disarmament to make the word a
batter place. He ordered removal of all nuclear artillery shells from overseas bases. In return Gorbachev
announced extensive cuts in nuclear weapons. He offered to reduce armed forces by 700000 as against
500000 offered by USA.
Convention on Chemical Weapon: It was signed in 1993 at Paris by 120 countries.

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Extension of NPT: In May 1995 a global conference on the extension of NPT was held at New York
which decided to extend NPT indefinitely without any condition. This permanent extension of NPT
implies that only five countries USA, Russia, China, UK and France can now legally possess nuclear
weapon capability.
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT): It was held in 1996 and India voted against it.
Chemical Weapon Convention came into force on 29th April 1997.
North Korea conducted nuclear test on 9 October 2006.
Cold war Phase – I:The two major conflict of 2nd half of the twentieth century are the discord between
the East and West and between the rich countries of North and Poor countries of South. The former is
known as Cold War and the latter is known as North South Divide. Sometimes the western democratic
countries are also called Free World and the communist countries as Red Communist.
Meaning of Cold War: Bernard Baruch, an American Statesman in an address in Columbia South
Carolina on April 16, 1947 a month after Truman Doctrine said that “let us not be deceived – today we
are in the midst of the Cold War”. Cold War is also known as Hot War or Propaganda War.
Origin of Cold War: The word „Cold War‟ was coined by Bernard Baruch, a US Statesman. It was
further popularized by Walter Lippmann, a print media person of USA.
Causes of Cold War: There are mainly three branches of thinkers tracing the causes of Cold War i.e.
Orthodox, Revisionist and Objective. Orthodox hold that USSR was responsible for Cold War,
Revisionist hold that USA was responsible for it where as those holding objective view holds that both
USA & USSR were responsible for it.
a) First cause of Cold War was opening of second front against against German Forces. USSR
demanded for it in 1941 but USA opened it in 1944.
b) They both differ on German and Polish govt.
c) USA suspended Lend Lease aid to USSR.
d) Difference at Potsdam Conference. USSR demanded goods & worth 20 billion dollars should be
ceased from Germany and its 50 % should be given to USSR and remaining 50% to USA &
Britain.
e) George F Kenning the than US Ambassador to USSR send a long telegram to USA. He said „in
these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any US policy toward the Soviet Union
must be that of a long term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive
tendencies‟. This article was published and is known as article „X‟. It is also known as „Long
Telegram‟.
f) Truman Doctrine: Truman declared on 12 March 1947 that „I believe that it must be the policy
of the US to support the free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressure‟. It is known as Truman Doctrine and it comes under The
Policy of Containment which aimed to stop soviet expansion an influence. It was especially for
Turkey and Greece.
g) Marshal Doctrine/Marshal Plan: 5 June 1947, it was for Western European states and it was
the extension of Truman Doctrine.
h) Molotov Plan: It was a plan of USSR in July 1947 in response to US Marshal plan. It was a
series of bilateral agreements linking USSR with East European Countries. This was an
economic response to Marshal Plan. The political response was given in Communist
Information Bureau (COMINFORM) in Sept. 1947 to provide Moscow with the institutional
means to control foreign communist parties.
i) Brussels Pact: It was done in March 1948 by European states. It was a mutual defence treaty,
which directed the signatory to extend military support to any member in case of an attack by
Germany or any third party in Europe.
j) USSR refused to withdraw forces from Iran.
k) Berlin Blockade in 1948 by USSR for 324 days. This resulted in formation of NATO in 1949.
l) USSR became a nuclear power in 1949.
m) Uniting for Peace Resolution was passed in 1950 in the matter of Korean War.
n) After the W W 2 Germany was occupied and governed by Allied Control Council.
o) Formation of NATO 1949.
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p) Korean War; North Korea supported arms by USSR and army by China where South Korea
supported by USA on basis of United Nation.
q) ANZUS: Australia, New Zealand and USA on 1st Sept. 1951.
r) Japan Peace Treaty: Sept. 8 1951.
Between 1953 – 1962
a) Policy of Peaceful co-existence of capitalism and socialism by Khrushchev.
b) In 1953 US did an agreement with South Korea to provide security to it.
c) SEATO: South East Asian Treaty Organization was signed in 24 February 1955. It is also
known as Manila Pack. It has eight members including USA, UK, France, Pakistan,
Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and Philippines.
d) Extension of Truman Doctrine to entire Middle East by the name of Eisenhower Doctrine of
1954.
e) Middle East Defence Organization was signed in 1954.
f) Baghdad pack was signed in 1954 by U.K., Turkey, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq.
g) CENTO: It was signed in 1955 by Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Pakistan and England.
h) Vietnam Crisis 1955.
i) WARSAW Treaty: It was done by USSR with 12 East European communist states on May
14, 1955. It was a response to NATO of USA. It has a total 8 countries i.e. Albania,
Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, West Germany, Romania and Czechoslovakia.
j) Federal Republic of Germany on 5 May, 1955 supported by USA & German Democratic
Republic supported by USSR.
k) American exploded Thermonuclear or hydrogen bomb in 1952 and USSR nine months later.
l) During Suez Crisis of 1956 USA refused to take side of her allied i.e. Britain and France.
When USSR sided with Egypt, USA gave help to Britain and France in the shape of
Eisenhower Doctrine in January 1957. Its aim was the contamination of communism at
international level. It was having same aim as of Truman Doctrine for Greece and Turkey.
m) Khrushchev visited USA in 1959.
n) Domino Theory: It was given by President Eisenhower.
o) U-2 Aircraft incident.
p) 25 Mile Long Berlin Wall was constructed to check the fleeing of refuges from East to West
Berlin.
q) Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 forced the two powers to come close for easing the tension which
ultimately paved the way for Détente.
r) Bay of Pigs: It is related to support of USA to Cuba govt. in exile.
Thaw in the Cold War 1963 -1968
a) Geneva Summit
b) Camp David meeting 1959 is related to Berlin (German) problem.
c) Hotline 1963 between White House & Kremlin.
d) Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) 1963.
e) Outer Space Treaty 1967.
f) Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty 1968.
Détente, 1969-1978:
President Nixon and his national security advisor Henry A Kissinger were responsible for it. Kissinger
defined it as „an environment in which competitors can regulate and restraint their differences and
ultimately move from competition to cooperation‟. Détente was the official name of US policy toward
USSR.
a) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) 1972.
b) 35 Nation European Security conferences in Helsinki 1973.
c) ---------------Do----------------------------- in Belgrade 1977.
End of Détente:
Czechoslovakia experienced Prague Spring or Socialism with human face, under Alexander Dubehek
in 1967 who decided to withdraw from the WARSAW Pack. Soon Brezhnev proclaimed that is known
as Brezhnev Doctrine which stipulates in no uncertain terms that a communist state was within its rights
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when it intervenes in the internal affairs of an East European state if such action would prevent the re-
introduction of a capitalist social system.
a) Brezhnev Doctrine 1967
b) Indo-Pak war
c) Liberation of Bangladesh
d) Six day war between Israel and Arab brotherhood.
e) Yom Kippur war between Israel Vs Egypt & Syria.
New Cold War:
a) Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
b) Carter Doctrine: It declared American‟s willingness to use military force to protect its interest in
the Persian Gulf. Any attempt by any outside force to gain control will be regarded as assault on
the vital interest of USA.
c) New cold war began during the tenure of Ronald Reagan and Brezhnev. Brezhnev said „Russia
declares détente with the USA as dead‟.
d) Reagan Doctrine: He pledged US support to anti-communists insurgents to overthrow Soviet
supported governments in Afghanistan, Angola and Nicaragua.
e) President Reagan took the war to space and started his Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI)
dubbed as Star War. It was a research programme to explore opportunities of space based
defence against ballistic missiles.
New Détente started with the announcement of democratic reforms known as Glasnost (openness) and
Perestroika (political and economic restricting).
End of Cold War
a) Geneva Summit 1985
b) Reykjavik Summit 1986
c) Washington Summit 1987
d) INF Treaty
e) Moscow Summit 1988
f) Malta Summit 1989, b/w Bush and Gorbachev.
g) Moscow Summit 1991
h) In Feb 1992 Bush and Yeltsin made a formal declaration regarding the end of Cold War.
i) At London Summit NATO leaders announced formal end of Cold War.
International events Post Cold War
a) The gearing up of NATO during of mini war between Georgia and Russia in 2008.
b) The war on terror, being carried by US initially against Afghanistan and then against Iraq post
9/11.
Neo-Colonization, Meaning and Nature: Modern Imperialism and colonialism started in the fifth
century when the European Countries such as Britain, France, Holland, Portugal and Spain build their
empires. Post 1945 version of Imperialism is known as neo-imperialism. Prof. Organski has noted three
types of imperialism i.e. political, economic independencies and satellites. Decolonization started in
eighteenth century when America, Australia and New Zealand got independence but in real sense it
started after W W 2 when a large number of Asian and African countries got independence. At that time
Asia and Africa was mostly under the 7 European countries i.e. Belgium, France, Britain, Germany,
Italy, Portugal and Spain. By decolonization six new countries were created i.e. Czechoslovakia,
Romania, Yugoslavia, Poland, Austria and Hungary from Austro-Hungarian Empire. Treaty of
Versailles deprived Germany of more than 25000 square miles of territory. A satellite country is one
which is formally independent but controlled by some foreign power both politically and economically.
E.g. Eastern Europe countries were the satellites of USSR.
Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism was written in 1965 by Kwame Nkrumah, the
leader of Ghana. J. A. Hobson wrote „Imperialism: A Study‟.
Bandung Conference of 1955 paved the way for formation of Non-Alignment Movement. First All
African People Conference was held in late 1950s, 2nd was held in 196o at Tunis and 3rd at Cairo in
1961.
Politics of Foreign Aid: The American PL 480 or „Food for Peace‟ was a US plan to give food grain
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to third world countries including India.
Role of Multi-National Corporations: President Nasser of Egypt tries to nationalize the Suez Canal
Company in 1956. Military Industrial Complex is a complicated network of governmental agencies,
industrial corporations and research institutes working together to meet a state‟s military requirements.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was established in 1946 as a
permanent intergovernmental body. It is a part of United Nation.
New International Economic Order-need, Nature and Problems: The third world countries are
demanding NIEO since 1970. They have used G-77, UNCTAD, Non-Alignment conferences and
General Assembly. The specific proposal for change in economic system was advanced by Non-
Alignment Summit at Algeria in 1973. Sixth Special Session of the UN General Assembly in April
1974 adopted „Declaration and Programs of Action of the New International Order. In December 1974
General Assembly approved the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of State. Brandt Commission
was established by UN and it gave report i.e. Our Common Future 1983.
Regional International Organizations: A case study of SAARC:
SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation was established on 8 December 1985 by
head of states of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka at Dhaka.
SAPTA: SAARC Preferential Trade Area was suggested first of all by Sri Lanka in Sixth SAARC
summit held in Colombo on 21 December 1991. The 10th Summit in Colombo approved the institutional
framework for SAPTA. The framework agreement on SAPTA was finalized and signed at Seventh
Summit at Dhaka. It entered into force in 1993. So far three rounds of the negotiation had been
concluded under SAPTA covering over 5000 commodities.
Lenin's theory of Imperialism; Theories of dependency and under development: The theory of
Imperialism was devised by a non-Marxist, John A. Hobson, an English Economist V. I. Lenin
influenced from the works of Hobson and the German Social Democrat, Rudolph Hilferding. From
Hobson, Lenin accepted the idea of Imperialism as a result of capitalist competition from foreign
market and colonies caused by under consumption and overproduction. From Hilferding, Lenin took
the notion that imperialism reflected the existence of monopoly and finance capital, or the highest stage
of capitalism. He gave his work „Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
There was a development (Modernization) school first arose in 1950s. Theoretically it was based on the
concepts of American Structural-functional school as exemplified in the work of Almond, Verba,
Easton and their associates. This school of thought usually neglected the external a States‟s or societies‟
external environment particularly international and economic factors. To include the external factors
into account an approach appeared known as the dependency school. The main currents within the
dependency school were Dependencia, Centre-periphery analysis and World System Analysis.
Dependencia: It originated in Latin America in 1950s and 1960s. The key role in formulating
Dependencia was was played by the UN‟s Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) under the
Argentinean Economist Raul Prebisch and UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
They were concerned with the problem of explaining that why Latin America and Third World region
were not developed. The ECLA recommended Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) – the creation
of an industrial base, beyond tariff barrier, which would meet the internal need for manufacturing
products.
In addition to Prebisch, other writers have contributed to this school such as John Gallagher and
Ronald Robinson with their idea of Informal Empire of free trade imperialism Gunnar Myrdal
(author of Asian Drama) with his argument that how duel economies creates „backwash effects‟
systematically disadvantaging the traditional sector.
The dependency theorist or Dependendists such as Dos Santos, Cardoso and Furtado believe that
ECLA approach correctly identifies the root problem but disagrees with their given solution. They reject
ISI and believe that ISI cannot work because the internal market for consumer goods is too limited.
They believe that development is not autonomous and depends upon ups and down of the world
advanced economies.
Centre-Periphery Analysis: The founding father of this theory was Frank who made case studies of
Brazil and Chile to prove a thesis that „chain of exploitation linking centre and peripheries. Latin

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American Countries do not develop, because this chain drains them of the resources they need for
development. Development is achievable only via revolution and breaking of links with the developed
world. Frank did not limit himself to only Latin America and he widened his concept to include third
world. A number of authors such as Amin, Barnet and Muller, Emmanuel, Radice and Rodney
developed the Frankian argument on the same general line. They explained the mechanism of
exploitation of the periphery. Contrary to Marxian concept of Theory of Surplus Value and proposed a
concept of Unequal Exchange.
Smith gives three arguments given by the second generation of the dependency writers
a) Duel economy is not actually as rigid as once believed.
b) Emphasis on the crucial role of the state in the changing order of things.
c) They recognized the diversity of Third World Countries.
World System Analysis: It roots can be traced to the writing of Lenin. He in his work Imperialism:
The Highest Stage of Capitalism mentioned that imperialism creates two-tier structure within the
capitalist world economy. He identified the dominant structure as core and less developed as periphery.
It is the location of state within this capitalist world system which determines the pattern of interaction
and relation of domination and dependence between them.
The third version of the dependency is the World System Analysis. Some thinkers believe that this
theory doesn‟t fits in the dependency theories. The World System Analysis was given by Immanuel
Wallerstein, Director of the Fernand Braudel Centre at the State University of New York. In his work
The Modern World System (MWS) he argued that a world economy emerged in the long sixteenth
century, with the establishment of an international division of labour and core, peripheral and semi-
peripheral regions. The core areas historically emerged in the most advanced economic activities,
banking, manufacturing technologically advanced agriculture and ship building. The periphery has
provided the raw materials such as minerals and timber to fuel the core‟s expansion. The semi-periphery
is involved in a mix of production activities, some associated with core areas and some associated with
peripheral area. He was of the view that this division of labour requires as well as increases inequality
between regions.
Ander Gunder Frank wrote the Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America 1967.
Immanuel Wallenstein wrote Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the
European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century.
John Galtung gave following three basic assumptions in his „A Structural Theory of Imperialism‟.
a) Harmony of interest between the centre in the centre nation and the centre in the Periphery
nation.
b) Disharmony of interest within the Periphery nation than within the Centre nations.
c) Disharmony of interest between the periphery in the Centre nation and the periphery of the
periphery nation.
Social Constructivism, Critical International Theory, Feminism, Postmodernism
Social Constructivism:
Social Constructivism or Constructivism is a theory in International Relations which holds that
developments in international relations are being constructed through social processes in accordance
with ideational factors such as identity, norms, rules, etc. Constructivism in the academic discipline of
IR argues that international relations are a social construction. States, alliances, and international
institutions are the products of human interaction in the social world. They are being constructed
through human action imbued with social values, identity, assumptions, rules, language, etc. The term
„Constructivism‟ was coined for International Relations by Nicholas Greenwood in his book, „World of
Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations (1989)‟. However, it was
the works of Alexander Wendt especially his 1992 article „Anarchy is what States Make of it: The
Social Construction of Power Politics‟, and his 1999 book, „Social Theory of International Politics‟
which popularized Constructivism in IR. Wendt‟s version of Constructivism, a state-centric and
structural one, helped it to find a place among the mainstream theories of International Relations.
Constructivism came into existence as a response to the „third debate‟ in IR. The third debate, between
Neo-realism and Neo-liberalism, was a synthesis movement to make IR more scientific.

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Alexander Wendt gave his idea in his work Anarchy is what States Make of it: The Social Construction
of Power Politics. Nicholas Onuf, Peter Katzenstein and Friedrich Kratochwil are some of thinkers
related to constructivism.
Types of Constructivism
a) Modernist Constructivism: Modernist constructivism is also known as traditional
constructivism and neoclassical constructivism. It is characterized by „objective hermeneutics‟
with a „conservative interest in understanding and explaining social reality‟. Hermeneutics is a
method of interpretation and the „objective hermeneutics‟ is a method proposed by Neo-
Kantians in accordance with Immanuel Kant‟s understanding of knowledge production.
According to Kant, even though the knowledge is about objective reality, it is filtered through
our consciousness. In other words, our knowledge is highly influenced by our consciousness.
Wendt, Emanuel Adler, Peter Katzenstein, John Ruggie, Thomas Risse-Kappen, Michael
Barnett, Mlada Bukovansky, Jeffrey Checkel, Martha Finnemore and Jeffrey Legro are
considered to be the major proponents of modernist constructivism.
b) Modernist Linguistic or Rule-Oriented Constructivism: They argue that international
relations are regulated by rules and these rules are constituted by the structures of language.
They employ „subjective hermeneutics‟, which is a belief that objective knowledge is
impossible since the „reality is the creation of language‟. The scholars associated with
Modernist Linguistic Constructivism other than Nicholas Onuf are Friedrich Kratochwil, Karen
Litfin, Neta Crawford, Christian Reus-Smit, Jutta Weldes, and Ted Hopf.
c) Radical Constructivism: It is highly influenced by the works of German philosophers such as
Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and French philosophers Michel Foucault and Jacques
Derrida. Heidegger and Wittgenstein held that social facts are constituted by structures of
language; therefore, both of them challenged positivism and objectivity in the study of social
facts. At the same time, the focus of the postmodernism suggested by Foucault was to expose
the relations between power and knowledge. Post-structuralism proposed by Derrida tried to
deconstruct the dominant readings of reality. Due to the influence of these philosophers, the
Radical Constructivists adopted a subjective hermeneutics to interpret social reality, and
unmask relationship between truth and power
d) Critical Constructivism: Critical Constructivism combines the emancipator mission with a
pragmatist approach and objective hermeneutics. This approach believes in the active role of
our mind in interpreting our experiences and observations and it holds that we revise our beliefs
according to our experience. Andrew Linklater, Robert Cox, Heather Rae, and Paul Keal belong
to Critical Constructivism.
Critical International Theory:
Critical theory incorporates a wide range of approaches all focused on the idea of freeing people from
the modern state and economic system – a concept known to critical theorists as emancipation. The idea
originates from the work of authors such as Immanuel Kant and Karl Marx who, in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, advanced different revolutionary ideas of how the world could be reordered and
transformed. Both Kant and Marx held a strong attachment to the Enlightenment theme of universalism
– the view that there are social and political principles that are apparent to all people everywhere.
Of course, neither Marx nor Kant was IR theorists in the contemporary sense. Both were philosophers.
We must therefore identify two more recent sources for how critical theory developed within the
modern discipline of IR. The first is Antonio Gramsci and his influence over Robert Cox and the
paradigm of production. The second is the Frankfurt school – Jürgen Habermas in particular – and the
influence of Habermas over Andrew Linklater.
Richard K. Ashley‟s famous essay „The Poverty of Neo-Realism‟ led to the development of critical
approach to IR. He pointed out that neo-realism which tried to replace subjectivism of realism by a
scientific approach tried to identify the objective structures of social power behind or constitutive of
states and their interest. Critical scholars were dissatisfied with the way realism and neo-realism
remained dominant even in the face of global transformation.

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Feminism
Feminism is a movement which demands equality of women as per with men. Plato had given equal
status for women with men in his writings. He was also known as feminist thinker. Same was the case
with J. S. Mill as he was much more influenced by his wife Harriet Taylor Mill. It is believed that
International Relation has remained a discipline dominated by men. Women have always remained
hidden in international relations. Some of the main feminist thinkers are Jean Bethke Elshtain, Cynthia
Enloe, J Ann Tickner, V Spike Peterson, Sisson Runyan and Christine Sylvesters.
Major works on Feminism
Author Book Year
Jean Bethke Elshtan Women and War 1987
Cynthia Enloe Banana, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist sense of 1989
International Politics
J A Tickner Gender and International Relations: Feminist prospective 1992
in achieving Global Security
Peterson Spike and Anne Global Gender Issues 1993
Sisson Runyan
Ruddick Material Thinking toward a Politics of Peace 1993
Christine Sylvester Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Post 1994
Modern Era
Joshua S. Goldstein War and Gender 2001
Ann Tickner Gendering World Politics 2001
The major work for feminism in International Politics has done by Tickner. Tickner in her work „Hans
Morgenthau‟s principles of political realism: A Feminist Reformation‟ 1988 has presented a reformed
version of Morgenthau‟s principles of realism as discussed below
a) Objectivity is culturally defined and is associated with masculinity. So objectivity is partial.
b) National interest is multi dimensional. So not one set of interest should define it.
c) Power as domination and control privilege masculinity.
d) All political actions have moral significance and should not separate them.
e) Perhaps look for common moral elements
f) Feminist deny the autonomy of the political realism
Following are some of UN Conferences on women are;
 First UN Conference on Women: It was held in Mexico in 1975
 Second UN Conference on Women: It was held in Copenhagen in 1980
 Third UN Conference on Women: It was held in Naiobi in 1985
 Fourth UN Conference on Women: It was held in China in 1995
The 1975 year was declared as International Women Year. 1976 - 1985 was declared as international
decade for women.
Convention on Political Rights of women was held in New York in 1953. It came into force in 1954.
Criticism of Feminism
Robert Keohane and Francis Fukuyama have criticised the feminism in international relations. For
Keohane feminism in International relations needs to develop scientific, testified theories. Fukuyama
also doubts the claim of feminist that if the women will run the world, we will live in a peaceful world.
He stressed that such claims needs to developed scientific basis to meet the current challenges.
Post Modernism
Post-Modernism or Post-structuralism has widely come to be recognised as an influential theoretical
development throughout all the social sciences in the last two decades or so and these terms often used
inter changeably in the literature of international relations. In the context of international Relations, it is
said to have made its entry in the mid-1980s. However, it could make its mark only in the last few years.
Today, it is perhaps as popular a theoretical approach as any other dominant theory.
It is not easy to define Post Modernism as various theories claim to be post modernist. Richard Devetak
was of the view that „part of the problem is defining precisely what post-modernism is‟. Jean-Francois
Lyotard says “I define postmodern as incredulity towards meta-narratives". Meta-narrative or Grand

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theory is believed to possess clear foundation for making knowledge claims, or what in technical terms
is called foundational epistemology. Post-modernism theories are a distrust of any account of human life
which claims to have direct access to the truth. They believe that there is no objective reality in the
world, everything involving human being is subjective in nature.
Two most important themes of post-modernism: as discussed by Devetak relate to the power knowledge
relationship, and the textual strategies used by post-modernist international theorist.
The theme of power-knowledge relationship in post-modernism was deeply influenced by the works of
Michel Foucault. This is so because power-knowledge relationship, for Foucault, constitutes a core
concern of his work. In contrast to the rationalist theorists, Foucault believes that there is a close
relationship between power and knowledge. Unlike the positivists, he does not believe that knowledge
is immune from the workings of power. Instead, Foucault's main argument is that power in fact
produces knowledge. For him, "all power requires knowledge and all knowledge relies on and
reinforces existing power relations". Thus there is no such thing as "truth", existing outside of power.
According to post-modernists, truth is not something external to social settings, but is instead part of
them.
Post-modernists are primarily interested in knowing which types of "truths" and knowledge practices
support what kinds of power relations. In the context of international relations, post-modern
international theorists have used this insight to examine the "truths" of international relations theory to
see how the concepts aid knowledge claims that dominate the discipline in fact are highly contingent on
specific power relations.
The second important theme of post-modernism as discussed by Devetak: relates to the use of textual
strategies. From the point of view of post-modernism, the construction of the social world is equated
with that of a text. The insight of Jacques Derridn, an Algerian-born French post-structuralist in this
contest throws significant light on the arbitrariness of the construction of the social world. Derrida's
central argument is that the world is like a text in the sense that "it cannot simply be grasped, but has to
be interpreted". Such interpretations of the world, for Derrida, reflect tile concepts and structures of
language, what he terms "the textual interplay at work". He proposes two main tools to enable us to see
how arbitrary is the seemingly „natural‟ oppositions of language. These are deconstruction and double
rending.
Some characteristics of post-modernism
a) There is on subjective reality
b) There is no scientific or historic truth i.e. objective truth
c) Science, technology, reason and logic are not vehicles of human progress
d) Reason and logic are not universally valid
e) There is no such thing as human nature
f) Language does not refer to a reality outside itself
g) There is no certain knowledge
h) No general theory of the natural or social world can be valid or true.
Famous Post-Modernist Thinkers
Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Pierre-Felix Guattari, Fredric
Jameson, Emmanuel Levinas, Jean Francois Lyotard, Richard Rorty and Slavoj Zizek.
Conflict and Peace: Changing Nature of Warfare; Weapons of mass destruction; deterrence
Conflict resolution & conflict transformation
a) Negotiation: It means the solution of any dispute by discussion among the parties to dispute. It
is the oldest method of conflict solving.
b) Conciliation: It implies settlement of dispute by referring them to a conciliator or commission.
This most important thing in it is that the judgement of the commission is not binding on the
parties to dispute.
c) Mediation/Good offence: It implies efforts by a 3rd state to resolve the dispute between two
states. Article 4 of Huge Conference (1988) deals with Mediation/Good offence. If the third
state joins the matter itself then it is known as mediation and if invited by the disputed states
than it is known as good offence. E.g. in 1965 Indo Pak war Russia with mediation solved the
dispute.
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d) Enquiry: It implies investigation by a third party but the here the judgement is binding on
them.
e) Arbitration: It refers to settlement of a dispute by an empire, a commission or a tribunal other
than International Court of Justice. Its decisions are also binding on parties to dispute. E.g.
Runn of Kutch dispute 1968 between India and Pakistan.
f) Judicial Settlement or Adjudication: It refers to a process of settlement of disputes by
International Court of Justice. Its decisions are also binding on parties to dispute. E.g. Britain
and Palestine conflict (1929) & Germany and Poland conflict (1927)
Chapter VII of UN: The existence of any threat to peace, breaches of the peace or act of aggression
(power of Security Council to maintain peace)
a) Art. 39: Security Council can enquiry questions related to international peace and security
b) Art. 40, 41: Security Council can import economic sanctions and recommend means for
severing diplomatic relations.
c) Art. 42: It authorises the use of Armed Forces in setting of disputes. Whereas Art 2 of UN
states that every disputes shall be resolved by peaceful means.
Changing Nature of Warfare: Approaches to understanding warfare in the immediate years after the
Second World War had a residual impact of the experiences of the two Great Wars. These wars were
total war. Karl Von Clausewitz (1780-1831) was an untypical Prussian military officer because he was a
scholar in uniform. He proved to be a philosopher in his own right. Modern scholars have placed him on
the same pedestal as Karl Marx, Adam Smith etc. Clausewitz fought against Napoleonic France and
then distilled his experience in writing. His philosophical treatise titled Vom Kriege (On War) was
published in 1832 by his widow Maria Von Clausewitz. Clausewitz‟s analysis of warfare turned out to
be one of the best ever produced in history. For Clausewitz, war is organized violence unleashed by the
state. He divided war into Limited War and Real or Absolute War. For him, eighteenth century
European warfare as practised by Louis XIV and Frederick the Great represented Limited War. In
contrast, Napoleon Bonaparte, whom he admiringly called the „God of War‟, tried to break out of the
paradigm of Limited Warfare. For Clausewitz, Napoleonic Warfare exhibited seeds of Absolute War
that would reach fruition in near future. Clausewitz‟s prophecy proved true but he did not live to witness
Absolute Wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45. So, what we mean by Modern War is Clausewitz‟s early forms
of Real or Absolute War. Thus, Modern War is the stage between Limited War of the eighteenth
century.
The French Revolution ushered in the idea of destruction of the enemy‟s government. Hence, the
beginning of French Revolution i.e. 1789 could be taken as the beginning of Modern War. This process
reached its logical culmination under Adolf Hitler‟s Total War when the objective was complete
destruction of enemy‟s society by wholesale mobilization of the common people.
The concept of limited war as it originally developed focussed on the conflicts between the two
superpowers that were fought, not on their soil or directly fought in other areas of the world. Therefore,
when one tries to understand the 'limited' nature of limited war, the focus is on of the abundant military
power that both the superpowers have but do not actually use in such a war.
Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) was a research programme that was to investigate the feasibility of
new defensive technologies based in space. The new technologies aimed to detect, track and destroy the
Soviet missiles. The detection would be done from the point of its takeoff; the tracking would continue
throughout its flight path and the destruction of the attacking missile would be done any time from its
take off until its last stage of zeroing onto the target. Some works on are given below;
War is the father of all things Heraklitos
God is on the side of heavier battalions Napoleon Bonaparte
Defence of the West 1950 Liddell Hart
Introduction to Strategy Andre Beaufre
Weapons of mass destruction:
WMD is a term used to describe a weapon with the capacity to indiscriminately kill a large numbers of
living beings. It includes nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological weapons which are increasingly
becoming threat to international peace and stability.

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WMD is a term used to describe a weapon with the capacity to indiscriminately kill a large numbers of
living beings. It includes nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological weapons which are increasingly
becoming threat to international peace and stability. Britannica Encyclopedia defined WMD as it as a
weapon with the capacity to inflict death and destruction on such a massive scale and so
indiscriminately that its very presence in the hands of a hostile power can be considered a grievous
threat. Modern weapons of mass destruction are nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons.
The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was adopted by the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva
on 3 September 1992. The CWC allows for the stringent verification of compliance by State Parties.
The CWC entered into force on 29 April 1997 and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW) was formally established as a permanent implementing agency.
The term „weapon of mass destruction‟ has been in use since at least 1937, when it was used to describe
massed formations of bomber aircrafts. It was used in reference to the mass destruction of Guernica,
Spain by aerial bombardment. Later the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japanese cities of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, killing thousands of people, showed the disastrous effects such weapons can have for the
humanity. The arms race during the Cold War resulted in the US, the Soviet Union, and other major
powers building up enormous stockpiles containing tens of thousands of nuclear bombs, missile
warheads and others. At the same time both superpowers also acquired stockpiles of chemical and
biological weapons - the two other principal types of modern WMDs. In fact, the military and
diplomatic standoff of that era was sometimes described as a “balance of terror.” In the post Cold War
period major concern around all WMDs has been proliferation, that is, the potential for lesser powers,
“rogue states,” or international terrorist groups to acquire the means to produce and deliver such
weapons. The phrase entered popular usage in relation to the US led invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Political Economy of IR; Globalisation; Global governance and Breton Woods system, North-
South Dialogue, WTO, G-20, BRICS
Globalisation: The term "globalisation" primarily refers to economic activities like trade, movement of
capital, goods, labour and communication system across boundaries facilitating higher levels of
interconnectedness in the world. These economic activities have greater impact on socio-political
sectors nationally and internationally. The increasing strong presence of non-state actors like MNCs, the
NGOs and IGOs has questioned the supremacy of state sovereignty. The rich states are benefited due to
their superior control over the flow of capital, technology and communication system.
Globalisation means internationalization of economy. Globalisation has benefited the countries of
Europe and America. Globalisation has induced greater Urbanisation. Partha Chatterjee has commented
that the latest phase of the globalization of capital will witness an emerging opposition between
modernity and democracy. India adopted Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) in 1991
during this time P. V. Narasimha Rao was Prime Minister and Dr. Manmohan Singh was Finance
Minister.
Work Thinker
India: Globalization and change Pamela Shurmer Smith
Globalisation and its discontent Nobel Laureate
Free Trade Today (2002) Jagdish Bhagwati
In defence of Globalisation (2004) Jagdish Bhagwati
Why Growth Matters: How Economic Growth In India Reduced Poverty and Lessons for other
Developing Countries. (2013) Jagdish Bhagwati
Global Governance: When two or more than two countries come on a single plate form to form to
some rules to maintain peace in the world, it is known as Global Governance Following are the some of
the initiatives for Global Governance in history;
a) The Holy Alliance: It was formed in the wake of Napoleonic war through three treaties i.e.
Treaty of Chaumont (1814), The Quadruple Alliance (1815) and Treaty of Holy Alliance (1815).
The Treaty of Chaumont was concluded by Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia made
provision for an alliance for 20 years and its main aim was to prevent the return of Napoleon in
France. The Holy Alliance was first major step in the direction of international governance in
1815 and it was formed by Austria, Prussia and Russia. After its formation a number of European
countries were added to it. This grouping of countries lasted only for a decade.
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b) Concert of Europe: After the demise of the Holy Alliance, the great power of Europe continued
to hold ad-hoc conferences and continued to work through a system popularly known as Concert
of Europe. Its meetings were not held at any fixed intervals but as and when a concerted action
was called for. The Concert of Europe remained in operation for almost 90 years. Despite lack of
any institutional it worked well for almost 90 years.
c) League of Nation: After the First World War great powers of the world felt the need of an
organisation which could stop such destructive war in future. The League of Nations was formed
after Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to prevent another global conflict like World War 1st and
maintain peace. It was founded on 10th of January, 1920 and ceased to operation on 20th April
1946. Its headquarter was in Geneva. Unlike the Concert of Europe, the League of Nation had an
organisation and legal personality. It worked through the Assembly, the council contained
representatives of all the member states and took decision by Unanimity. It was also having a
permanent Secretariat with its headquarter in Geneva Switzerland. It was the first
intergovernmental organisation whose principle mission was to maintain peace. Permanent Court
of International Justice and International Labour Organisation were its two essential wings. Its
founding members were 42. Soviet Union joined it in 1934. USA was not able to join because of
the refusal of Senate. As India was a signatory of Treaty of Versailles in 1919, India was granted
automatic entry to the League of Nation. The idea of such an organisation was given by
Immanuel Kant in his work „Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch‟ in 1795.
d) United Nations: Explained in previous pages.
Breton Woods System
Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial
relations among the United States, Canada, Australia, Western European countries and Japan after the
1944 Bretton Woods Agreement. The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated
monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent states. The chief features of
the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that
maintained its external exchange rates within 1 percent by tying its currency to gold and the ability of
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to bridge temporary imbalances of payments. Preparing to
rebuild the international economic system while World War II was still being fought, 730 delegates
from all 44 Allied nations gathered at Bretton Woods in United States, for the United Nations Monetary
and Financial Conference, also known as the Bretton Woods Conference. This conference established
the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of
the World Bank Group.
On 15 August 1971, the United States unilaterally terminated convertibility of the US dollar to gold,
effectively bringing the Bretton Woods system to an end and rendering the dollar a fiat currency but the
institutions established under the Bretton Woods conference are still the dominant financial institutions
of the world.
International Monetary Fund (IMF): It was established by 45 Nations in the United Nations
Monetary and Fiscal Conference held after 2nd World War at Breton Woods, New Hampshire in 1944. It
is also known as a product of Breton Woods Conference or simply Breton Woods Institution. As a part
of Breton Woods Agreement IMF a long with International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD) were established. IMF was established on 27 December, 1945 with 26 signing the agreement. It
is headquartered in Washington DC. Its managing director is Kristalina Georgieva of Bulgaria.
Functions of IMF
a) To promote international economic cooperation
b) To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade
c) To create more employment opportunities
d) To promote exchange rate stability
e) To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payment t
f) To solve the problem of international liquidity
North-South Dialogue: Northern counts are the developed countries in the northern part of the World.
They include USA, Canada, Britain and other elite countries. These are also also known as first world
countries. These countries have developed mostly by polluting environment as well as the grabbing
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wealth from the poor countries in the form of colonialism. After the Second World War they have
established the main financial institutions such as IMF, World Bank etc. to meet their own demands and
benefit them more.
Russia along with other European countries is mostly known as second world countries. After the World
War Second they have adopted an alienated economic system. They blame the colonialism and
imperialism of capitalist countries of the first world responsible for the poverty condition of many
countries. The remaining countries of the world particularly residing in the southern part of the world
are known as the North Countries or Under-developed Countries or third world countries or simply least
developed countries (LDC). The condition of these countries is very bad as the developed countries
have looted them by making them their colonies. Now these third world countries are demanding their
share by transforming the present economic system by New International Economic Order (NIEO). This
demand of the third world countries from the developed countries of first world is called North-South
Dialogue. NIEO is basically a set of proposals advocated by developing countries to end economic
colonialism and dependency through a new interdependent economic system. The demand for NIEO
was first time highlighted by LDC in 1970s. NIEO was adopted by United Nations General Assembly in
1974 but till date nothing has been done to reform IMF, World Bank or UN.
WTO: The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), signed on October 30, 1947, by 23
countries, was a legal agreement minimizing barriers to international trade by eliminating or reducing
quotas, tariffs, and subsidies while preserving significant regulations. Although it was signed in 1947, it
became a law on 8 July 1948. Indian is the founding member of GATT. The GATT was intended to
boost economic recovery after World War II through reconstructing and liberalizing global trade. The
GATT went into effect on January 1st, 1948. The first GATT summit was held in Geneva in 1947. In
1995 GATT summit was held in Uruguay was held from 1986 to 1993 and it came into effect in 1995 in
the shape of GATT was converted into World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global
international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO
agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world‟s trading nations and ratified in their
parliaments. The goal is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible. There
are 164 members of WTO. China joined WTO in 2001 and Russia joined it in 2012 and became the
156th member of WTO.
Functions of WTO;
a) Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA)
b) Agreements on Agriculture (AOA)
c) Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMs)
d) Trade related Intellectual Property Rights
e) General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS)
G-20
The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European
Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international
financial stability, climate change mitigation, and sustainable development. The G20 was founded in
1999 in response to several world economic crises. Since 2008, it has convened at least once a year,
with summits involving each member's head of government or state, finance minister, foreign minister,
and other high-ranking officials; the EU is represented by the European Commission and the European
Central Bank. Other countries, international organizations, and nongovernmental organizations are
invited to attend the summits, some on a permanent basis. The G20 operates without a permanent
secretariat or staff. The group's chair rotates annually among the members and is selected from a
different regional grouping of countries as shown in below table. The incumbent chair establishes a
temporary secretariat for the duration of its term, which coordinates the group's work and organizes its
meetings. The 2019 chair was Japan, which hosted the 2019 summit in Osaka. The current chair is held
by Italy. The 2021 summit is planned to be held in Italy. The 2022, 2023 and 2024 summits will be
hosted by Indonesia, India and Brazil respectively.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5
Australia India Argentina France China

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Canada Russia Brazil Germany Indonesia
USA South Africa Mexico Italy Japan
Saudi Arabia Turkey UK South Korea
The G20 countries account for almost 75% of the global carbon emissions.
As of 2021 there are 20 members of the group: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the
European Union, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South
Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Spain, the United Nations, the World Bank, the African Union, and other organizations are permanent
guest invitees
G 20 Summits: First summit was held in 1999 in Germany. 2nd and
Summit Year Host Country
1st 1999 Germany
2nd 2000 Canada
rd
3 2001 Canada
4th 2002 India
BRICS:
BRICS is an organisation formed by five major emerging economies i.e. Brazil, Russia, India, China,
and South Africa. Originally the first four were grouped as „BRIC‟ the induction of South Africa in
2010 led this BRIC to BRICS. The BRICS members are known for their significant influence on
regional affairs. Since 2009, the governments of the BRICS states have met annually at formal summits.
India hosted the most recent 13th BRICS summit on 9 September 2021 virtually and it was the third
term India held it after 2012 and 2016. Next BRICS summit will be held in China and will be chaired by
China. The BRICS have a combined area of 26.7% of the world land surface and 41.5% of the world
population. Four out of five members are among the world's ten largest countries by population and by
area, except for South Africa which is twenty-fourth in both.
On 15 July, in the BRICS 6th summit in Fortaleza, Brazil, the group of emerging economies signed the
long-anticipated document to create the US$100 billion New Development Bank (formerly known as
the BRICS Development Bank) and a reserve currency pool worth over another US$100 billion.
International law
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone was held in Geneva in 1958 and came
into force in 1964.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties was held in 1969 and came into force in 1980.
Convention on registration of objects launched into outer space was held in New York in 1974 and
came into force in 1976.
International Criminal Court
The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that
has it seat in The Hague, Netherlands. The ICC is the first and only permanent international court with
jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity,
war crimes and the crime of aggression. It is intended to complement existing national judicial systems,
and it may, therefore, exercise its jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to
prosecute criminals. The ICC lacks universal territorial jurisdiction and may only investigate and
prosecute crimes committed within member states, crimes committed by nationals of member states, or
crimes in situations referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council.
The ICC began operations on 1 July 2002, upon the entry into force of the Rome Statute, a multilateral
treaty that serves as the court's foundational and governing document. States which become party to the
Rome Statute become members of the ICC, serving on the Assembly of States Parties, which
administers the court. As of December 2020, there are 123 ICC member states.
Structure of ICC: The ICC has four principal organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office
of the Prosecutor and the Registry. It has 18 judges which are elected by the Assembly of the States
Parties for nor renewable term of 9 years. India, China, Russia are not signatory to it.

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Regionalism:
Palmer and Perkins defined religion as a invariably an area embracing the territories of three or more
states. Regionalism is a process of integrating on regional basis for some specific issues such as trade,
social development or even security. Russett, Cantori, Spiegel, Falk, Mendlovitz, Nye, Myrdal,
Lindberg and Scheingold are some of the chief exponents of regional approach. These states are bound
together by ties of common interest as well as geography. Regionalism includes three theories as
discussed below;
a) Functionalism: This theory is also known as liberal institutionalism. This theory applied the
concept of national interest as the uniting elements of various nations. For the realization of
their interest many nations take the help of institution. It arose as a philosophy which visualized
a gradual evolution of a peaceful, unified and cooperative world. Its main thinker is David
Mitrany and his celebrated work is “A Working Peace System”. He is also known as father of
functionalism. Other thinkers related to this theory are Leonard Woolf, Norman Angel, Robert
Cecil and G.D.H Cole. The functionalism does not aim at creating world federation structure
rather they seek to build „peace by piece‟ through transnational organizations that emphasis the
„sharing of sovereignty instead of its total surrender. They are of the view that none of the govt.
will surrender its sovereignty therefore they suggest a peaceful slow process. They lay emphasis
on socio-economic and welfare needs than the political needs. They believe that men go to work
not for political but socio-economic needs. They treat economic, technical, scientific, social and
cultural fields as functional sectors. Mitrany thinks of „one solid international block of flats‟
instead of „detached national houses‟. Karl Popper have criticised this concept by saying that
„piecemeal social engineering not for the architects or purveyors of blueprints.
b) Neo-Functionalism: This theory is an improvement upon functionalism and redefines the same
by analysing the impact of functionalism on national states. In order to solve their disputes,
national states might mingle together to such an extent that they put their own sovereignty at
stake. They may step further toward a federal structure of peaceful coexistence, mutual
understanding and cooperation in socio-economic sphere. Their basic concept is based on
concept of „spillover‟ which means co-operation in one field results in the cooperation in other
related fields. It arose as a critique of functionalism along with the most celebrated works of
Ernest B. Hass. Leon N. Lindberg, J P Sewell, Laurence Scheinman, Karl Kaiser and
Scheingold are some other exponents of neo-functionalism.
Beyond the national state: Functionalism and international organization Ernest B. Hass
The uniting of Europe: Political, Social and Economic Forces, 1950 – Ernest B. Hass
1957
Political Community and the North American Area Karl Deutsch
France Germany and The Western Alliance: A Study of Elite Attitude on Karl Deutsch
European Integration and World Politics
c) Inter-governmentalism: It is a reaction to neo-functionalism. It was put forward by Putnam.
According to this theory, the sovereignty and the national interest of a state do not vanish
because of regional integration, rather it maximises the power of the states for more regional,
intergovernmental accords, bargains, trade agreement and so on.
Regional Organisations: European Union, African Union, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,
ASEAN
Regional Organisations: When an organisation is formed on basis of region for a particular motive it is
known as regional Organisation. It is very important to boost the region as regional organisation helps in
solving disputes and increasing the inter-regional trade. The development of the regional organisation
depends upon the region of organisation and countries involved it it. Following are the some of the
important regional organisation
European Union: Among all the regional organisations it is the most successful one in terms of trade
and development in the region. Following are the important points about it
 Union of 27 states
 4233255.3km2

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 447 Million Population (5.8 % of world population)
 Founded on 1st Nov. 1993, Maastricht, Netherland
 Its slogan is „United in Diversity‟
 71 % population is christen & 45 Catholic
 GDP is 17.1 trillion which is about the 18 % of World GDP.
 1n 2012 EU was awarded Nobel Prize.
 In 1979 first general elections to the European Union was held.
 In 1986 the EU flag begin to be used.
 It has 24 official languages.
Members of EU
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Demark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Malta, Netherlands, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Spain and Sweden.
These countries are also shown
in map below.
EU common Currency:
Following 8 countries have
established their common
currency
Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Croatia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Sweden
History of Formation of EU
 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) formed in 1951 by Treaty of Paris
 European Economic Community (EEC) formed in 1957 by Treaty of Rome
 European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) was established in 1958
 ECC was renamed as European Community by Maastricht treaty in 1993.
 Its original members were 6 i.e. Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherland and West
Germany.
 UK, Denmark and Ireland were added in 1973.
 Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain joined in 1986
 Schengen Agreement in 1985 paved the movement in majority of EU member without passport.
 Lisbon treaty was signed in 2007 and came into force in 2009.
 Croatia was the last state to be admitted in EU.
 In 2016 a referendum was held to exit EU in which 51% participants voted for its withdrawal
from EU.
 In 2020 UK became the only member to left this group.
European Union consists of following parts
a) European Council: It comprises the head of states of all the member states. This council meets
twice a year. It elects a president who holds the office for six months. The council take all
decisions on the basis of unanimity.
b) Council of Ministers: It consists of the Foreign Ministers of the member states. These
members represent the interest of their countries rather than the interest of EU. This council
meets at least once a month and take all decisions.
c) European Parliament: It is a large body consisting representatives of all the member states.
These are elected by the legislatives of the respective states.
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d) European Commission: It consists of 20 members appointed for a term of five years. It takes
all decisions on the basis of majority votes.
e) European Court of Justice: Its members are appointed for a term of 6 years.
Important Treaties in European Union:
a) Treaty of Paris: This treaty was signed in 1951 by France, Italy, West Germany, Belgium,
Luxemburg and Netherland establishing the European Coal and Steel Community. This treaty
came into force in 1952 and expired in 2002.
b) Treaty of Rome: This treaty was signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg,
Netherland and West Germany. It came into effect in 1958. This treaty led to the creation of
European Economic Community best known as the European Community.
c) Euratom Treaty: This treaty was signed in Rome in 1957 and led to formation European
Atomic Energy Community. It came into effect in 1958. This treaty is also known as Treaty of
Rome.
d) Merger Treaty: This treaty was signed in 1965 and came into force in in 1967. This treaty was
signed in Brussels and is also known as treaty of Brussels. It merged three institutions i.e.
European Coal and Steel Community, European Atomic Energy Community and the European
Economic Community.
e) Single European Act: It was signed in 1986. It was first major revision of 1957 Treaty of
Rome. It set a target of setting single EU market by 1992.
f) Maastricht Treaty: It was signed in 1992 and came into effect in 1993. It laid the foundation
of European Union.
g) Treaty of Amsterdam: It was signed in 1997 and was made effective from 1999. It also
amended the treaties which made the European Community. Under this treaty member states
agreed to transfer certain powers from national governments to European Parliament.
h) Treaty of Nice: It was signed in 2000 and came into effect in 2003. It amended the treaty of
Rome and Treaty of Maastricht. Its main aim was to reform the institutional structure of EU to
face the contemporary challenges.
i) Treaty of Lisbon: Signed in 2007 and came to force in 2009. It amended two important treaties
which form constitutional basis of EU.
Indian & European Union:
 India is EU‟s 9th largest trading partner with 2.4% of EU‟s overall trade.
 First Indo-EU Summit was held in 2000 at Lisbon.
African Union: Organization of African Union was created in 1963 by 32 countries in Addis Ababa. It
was finally disbanded in
2002 with the creation of
African Union. It is one of
the largest continental
unions of the world. It was
in Sirte Declaration held in
Libya in 1999 that the
countries first initiated to
create it. It was finally
created in 2002 in Durban
South Africa. It is a union
of 55 states to promote the
unity and solidarity of
African States. Its theme is
„let us all unite and
celebrate together‟.

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Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: Following
are some of important point point about SCO
 This organisation is a successor to
Shanghai Five, a mutual security
agreement formed in 1996 between China,
Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia and
Tajikistan.
 In 2001 the representatives of these
countries met in Shanghai and announced
to form SCO.
 SCO charter was signed in 2002 and
entered to force in 2003.
 It represents 40% of world population.
 Its GDP is 20% that of global GDP.
 In 2017 its membership was extended to
eight when India and Pakistan joined it.
 India attended this organisation first time in 2005 at Nur-Sultan Kazakhstan.
 SCO established relation with UN in 2004, ASEAN in 2005, CIS in 2005 and African Union in
2018.
 The Secretariat is the executive organ of SCO and Zhang Ming is its current Secretary General.
 The official languages of SCO are Russian and Chinese.
 Its members are China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia and Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India and
Pakistan.
 First five are founding members and Uzbekistan become member in 2001.
 Whereas India and Pakistan and Iran become dialogue partner in 2006 and India and Pakistan
became members in 2017.
 Mongolia, Iran, Afghanistan and Belarus are observer. Sri Lanka, Turkey, Cambodia,
Azerbaijan, Nepal and Armenia are Dialogue Partner.
List of Summits
1st 2001 China Shanghai
2nd 2002 Russia Saint Petersburg
20th 2020 Russia Videoconference
st
21 2021 Tajikistan Dushanbe
22nd 2022 Uzbekistan Samarkand
ASEAN: It was created on 8th August 1967
through Bangkok Declaration by Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
The leaders of these countries felt its need
because of Vietnam War with USA and various
other political problems. Brunei joined it in 1984,
Vietnam in 1995, Laos and Myanmar in 997 and
Cambodia in 1999. Its total members are 10.
These countries are shown below in map.
Dialogue Partners
a) Australia
b) Canada
c) European Union
d) Japan
e) New Zealand
f) United States
g) China
(Became on 1996)

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h) India (1996)
i) Republic of Korea (1991)
j) Russia (1996)
k) United Nations Development Programme (1997)
Pakistan is sectoral dialogue partner (dialogue partner in few sectors such as environment education
etc.)
Some of its aims are
a) To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region
b) To promote regional peace and stability
c) To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matter of common interest.
d) To provide assistance to each other in the matter of training and research
e) To promote South East Asian studies
f) To collaborate for greater utilisation of their agriculture and industry
g) To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional
organisations.
ASEAN consists of following bodies
a) Ministerial Conference: It is highest body of ASEAN and its summits are held annually.
b) Standing Committee
c) Secretariat
d) Permanent Committees
e) Ad-hoc Committees
Secretary General of ASEAN was appointed on merit for five years.
ASEAN plus three include China, Japan and South Korea.
East Asian Summit (EAS) was formed in 2005 and it includes 18 countries. It has formed with
inspiration from ASEAN plus three. It includes Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic
of Korea, Russian Federation and USA.
Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) was declared it in 1971.
ASEAN members have signed The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in South Asia (TAC) was signed
in 1976.
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): It was Formed in 1994 and focuses on three factors i.e. Promotion of
confidence building, development of preventive diplomacy and elaboration of approaches to conflict. It
includes 10 members including dialogue partners, North Korea, South Korea and Mongolia. India
became its member in 1996.
Treaty on South East Asia Nuclear Weapons Free Zone (SEANWFZ): all the ten members signed this
treaty on 15th December 1997.
First Indian ASEAN summit was held in 2008.
India became sectoral dialogue partner in 1992
and then became full dialogue partner in 1995.
SAARC: South Asian Association for regional
cooperation was established in 1985 by head of
states of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka in their first
summit in Dhaka. Afghanistan was added to the
group in 2005 on behest of India and became a
full member in 2007. The idea of this association
was given by by Zia-ul-Rehman President of
Bangladesh.
Observer Countries: Australia, China, EU, Iran,
Japan, Mauritius, Myanmar, South Korea and
USA. The declaration of the SAARC was
adopted in its meeting in New Delhi in 1983. All
its decisions are taken unanimously.
Summit of SAARC
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Some important points to remember
1st Summit: It was held in Dhaka in 1985. It is famous for formulating objective and principles of
SAARC.
2nd Summit: It was held in Bangalore in 1986. It is important as it institutionalised a permanent
secretariat for it. Secretariat started functioning from 1987.
3rd Summit: It was held in Kathmandu in 1987. It made scope of SAARC more precise with its main
focus for welfare of people of South Asia.
4th Summit: It was held in Islamabad in 1988. 1990 was declared as SAARC year. It launched SAARC
2000: A Basic Need for Prospective.
5th Summit: It was held in Male. Observed 1992 as year of shelter, 1992 as year of Environment, 1993
as year of Disabilities and also issued a special SAARC Travel Document.
6th Summit: It was held in 1991 in Colombo. Sri Lanka proposed a SAARC preferential Trade
Arrangement (SAPTA).
14Tth Summit: It was held in 2005 in New Delhi. Its main function was to improve regional
connectivity. An agreement was made for South Asian University, a Food Bank and a South Asian
Development Fund.
16th Summit: It was held in Thimphu in 2010. Its theme was „Towards a green and happy South Asia‟.
17th Summit: It was held in 2011 in Maldives. Its main theme was „Building Bridges‟ and it released a
declaration known as „Addu Declaration‟.
18th Summit: It was held in 2014 in Nepal. Its theme was „Deeper Integration for Peace and
Prosperity‟.
Quad: Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is a strategic
dialogue between the United States, India, Japan and
Australia. This dialogue was initiated in 2007 by
Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe with the support
of US Vice President Dick Cheney, Australian PM
John Howard and Indian PM Dr. Manmohan Singh.
This dialogue was paralleled with joint military
exercise call „Malabar Exercise‟. It is also
known as Asian NATO. In 2021 they
shared a joint statement called „The Spirit
of the Quad‟. In 2020 Quad members held
a meeting with Quad Plus members which
include New Zealand and Vietnam.
NAFTA: It came into existence in 11993.
It includes of USA, Canada and Mexico.
It was formed primarily to gain
comparative advantages against the
enlarged European Union.
OPEC: It was created in 1960 at Baghdad
by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and
Venezuela. Later Qatar joined in 1961,
Indonesia in 1962, Libya in 1962, UAE in
1967, Algeria in 1969, Nigeria in 1971,
Ecuador in 1973 Angola 2007 and Gabon 1975. Republic of Congo joined in 2018. Out of these
Indonesia was suspended in 2009, Ecuador left in 2020. The main aim of this organisation is to
safeguard the interest of individual as well as combined countries including stabilizing oil prices in
International market.
OPEC Conference is its highest body & below it is the OPEC Secretariat which is situated in Vienna
Austria although Austria is not a member of OPEC.. The Secretary General is legally the chief
executive of the secretariat. Official language of OPEC is English.

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Members of OPEC
Algeria, Angola, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia,
UAE and Venezuela, these are also shown in map.
Diplomacy: It is an instrument of foreign policy. It is a chariot to reach the destination set by states. The
political dimension of diplomacy is associated with state policies toward other states on political issues.
The origin of diplomacy can be traced back to ancient Greece. Romans also did a little to develop the art
of Diplomacy. Modern Diplomacy as an organized profession arose in Italy in the late middle age. The
first known permanent mission was established in Genoa in 1455 by the Duke of Milan. During this
time it was known as Diplomacy of Court. After treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the court diplomacy
reached its golden stage and diplomats from all countries represented in the court of Louis XIV. The
congress of Vienna 1819 made a further contribution in it. This congress gave more freedom to
diplomats and divided the hierarchy of diplomats in four ranks i.e.
a) Ambassadors
b) Papal Representatives
c) Envoys extra-ordinary and minister plenipotentiary
d) Minister resident and charge d‟affairs.
Till the end of 18th century diplomacy was known as traditional diplomacy and the diplomacy of 19th
century was known as modern diplomacy. The present day diplomacy is known as new diplomacy.
There were three methods on which traditional diplomacy was based i.e. Italian, French and German
although the French method of diplomacy is usually known as traditional diplomacy. Traditional
diplomacy was confined to Europe with five main powers i.e. England, France, Austria and Spain and
even USA remained away until 1897. Old diplomacy believes that great powers have the special
responsibility of maintaining world peace.
Nicholson was of the view that while the old diplomacy was oligarchic, maleficent and obscure and new
diplomacy is democratic, beneficent and limpid.
Chapter IV of UN deals with peaceful settlement of disputes i.e. from Art. 33 to Art 38. Art 33(1) The
parties to any disputes which can disturb the peace of world shall seek a solution by negotiation,
enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or
arrangements or other peaceful means of their own choice.
Vienna Convention, 1961 defined a framework for diplomatic relations between independent countries.
This convention was held on 4th of June and India ratified it on 15th October, 1965. This convention
gives freedom to diplomats such as their bags are not opened or detained at the airport.
The application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between governments of
independent states Sir Earnest Satow
Diplomacy in the popular sense means the employment of tact, shrewdness and skill in any negotiation
or transition. Quincy Wright
Diplomacy thrives in Public view rather than in private international understanding. Woodrow Wilson
Diplomacy is management of international relations by negotiations Oxford Dictionary

Important International Conferences

Congress of Westphalia 1648 1st Hague Conference 1899
Congress of Utrecht 1713 2nd Hague Conference 1907
Congress of Vienna 1815 Paris Peace Conference 1919
Panama Conference of American States 1826 Yalta Conference 1945
St. Petersburg Conference 1868 Cairo Conference 1941
Conference of Berlin 1884-5 Tehran Conference 1943
Quadruple Alliance Postsdam Conference 1945
(Britan, France, Prussia and Austria) 1815 – 1822

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Books
The guide to Diplomatic Practice Sir Ernest Satow
The Evolution of Diplomacy Harold Nicholson
Diplomacy Harold Nicholson
Summit Diplomacy Plischke
On Diplomacy1987 James Der Derian
Imperialism: A Study Palmer and Perkins
American Foreign Policy in the Making Charles A Beard
Imperialism and Social Classes Joseph A Schumpeter
The Background of International Relations Charles Hodges
Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of imperialism Kwame Nkrumah
Kinds of Diplomacy: Broadly speaking there are two types of diplomacy one is closed diplomacy and
other is open diplomacy. Closed diplomacy is also known as secret diplomacy or classical diplomacy
and is used before the formation of league of nation and also before the formation of UN. The credit of
open diplomacy goes to Woodrow Wilson who pleaded for open diplomacy in his famous 14 points. In
addition to these two types there are various types of diplomacy as mentioned below;
a) Multilateral diplomacy/conference diplomacy: It became popular after world war 1st. It has
been criticised by Harold Nicholson as „perhaps the most unfortunate diplomatic method ever
conceived‟.
b) Big Stick diplomacy: It is a type of diplomacy used by USA and it was codified by the
Theodore Roosevelt President of USA. Other forms of Diplomacy are also given below
c) Personal/summit Diplomacy: It involves direct participation of foreign ministers, head of
states, Head of Govt. in diplomatic negotiation.
d) Political Diplomacy: This form of diplomacy focuses on solution of conflict by dialogue and
negociation.
e) Military Diplomacy: It focuses on military actions in achieving national interest and dealing
with other nations. USA uses NATO as its military diplomacy on the basis of saving human
right and democracy.
f) Economic Diplomacy/Diplomacy of Development: It is based on carrot and stick theory. It
focuses on Trade and Aid.
g) Nuclear Diplomacy: It uses the power of a particular country mostly nuclear power in
diplomatic negciation. It is one of most dangerious as a single conflict can led this whole world
to destruction.
h) Cultural Diplomacy: It mostly focuses on spreading their own culture in other regions. Due to
this type of diplomacy Britishers have made English language as one of the most important
language in the world.
i) Oil Diplomacy: It is one of the most important type of diplomacy. Middle East countries have
used this diplomacy to control their relations with other countries of world. Due to this USA
and India are having good relations with Isreal and gulf countries particularly with Saudi
Arabia. Moreover as the world is moving toward green fuel such as battery operated vechiles so
the middle east oil countries are going to loose their this dominance in the world.
j) Coercive Diplomacy: It is used by strong countries on the basis of their armed as well as
nuclear power to acieve their national interest. Currently China is practicing it by extending her
boundry disputes with neighbouring countries. USA also uses this for international trade of
crude oil in dollar.
k) Dollar Diplomacy: USA also uses this for international trade of crude oil in dollar. With this
diplomacy USA applies economic senctions on various countries.
l) Vaccine Diplomacy: It is one of the form of medical diolomacy which became popular during
COVID-19 period. In this process a country tries her best to improve the relation with other
country by supplying COVID 19 vaccine to that country. India used this type of diplomacy
during COVID 19 period.
m) Shopkeeper Diplomacy: It is characterized as practical open minded, compromising and
candid
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n) Wolf Warrior Diplomacy: Used by China to criticise and threaten those countries which
criticise Chinese aggressive policies. It is aggressive style of coercive diplomacy adopted by
Chinese diplomats in the 21st century under Chinese leader Xi Jinping‟s administration. This
term was coined from the Chinese action film „Wolf Warrior
o) Coalition Diplomacy: Became famous after 2nd World War. In this anarchical world the
coalition is a strategy to increase power of a country by making alliance with other country in
order to survive.
UN under the Chairmanship of B. B Ghali published a report in 1995 known as „An Agenda for Peace‟.
This report gives sequence of the Process in Diplomacy i.e. Preventive Diplomacy, Peace Making,
Peace Keeping and Peace Building.
International terrorism:
a) Al-Qaida: Established by Osama bin-Laden in 1980s.
b) Abu Nidal Organization: It is a Palestine Terrorist organisation formed after split in Palestine
Liberation Organisation (PLO) in 1774.
c) HAMAS: Formed in late 1987 and its main motive is to make Islamic State of Palestine in
place of Israel.
d) Hizbullah: It is a terrorist organisation of Lebanon.
e) Abbu Sayyaf Group: It is a terrorist organisation of of Philippines.
f) Basque Fatherhood and Liberty: It is a terrorist organisation of Spain.
g) Al-Gama Al-Islamiyya: It is a terrorist organisation of Egypt.
h) Markat-ul-Mujahideen It is also known as Harkat-ul-Ansar and is is a Pakistan based terrorist
group and operates in Kashmir
i) Jaish-e-Mohammad: It is a terrorist organisation of Pakistan and Operates in Kashmir
j) Lashkar-e-Taiba: It is a terrorist organisation of Pakistan formed in 1989 and operates in
Kashmir.
k) Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK): It is a terrorist organisation of Turkey.
l) Irish Republic Army: It is a terrorist organisation of Ireland formed in 1969.
m) LTTE: It is a terrorist organization of Sri Lanka.
n) Hizbullah: It is a terrorist organization of Iran.
o) Bako Haram: It is a terrorist organization of Nigeria.
p) Shining Path: It is a terrorist organization of Peru.
q) Black widows (women): It is a terrorist organization of Chechenya.
Conventions on Terrorism
a) Convention on offences and certain other acts committed on Board Aircraft (Tokyo) was held in
1963
b) Convention for suppression of unlawful acts against the safety of Civil Aviation (Montreal) in
1971
c) International Convention for suppression of Terrorist Bombing: It was held in 1997 and entered
into force in 2001.
d) International Convention for Suppression of Financing of Terrorism: It was held in 1999 in
New York. It entered into force in 2002. Afghanistan, China and India are signatory of it but
Pakistan has not signed it. This convention was done under United Nations through General
Assembly.
FATF: Financial Action Task Force is an inter-government organisation founded in 1989 on the
initiative of the G7 to develop policies to combat money laundering. In 2001, its mandate was expanded
to include terrorism financing.
FATF Black list countries: It has been issued by FATF since 2000.
North Korea and Iran are the two countries presently in FATF Blacklist.
Climate change and Environmental Concerns: Following are some of the conventions in climate
change
a) Ramsar Convention: It was held in 1971. It created Kyota Protocol.
b) Cartagenia Protocol: It is related to Bio-safety.

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c) Stockholm Convention: 184 countries are the parties to the Stockholm convention. Its main
result was the creation of United Nations Environment Programme (UNDP). On ratifying it in
2006 India became a part of this convention. It is a convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs). It was held in 2001 in Geneva Switzerland and came to force in 2004.
d) CITES: It was a convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora. It was adopted in 1963 and came into force in 1975.
e) Rio Summit/Earth Summit: It is a United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development. It was held in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
f) Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
g) Bonn Convention: It was held in 1979. It is related to conservation of Migratory Species and
Wild Animals.
h) Vienna Convention: It was held in 1985 and came to force in 1988. It is related to protection of
Ozone Layer.
i) Montreal Convention: It is an international environment protocol on substances that deplete
the Ozone Layer. It was held in 1987 and came into force in 1989.
j) Kyoto Protocol: It was held in 1997
k) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): It aims to control
the emission of Green House Gases (GHGs) that cause global warming. It was held in 1992
l) UNCCD: It is a United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. It was held in 1994
m) Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety: It is an international environment protocol on Bio-safety to
the Convention on Biological Diversity. It was adopted in 2000 and came into force in 2003.
n) UN-REDD: It is a United Nations Programme on Reducing Emission from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation. It was held in 2008
o) Nagoya Protocol: It is a Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It was adopted in 2010
and came into force in 2014.
p) COP21: It is the 21st meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It took place
in 2018.
q) COP24: It is the 24st meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It took place
in 2018
r) COP25: It is the 25th meeting of Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It was held in
2019.
s) COP 26: It was the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference (UNCCC) held in SEC
Centre in Glasgow, Scotland, UK from 31 Oct. to Nov. 2021. It was presided over by UK
Cabinet Minister Alok Sharma.
t) Kigali Amendment: It is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol. It was adopted in 2016 and
came into force in 2019.
u) Minamata Convention: It is an international environment treaty intended to protect health and
environment from the adverse effects of mercury. It was held in 2013
v) Rotterdam Convention: It is an international environment convention on Prior Informed
Consent (PIC). It was held in 1998 and came into force in 2004.
w) The concept of Environment Impact Assessment emerged in USA.
x) Carbon Footprint is the emission of carbon dioxide from daily human activities
y) United Nations Development Programme: It is a United Nations agency formed in 1965
which has its headquarters in United States. Officially there are 170 countries are members of it.
India is the world‟s fourth biggest emitter of carbon dioxide after China, US and the European Union
(China, USA, EU, India, Russia are top 5). India presently emits 1.9 tonnes of CO2 per head of
population and this figure is 15.5 tonnes for US and 12.5 for Russia (as these two are highest in the
world).
India promised in COP 26 meeting that India will get 50% of its energy from Renewable resources from
renewable resources by 2030 and by the same year to reduce total projected carbon emission by one
billion tonnes. He also announced that India will achieve a net zero target by 2070.
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India is the 3rd largest consumer of electricity and also 3rd largest renewable energy producer with 38%
of energy capacity installed in 2020 (136G W of 373 GW). Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness
Index (RECAI) releases the list of renewable energy producing countries ad it has designated USA,
China and India as top three renewable energy producing countries. India had set a target of 175 GW of
renewable energy by 2022 and 500 GW by 2030. Bhadla Solar park of Rajisthan with capacity of 2255
MW is largest solar park in world followed by Pavgada solar park of Karnatka (2000 MW) as the
second largest in world. Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) is a public sector undertaking
responsible for solar energy in India.
International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of 101 countries was an initiative of India. It was
founded in Paris, France and its headquarters in is Gurugram Haryana. Recently USA joined it as 101
member of ISA. Antigua and Barbuda became 102nd member of ISA.
Human Rights, Migration and Refugees:
Human Rights:
Evolution of Human Rights
Civil Disobedience Thoreau
On Liberty J S Mill
The Right of Man Thomas Paine
Leviathan Hobbes
Two Treatises on Government Locke
Magna Karta King John 1215
American Declaration of Independence 1776
Bill of Rights (First ten amendments of US Constitution)
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens 1789
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 10 December, 1948
International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966
International Convention on Civil and Political Rights 1966
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crime and Genocide 1948
Convention related to the status of stateless persons 1954
Convention on elimination of Radical Discrimination 1965
Convention on Elimination of Discrimination against Women 1979
Vienna World Conference on Human Rights 1993
High Commissioner for Human Rights 1993
United Nations Human Rights for Refugees 1949
10th December is celebrated as World Human Right Day
Important Convention
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was held in Paris in 1948, it
came into force in 1951
Constitution of the International Refugee Organisation was held in New York in 1946 and came into
force in 1948
Convention on the International Maritime Organisation was held in Geneva in 1948
Convention on the Political Rights of Women was held in 1953 and came into force in 1954
The protection of Human Rights Act in India came into force on 28th Sept. 1993
Generations of Human Rights
a) Fist Generation of Human Rights: It includes civil and political rights such as Right to Vote,
freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, right to be treated with dignity.
b) 2nd Generation of Human Rights: It includes Economic, social and cultural rights such as
right to employment, housing, food, health, clean drinking water etc.
c) 3rd Generation of Human Rights: It includes demand of right for collective level, for
population, societies or nations. Karel Vasak was the first scholar to introduce the concept of 3rd
generation of Human Rights.
United Declaration of Human Rights has 30 Articles. Its Art 3 says that „everyone has right to life,
liberty and security of person‟. National Human Right Commission of India was constituted on 12 th of
Oct. 1993.
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Refugees: Poverty and Development:
 Convention Relating to the status of Issue/Reports Person/Country
Refugees 1951
Millennium Development Goals Kofi Annan
 Convention Relating to the status of
stateless person 1954 Af-Pak Policy Obama
 Convention on the Reduction of
Responsibility to protect Government of
Stateless Person 1961
 International Convention on the Canada
Elimination of all forms of Racial
Agenda for Peace Boutros Boutros
Discrimination 1966
Ghali
Millennium Development Goals (MDG): These are the eight international development goals for the
year 2015 that has been established in Millennium Summit of the UN in 2000. These rights are given
below
1) To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2) To achieve universal primary education
3) To promote Gender Equality and empower women
4) To reduce child morality
5) To improve maternal health
6) To combat HIV/AIDS and other diseases
7) To ensure environment sustainability
8) To develop a global partnership for development
Sustainable Development Goals
After the expiry of 2015 deadline for Millennium Development Goals, Sustainable Development Goals
were set in 2015 by UN to be achieved by the year 2030 and these are also known as post 2015 goals.
The summit for post 2015 development agenda was held from 25 – 27 Sept. 2015. These are also known
as Agenda 2030. These goals are given below
1. No Poverty 10. Reduce inequality
2. Zero Hunger 11. Sustainable cities and communities
3. Good health and well being 12. Responsible Consumption and Production
4. Quality education 13. Climate Change
5. Gender Equality 14. Life below water
6. Clean water and Sanitation 15. Life on Land
7. Decent work and Economic 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institution
growth
8. Industry Innovation and 17. Partnership for Goals
infrastructure
9.
International Labour Organisation (ILO): It was the first specialised agency of UN. It has 187
members.
Colonialism: According to English oxford dictionary colonialism is derived from the Roman word
Colonia which means form or settlement. Some writers trace the origin of the word colonialism from the
Latin word „colonus‟ meaning farmers. Colony is a people detached from a large entity and settled in a
distinct place. Thus colonialism may be defined as an extension of political and economic control over
an area by states whose nationals have occupied the area and usually possess organizational or
technological superiority over the native population.
Imperialism: The word imperialism has been derived from the Latin word „imperium‟ meaning to
control. Thus the term imperialism draws attention to the way one country exercise power over another,
weather through settlement, sovereignty or indirect mechanism of control. is the exercise of command
or domination of one people by a stronger people. Therefore imperialism means pacification and
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Definitions
Imperialism is a policy which aims at creating, organising and maintaining an empire
Moritz Julius Bonn
Imperialism means the domination of non-European native races by totally dissimilar European nations.
Parker T. Moon
Imperialism is the expansion of state‟s power beyond its boundaries Morgenthau
Imperialism is purely economic term and it is the highest form of capitalism Lenin
Imperialism is the imposition by force and violence of alien rule upon subject people Schuman
Neo-colonialism: It was popularised in the wake of de-colonisation largely through the activities of
scholars and leaders of newly independent states of Africa and the Pan-African Movement. Many of
these came forward against it in Bandung Conference of 1955 which lead to formation of Non-
Alignment Movement. In Tunis Conference of 1960 and Cairo Conference of 1961 they also reflected
their opposition toward neo-colonialism. The US imperialism has been called neo-colonialism because
of its sort of colonialism i.e. economic domination.
Neo-imperialism: It is process in which powerful countries offer financial aid, technology etc to the
developing countries so as to control the country and with this exploiting the resources of that country
for personal use. Threat as well as military use is its important indicator. Just as Great Britain was
among the top countries in case of colonialism in the same sense USA is holding its top position in case
of neo-imperialism by its financial aid, economic sanctions as well as military actions.
MISCELLENIOUS
Brezhnev Doctrine 1968: It states that USSR will intervene including military action in any country
where socialist rule is under threat.
The ruler of a country which depended on agents for foreign policy
President Wilson of USA Colonel House
President Roosevelt Hopkins
Nikson Henry Kissinger
American Law PL 480 also known as „Food for peace‟ was for a food program for third world countries
including India.

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