Study: Baddeley & Hitch (1974) - Working Memory Model (WMM)

Aim:

To investigate whether there are multiple systems for short-term storage (working memory).

Procedure:

● Participants were asked to read prose and understand it, while simultaneously
remembering sequences of numbers.
● Reaction time increased as the complexity of the questions increased.
● Participants were then assigned an articulatory suppression task (repeating "the,"
repeating numbers from 1 to 6, or repeating random numbers) while answering
questions.

Findings:

● No significant difference in reaction time between the group asked to repeat "the" and
the group asked to repeat numbers 1-6.
● The group asked to repeat random numbers performed worst, suggesting an overload
on the central executive.

Conclusions:

● The verbal reasoning task involved the central executive, while the digit span task
utilized the phonological loop.

Interpretation:

This study supports the Working Memory Model by showing that:

● The central executive manages tasks that involve higher-level cognitive functions like
reasoning and decision-making (as seen in the verbal reasoning task).
● The phonological loop handles auditory information (like repeating numbers), which
shows its role in maintaining verbal and auditory information for short-term use.
● The worst performance in the group repeating random numbers reflects an overload on
the central executive, which supports the idea that the central executive has a limited
capacity when managing multiple tasks simultaneously.

By distinguishing the different systems involved in memory processing, the study strongly
supports the Working Memory Model's idea that short-term memory is not a single, passive
store, but a system with multiple components—each with a distinct role.
Evaluation:

Strengths:

● Laboratory experiment: Controlled variables, allowing for clear cause-and-effect

relationships.
● No deception or stressful situations.
● Participants were fully debriefed.

Limitations:

● Low ecological validity: Since it was conducted in a laboratory, it may not reflect
real-life memory tasks.

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966) - Multi-Store Model of Memory

Aim:

To investigate the recency effect in free recall and determine if it supports the Multi-Store
Model of Memory, which suggests that short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory
(LTM) are separate stores.

Hypothesis:

Delays between presentation and recall will reduce the recency effect (remembering recent
items) but not the primacy effect (remembering earlier items).

Participants:

● 46 army enlisted men.

Procedure:

● Participants were presented with fifteen 15-word lists. Each word was shown for 1
second, with a 2-second interval between words.
● After the last word, participants either saw a hashtag (#) or a digit from 0 to 9.
○ If the hashtag appeared, they immediately recalled the words.
○ If a number appeared, they counted aloud from that number for 10 or 30
seconds before recalling the words.
● The delay created by counting aloud was intended to disrupt STM and prevent
rehearsal.

Results:

● A 10-second delay reduced the recency effect (remembering words from positions
13-15).
● A 30-second delay completely eliminated the recency effect.
 ● The primacy effect (remembering words from earlier positions) remained unaffected by
the delays, even with 30 seconds.

Conclusion:

The study supports the Multi-Store Model of Memory by demonstrating the existence of two
separate memory stores:

● The recency effect (short-term memory) is fragile and fades quickly after a delay,
showing that STM has a limited duration.
● The primacy effect (long-term memory) is stable and not affected by delays, suggesting
that information is transferred to LTM through rehearsal.

Interpretation:

This study supports the Multi-Store Model of Memory in several ways:

● STM and LTM are distinct systems: The recency effect relies on STM, which is
vulnerable to decay after a short time, while the primacy effect relies on LTM, which
remains intact after delays.
● The results show that when rehearsal is disrupted (counting task), recent information in
STM fades quickly, while earlier items that were rehearsed are transferred into LTM.
● The fact that delay reduces the recency effect but not the primacy effect
demonstrates the serial position curve, supporting the idea that STM and LTM function
differently.

Evaluation:

Strengths:

● Laboratory experiment: High control over variables, which allows for establishing
cause and effect between delays and recall performance.
● Supports the serial position effect and the distinction between STM and LTM, providing
evidence for the Multi-Store Model.
● Internal validity: The controlled setting and random assignment of word lists ensure
objective and reliable results.

Limitations:

● Low ecological validity: The task of recalling word lists in a laboratory setting does not
reflect real-world memory tasks.
● Gender bias: Only men were used in the study, so results may not generalize to women.
● Artificial setting: Recalling words from a list may not represent natural memory
processes, reducing the application to everyday memory use.

Applications:
 ● The study is relevant in understanding memory techniques in education, such as using
repetition and rehearsal to help transfer information into long-term memory.

Critical Thinking:

● The fact that STM is acoustically encoded and easily disrupted by counting tasks
supports the idea that STM has limited capacity and duration.
● As the study only involved men, it may not represent gender differences in memory
processing.

Bransford & Johnson (1972) - Schema

Aim:

To investigate the effect of context on comprehension and memory of text passages.

Procedure:

● Method: Laboratory experiment with independent measures design.

● Participants heard a tape-recorded passage and were asked to recall it by writing down
as many ideas as possible.
● There were 5 conditions:
1. No context (1): Participants heard the passage once.
2. No context (2): Participants heard the passage twice.
3. Context before: Participants were shown a context picture before hearing the
passage.
4. Context after: Participants saw the context picture after hearing the passage.
5. Partial context: Participants saw a partial context picture (showing only some
elements) before hearing the passage.

Results:

● The passage contained 14 idea units. The average recall for each condition was:
○ No context (1): 3.6 ideas recalled.
○ No context (2): 3.8 ideas recalled.
○ Context before: 8.0 ideas recalled.
○ Context after: 3.6 ideas recalled.
○ Partial context: 4.0 ideas recalled.
● The Context before condition had a significantly higher recall than all other
conditions.

Conclusion:

● The Context before condition was the only one where participants showed significantly
better recall and comprehension.
 ● This supports schema theory, which suggests that providing context (a mental
framework) before encoding helps participants organize and encode information more
effectively.
● The context picture creates a mental representation (schema), helping participants to
integrate the information they hear, improving encoding and recall.

Interpretation:

This study supports schema theory, which posits that mental frameworks help in organizing
and encoding information. When the context picture was shown before the passage, it allowed
participants to form a schema that made the incoming information easier to understand and
remember. Without the schema (no context), participants found it difficult to organize the ideas
in the passage.

Evaluation:

Strengths:

● High internal validity: Tight experimental control ensured that the manipulation of
context was the direct cause of differences in recall.
● Cause-and-effect relationship: The independent measures design allowed for clear
attribution of the results to the presence or absence of context.
● No demand characteristics: The independent measures design reduced the likelihood
of participants guessing the aim of the study.

Limitations:

● Participant variability: Individual differences in memory or comprehension may have

affected the results.
● Low ecological validity: The task of recalling a tape-recorded passage in a laboratory
setting may not reflect how memory works in real-life situations.
● Lack of mundane realism: The artificial nature of the task (listening to a passage and
recalling it) may not resemble everyday memory tasks.

Applications:

● This study can be applied to education, where providing context or background

information before teaching new material can help students better comprehend and
retain the information.

Kahneman and Tversky (1974) - Thinking Model (Kahneman’s Model)

Aim

To test people's mental shortcuts and biases when making decisions, specifically focusing on
how individuals rely on heuristics to make probabilistic judgments.

Method

● Participants: 95 individuals were involved in the study.

● Scenario: Participants were presented with the following scenario:
"A certain town is served by two hospitals. In the larger hospital, about 45 babies are
born each day, and in the smaller hospital, about 15 babies are born each day. As you
know, about 50 percent of all babies are boys. However, the exact percentage varies
from day to day. Sometimes it may be higher than 50 percent, sometimes lower. For a
period of 1 year, each hospital recorded the days on which more than 60 percent of the
babies born were boys. Which hospital do you think recorded more such days?"
○ Response Options:
■ The larger hospital
■ The smaller hospital
■ About the same (that is, within 5 percent of each other)
● Data Collection: Researchers recorded the participants' responses to the scenario.

Results

● Correct Answer: The correct answer was the smaller hospital.

○ This is because statistical probabilities predict that in larger sample sizes (like the
larger hospital's daily births), the outcomes will tend to average out to 50%. Thus,
the larger hospital would record fewer days with more than 60% boys, while the
smaller hospital would show greater variability due to its smaller sample size.
● Findings:
○ Incorrect Responses: 78% of participants selected the wrong option.
○ Most participants (56%) chose option 3 (About the same).

Interpretation of Results

● Participants likely chose option 3 because they believed that both hospitals were equally
representative of the general population, underestimating the effect of sample size on
variability.
● This demonstrated the use of System 1 thinking (fast, intuitive) where participants
relied on gut feelings and heuristics rather than logical reasoning and statistical
understanding.

Conclusion

● The study highlighted that participants relied heavily on the representative heuristic,
where they judged the probability of events based on how similar they appeared to
 known events. They assumed that both hospitals, with their average birth rates being
50%, would have a similar pattern of variability.
● This reliance on intuitive thinking (System 1) over analytical reasoning (System 2) led to
errors in judgment, emphasizing the cognitive biases that Kahneman and Tversky aimed
to explore in their work.

Support for Kahneman's Thinking Model

● The results of this study provide strong evidence for Kahneman's dual-process theory,
illustrating how System 1 thinking can dominate decision-making, leading to biased
outcomes due to heuristics, rather than engaging the more analytical System 2 thinking
which would have correctly assessed the influence of sample size on the probabilities of
the events described in the scenario.

Dion et al. (1972) – Halo Effect

Aim

To investigate whether physically attractive individuals are perceived to possess more socially
desirable personality traits and are expected to lead more successful lives compared to
unattractive individuals, testing the halo effect.

Method

● Participants: 60 American university students (30 males, 30 females).

● Procedure:
1. Each participant received three envelopes containing photographs of individuals
of varying attractiveness: one physically attractive, one moderately attractive, and
one unattractive.
2. Half of the participants were shown photos of individuals of the same gender,
while the other half viewed photos of the opposite gender.
3. Participants were asked to rate the person in each photo on 27 personality traits
using a 6-point scale.
4. They were then asked to predict which individual would most likely experience
marital, parental, and overall happiness.
5. The final task required participants to assess which person would most likely
engage in one of 30 occupations, divided into "low status," "average status," and
"high status."
● Rating of Attractiveness: To ensure consistency in the attractiveness rating, 100
students from the university were asked to rate the attractiveness of 50 yearbook photos.
The photos used in the study were selected based on these ratings.

Results
 ● Attractiveness & Positive Traits: The data indicated that physically attractive
individuals were rated more positively in terms of personality traits, predicted happiness,
and success compared to unattractive individuals. Specific findings include:
○ Positive personality traits (composite score): Attractive individuals received
higher scores (65.39) than moderately attractive (62.42) and unattractive
individuals (56.31).
○ Occupational status: Attractive individuals were more likely to be predicted for
high-status jobs.
○ Marital and overall happiness: Attractive individuals were expected to
experience greater marital and overall happiness.
○ However, attractiveness did not predict better parental happiness; moderately
attractive individuals were rated higher for parental happiness.

Conclusion

● The study supports the halo effect, a cognitive bias in which physically attractive
individuals are perceived to possess more socially desirable traits and are expected to
lead more successful and happy lives. This bias may extend to perceptions in various
social contexts, such as job prospects and relationships.

Evaluation

● Strengths:
○ The study used a large sample of participants to rate attractiveness, enhancing
construct validity for the definition of attractiveness.
○ Deception was used to prevent demand characteristics, contributing to internal
validity.
● Limitations:
○ Ecological Validity: The study's artificial setting might limit how well its findings
generalize to real-life interactions. However, it has relevance to certain social
judgments (e.g., hiring or online dating).
○ Reliability: Some replications of the study have not been consistent, raising
concerns about the reliability of the findings.
○ Reductionism: The study focused on physical attractiveness, overlooking other
factors such as emotional state or situational context, which might influence
judgments.

Loftus and Palmer (1974) – Reconstructive Memory

Aim

To investigate whether the wording of a leading question could influence participants' memory
recall of an event, specifically their estimation of the speed of cars involved in a car crash.
Participants

● Sample: 45 American university students

● Sampling method: Opportunistic sampling, with participants of similar age and
background.

Procedure

1. Viewing the Event: Participants sat in a lecture theatre and were shown a video clip of a
car accident.
2. Group Assignment: The participants were divided into 5 groups (9 participants per
group), with each group receiving a different version of the critical question.
3. Critical Question: After watching the video, participants were asked to answer several
questions about the crash, including the critical question: "About how fast were the
cars going when they ___ into each other?"
○ The verb in the blank was varied among five options: smashed, collided,
bumped, hit, or contacted.
○ Each participant was exposed to only one verb from the set.
4. Variables:
○ Independent variable (IV): The verb used in the critical question (smashed,
collided, bumped, hit, contacted).
○ Dependent variable (DV): The participants' estimation of the speed of the cars
involved in the accident.

Results

● Estimated Speeds based on the verb used:

○ Smashed: 40.8 mph
○ Collided: 39.3 mph
○ Bumped: 38.1 mph
○ Hit: 34.0 mph
○ Contacted: 31.8 mph

Conclusion

The wording of the question significantly influenced participants' memories of the event. When
the verb "smashed" was used, participants estimated a higher speed than when less intense
verbs like "contacted" were used. This suggests that leading questions can distort memory
recall, supporting the idea that memory is not a static record but can be reconstructed based
on external information, such as the wording of a question.

Explanations for Results

1. Actual distortion: The different verbs may have altered the participants' perception of
the event, leading to an actual change in their memory.
 2. Demand characteristics: Participants might have been influenced by the nature of the
questions and responded in a way they thought was expected based on the intensity of
the verb.

Evaluation

● Strengths:
○ Controlled laboratory experiment: The study had high internal validity due to
the controlled conditions, which allowed researchers to isolate the effect of the
verb on memory recall.
● Limitations:
○ Low ecological validity: The study used video clips instead of a real-life
accident, which may not elicit the same emotional response or level of attention
as witnessing an actual event.
○ Sample Bias: The participants were all university students, limiting the
generalizability of the findings to a broader population.

Sharot et al. (2007) – Flashbulb Memory and Emotion

Aim

To investigate the role of biological factors, particularly the activation of the amygdala, in the
formation of flashbulb memories—vivid and detailed memories of significant emotional events.

Participants

● 24 people who were in New York during the 9/11 attacks.

Research Design

● Case study
● Participants were selected based on their proximity to the 9/11 attacks.

Procedure

1. fMRI Scanning: The study was conducted three years after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in
Manhattan. Participants were placed in an fMRI machine to measure brain activity while
recalling memories.
2. Word Cues: Participants were shown word cues such as summer or September,
intended to trigger memories of the summer holidays or the 9/11 attacks.
3. Baseline Comparison: Memories of personal events from the summer were used as a
baseline to compare brain activity to that observed when participants recalled memories
of the 9/11 attacks.
 4. Self-Assessment: After the scanning, participants were asked to rate their memories on
various dimensions, including vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy, and emotional
arousal. They also provided written descriptions of their personal memories.

Results

● Participants who were closer to the 9/11 attacks (those downtown) exhibited greater
activation in the amygdala when recalling 9/11 memories than when recalling summer
memories.
● Participants who were further away from the attacks (uptown) showed equal levels of
amygdala activation for both types of memories.
● Amygdala activation during recall was found to correlate with the presence of flashbulb
memories. This suggests that close personal experience may be essential for engaging
the neural mechanisms responsible for producing vivid and emotionally charged
memories.

Conclusion

● The study suggests that emotion plays a key role in the formation of flashbulb
memories, and that biological factors, such as amygdala activation, are linked to these
memories.
● The findings imply that proximity to an event and personal involvement influence the
emotional impact of the memory, enhancing the vividness and detail of the recollection.

Evaluation

● Strengths:
○ Use of fMRI technology provided a biological perspective on how emotion
interacts with memory, linking it to specific brain regions like the amygdala.
○ The study demonstrated triangulation by combining brain imaging data with
subjective self-reports, improving the validity of the findings.
● Limitations:
○ The study is correlational, meaning it cannot establish causality between
amygdala activation and the formation of flashbulb memories.
○ The sample size was small (24 participants) and the participants were from a
culturally specific context (New York, USA), limiting the generalizability of the
findings.
○ The study may have low ecological validity because it was conducted in an
artificial setting (an fMRI scanner) and occurred three years after the event,
which could influence the accuracy of the recalled memories.
○ The use of self-reported data may introduce errors, although the inclusion of
multiple data collection methods helps mitigate this limitation.
TEA CUP Method Overview

The TEA CUP method is a framework used to evaluate psychological theories and studies. It
involves analyzing the following key aspects:

● Testability
● Empirical Evidence
● Application
● Construct Validity
● Unbiased Nature
● Predictive Validity

Each of these criteria ensures that the theory or study being evaluated meets certain scientific
standards.

1. Testability

● Definition: A theory is testable if it can be examined through experiments to determine

its truth or falsity.
● Schema Theory Example: Schema theory is testable through experiments. For
example, studies like Brewer and Treyens (1981) and Loftus and Palmer (1974)
tested how schemas influence memory. These studies set up controlled conditions to
examine whether schemas aid or interfere with memory, demonstrating that the theory is
testable.

2. Empirical Evidence

● Definition: Empirical evidence refers to the data gathered through observation or

experimentation.
● Schema Theory Example: Empirical evidence supports schema theory through multiple
studies. For instance, Brewer and Treyens (1981) demonstrated how people’s memory
of objects in a room was influenced by their expectations (schemas). Research by
Loftus and Palmer (1974) provided evidence of how memory recall can be distorted by
schema-based assumptions in the context of eyewitness testimony, proving that the
theory is grounded in observed data.

3. Application

● Definition: A theory should have practical applications in real-world scenarios.

 ● Schema Theory Example: Schema theory is applied to understand memory
processes and memory distortion. It has real-world applications, such as in education
(how prior knowledge influences learning) and in eyewitness testimony (how people
reconstruct events). Schemas help organize information and guide behavior, making the
theory useful in various cognitive and behavioral fields.

4. Construct Validity

● Definition: Construct validity refers to how well a theory’s concepts are accurately
measured and operationalized in research.
● Schema Theory Example: Schema theory has high construct validity because it has
been used to measure various aspects of memory, such as:
○ The impact of schemas on encoding (how we take in information).
○ The impact of schemas on retrieval (how we recall information).
○ The role of procedural schemas in guiding behavior.
● These measures reflect the constructs that schema theory claims to influence, showing
that it is valid in terms of what it sets out to explain.

5. Unbiased

● Definition: A theory is unbiased if it applies fairly across different groups and does not
favor any particular culture, age, gender, or other demographic.
● Schema Theory Example: Schema theory is considered unbiased because it has been
tested across different cultural groups, and the findings are generalizable. Although most
of the early research was conducted in Western settings, schema theory does not show
ethnocentrism. The theory applies to a wide range of human experiences regardless of
cultural background, making it a fair and universal concept.

6. Predictive Validity

● Definition: Predictive validity refers to a theory’s ability to accurately predict future

outcomes or behaviors.
● Schema Theory Example: Schema theory helps predict trends in memory recall, such
as leveling (simplifying a story), sharpening (focusing on details), and assimilation
(altering details to fit schemas). However, it lacks specific predictive validity in
determining exactly what someone will recall because schemas are personal and vary
from one individual to another. Critics like Cohen (1993) argue that the concept of a
schema can be too vague, and despite advances like fMRI technology, it’s still difficult to
precisely predict how schemas influence memory.