What is Public Speaking?

Public speaking is, simply, an oral presentation or speech delivered to a live audience. It is
generally a formal or staged event— although impromptu speeches are a common
occurrence—and can be a defining career moment. For example, you may think you’re
attending a client meeting only to find yourself called on to explain a procedural or technical
point being discussed. Or you may be sitting in a management meeting thinking you are just
there to observe when you are asked to elaborate on an aspect of the supporting research and
analysis or defend your recommendations.
Public speaking is important in both business, education, and the public arena. There are many
benefits to speaking in public whether you're an individual or a business.
Public speeches can cover a wide variety of different topics. The goal of the speech may be to
educate, entertain, or influence the listeners. Often, visual aids in the form of an electronic
slideshow are used to supplement the speech. This makes it more interesting to the listeners.
A quality public communication definition should explain how it's different from an online
presentation, which is why we'll cover it here. Here's a description of some of the differences:

 A public speaking presentation is different from an online presentation because an

online presentation is available any time. A public speech is typically limited to a
specific time or place.
 Online presentations often use slideshows. Or they use pre-recorded videos of a
speaker. (This includes recordings of a live public speaking presentation).

The Importance of Public Speaking

If you ask most people, they'll probably say they don't like public speech. They may even admit
to being afraid of it since fear of public speaking is a very common fear. Or they may just be
shy or introverted. For those reasons, many people avoid speaking in public if they can. If
you're one of those people who avoid speaking in public, you're missing out.

You may be wondering, what is public communication, and how can it benefit me? Over the
years, public speaking in communication has played a major role in education, government,
and business. Words have the power to inform, persuade, educate, and even entertain. And the
spoken word can be even more powerful than the written word in the hands of the right speaker.

Whether you're a small business owner, or a student, you'll benefit from improving your public
speaking skills. Some benefits to speaking in public include:

 improves confidence
 better research skills
 stronger deductive skills
 ability to advocate for causes
Speaking in public is especially important for businesses to market their offers. This allows
them to get their message in front of potential customers. Sales people and executives are often
expected to have good public speaking skills

What is speech writing?

Speech writing is preparing a communication you plan to deliver verbally in front of an
audience. Speeches may commemorate an occasion, such as a wedding, inform your audience
about a particular subject, or persuade them to complete an action, such as donating to a
nonprofit. This means you may be responsible for delivering a speech in your personal life to
friends and family or in your professional life to your coworkers, management team, or clients.
For a speech to be effective, it's important that it engages the audience, keeping them interested
in what you're saying so they understand your message.

WRITING THE SPEECH

After you have analyzed your audience, selected the topic, collected supporting materials, and
written an outline, it is time to write the speech with an introduction, body and conclusion.
These major parts follow the broadcaster’s maxim: (1) Tell them what you are going to tell
them. (2) Tell them. (3) Tell them what you have told them.

THE INTRODUCTION

Tell them what you’re going to tell them: A good introduction serves as an attention getter,
previews the topic and main points, and establishes your credibility as a speaker (O’Hair,
Rubenstein, & Stewart, 2007). Good ways to grab attention include using a quotation, telling a
story, posing questions, using humor, using startling facts or statistics, providing an illustration
or anecdote, and referencing historical or recent events. The introduction helps the audience
focus on the key points that you want them to remember. Science communicators recommend
adding the impact of your speech—often reserved for the conclusion—to the introduction of
the speech.

The audience determines your credibility based on the introduction: They want to know why
they should believe what you have to say. Therefore, establishing yourself as a credible speaker
in the introduction is imperative, especially for a persuasive speech, so that the audience will
want to be persuaded by you. You should include some experience or knowledge that shows
why you are credible on the topic as well as using credible sources.

THE BODY

Tell them: The body is the largest part of the speech, where you will use credible sources, such
as science journal articles, and mention those sources during the speech. The main points of
the speech are contained in this section and should flow from the speech’s goal and thesis
statement. It is advisable to limit your content to between two and five main points, with a
maximum of seven main points. Science communicators recommend using three main points
for speeches about science (AAAS, n.d.). If you have too many main points, your audience will
forget them. Focusing on three main points and providing effective supporting points for each
main point makes your speech more memorable. Supporting points justify your main points,
and help substantiate your thesis.

THE CONCLUSION

Tell them what you told them: The conclusion wraps up the presentation by providing a
summary of what the audience was supposed to have learned or to have been persuaded to do
during the presentation. You can signal that the conclusion is approaching by using key
phrases, such as “finally,” “let me close by saying,” and “in conclusion.” Because the
conclusion is the last opportunity to motivate your listeners, it should end strongly with an
impact statement. For a persuasive speech, a strong ending is a call to action, where you tell
the audience what they should do with the information they have learned.

Many times, you can use a mirrored-conclusion that ties back to, or “mirrors,” the information
you provide in the introduction. For example, if you use statistics as an attention-getter in the
introduction to a speech about recycling on campus, your speech’s beginning and ending might
sound something like this:

Introduction: "According to the University of Florida's Office of Sustainability, the campus

used more than 4 million trash bags in 2006 alone, weighing 163 tons without the trash.
Altogether, UF generates over 14,000 tons of trash per year."

Mirrored Conclusion: "Each time you are about to throw a bottle, can, or newspaper in the
trash, decide to recycle it instead and help reduce the 14,000 tons of waste we create each year
at UF."

How to write a speech

Here are eight steps you can follow to write an engaging speech:

1. Choose an important topic

The first step in writing a speech is deciding what it may be about. You may already have a
general topic or idea of what you want to discuss, but narrowing your topic to a few specific
points or one clear purpose can help ensure that your speech stays engaging.

First, brainstorm a list of all the possible items you might include. Then, go over your list and
cross out any irrelevant items. Continue doing this until you have narrowed your topic to a few
important points. Before composing your speech, perform any research that might be helpful
to your purpose. You may need facts like the company or product history, usage statistics, case
studies, sales figures, or demographic information. After you have gathered all of your data,
you can decide how to relate the information to your audience.

2. Consider your audience

The biggest factor when deciding how to approach a topic is the audience you plan to address.
Take a few moments to consider the following considerations:

 What does the audience already know about the subject?

 What might they want to know about the subject?
  How do they feel about the subject?
 How does the subject relate to or affect the lives of those in the audience?

These points can help you determine what to include in your speech and how to present your
information. For example, if the audience is largely unaware of your topic, your speech can
mostly be informative. If they're familiar with your topic but may be uninterested, it's important
for your speech to be persuasive to engage the audience.

3. Prepare a structure

An especially important approach to effective speech writing is to have a clear structure for
your ideas. Outline a logical sequence for each point you may use to discuss your topic, and
have notes with you during your speech so you can adhere to this structure. Having a clear flow
of ideas can help you to be persuasive, inform your audience, keep you on topic, and ensure
you don't forget any important details.

4. Begin with a strong point

An audience is usually most attentive when a speaker first begins talking, so try to use this time
effectively. Condense the main idea or purpose of your speech into one sentence that you can
use to open your presentation. Starting with a strong, clear purpose can show your audience
where you intend to lead them and can help gain their interest.

5. Use concrete details and visual aids

Use concrete details to support your points. Brief stories, interesting examples, or factual data
can help to engage your audience and convey the truth of your purpose. Consider using visual
aids to further support your speech. Images can be powerful and engaging. You can create a
digital presentation to accompany your speech or bring in some related props, such as a sample
of the product you're discussing.

6. Include a personal element

Your audience is more likely to be interested in the topic of your speech when they're also
interested in you. Consider using a personal story or example in your speech. If you can present
yourself to the audience as someone knowledgeable and trustworthy, they may be more likely
to listen attentively and consider what you say.

7. Consider rhetorical devices

A rhetorical device is a method of using words to make them especially memorable. Consider
some of the most memorable lines from famous speeches. These lines are usually enduring
because they influence the audience's emotions by repeating keywords or phrases, inverting
the structure of a repeated phrase, reversing the order of words, or using an unexpected turn of
phrase. Here are some types of rhetorical devices you can use to get your audience's attention:

 Alliteration: Repeat the sound of the first word or syllable of each word in a phrase.
For example, "Congratulations to Jamie, who has always been one of the most honest,
hard-working, and honourable employees."
  Anadiplosis: Start the next part of a phrase with the last word of the previous phrase.
For example, "We're all so proud of Angie for opening a restaurant. A restaurant that
is sure to be successful."
 Antimetabole: Reverse certain words or phrases and repeat them in successive clauses.
For example, "If you fail to plan, you plan to fail."
 Antithesis: Put two opposing ideas together to display the contrast between them. A
popular example of an antithesis is the quote from Neil Armstrong, "That's one small
step for man, one giant leap for mankind."
 Metaphor: Compare two aspects or ideas using a term or phrase that isn't literally true
yet conveys a meaning that's easy to understand. For example, "I feel like a fish out of
water on stage, but I'll give this speech my best shot."
 Simile: Compare two ideas or aspects using the words as or like. For example, "Thank
you all for coming tonight. I know it's cold as ice outside, so I appreciate your
attendance."
 Asyndeton: Omit conjunctions, such as and, to increase the tempo of your speech or
highlight an idea. A popular example of asyndeton that Julius Caesar said is, "I came.
I saw. I conquered."

8. End memorably

The final moment of a speech is usually what an audience remembers most vividly. At the end
of your speech, return to the strong purpose you began with and try to end in a meaningful way,
such as creating a vision of the future or sharing a true story of success.

You can also end your speech with a clear call to action when appropriate to motivate your
audience to complete a certain task. For example, if your speech was about how the company
you work for plans to become more environmentally friendly, your call to action may be to
encourage others to make small changes in their own life.

Tips for writing a speech

Here are some tips you can consider to improve your speech and deliver it effectively:

 Be brief. Try to keep your speech short to ensure you don't lose your audience's
attention. Talk to the organizer of the event to determine how long your speech can be,
as they may have multiple speakers.
 Ask for feedback. Show your speech to someone you trust, such as a family member,
friend, or colleague, and ask for feedback. They may suggest elements you can add or
remove to improve your speech that you didn't think of yourself.
 Be conversational. Ensure you use everyday words that everyone in the audience
understands so you can convey your message effectively. Keep a conversational tone
by speaking to your audience as equals to keep them engaged.

Skills

We have broken down public speaking skills into verbal and nonverbal communication, and
tips on how to practice more efficiently.

 Verbal – Speaking clearly, loudly, and in an engaging fashion can make or break a
presentation. This article goes into more detail on how to use your voice effectively.
 Nonverbal – Standing in front of an audience can be nervewracking! This article
addresses how you can use nonverbal cues like eye contact and body language to
convey confidence and a strong stage presence.
 How to practice effectively – Practicing is an essential part of preparing for a
presentation that often gets overlooked because we run out of time. This article will
help you identify areas you want to improve and guide you through the process of
practicing.
 The day of your presentation – You have enough to remember before your
presentation! To help take off some of the stress, we’ve put together a short list of tips
to help you be at your best.

The 3 P’s of Public Speaking

The 3 P’s of Public Speaking, namely ‘Preparation’, ‘Practice’, and ‘Performance’, are
crucial for delivering impactful speeches. Preparation involves understanding the
audience, researching the topic, and structuring the speech. Practice helps build
confidence and fluency, while performance focuses on delivering the speech with
confidence and connecting with the audience.

Further, the three elements are discussed in detail:

1. Preparation
 Preparation is a fundamental step in Public Speaking that lays the foundation for a
successful speech. It involves a series of tasks aimed at ensuring that learners are well-
equipped with the necessary knowledge, organisation, and clarity to deliver an effective
presentation. Here are the key aspects to consider during the preparation phase:
1) Understand your audience: It is vital to tailor your speech to your audience’s needs,
interests, and level of knowledge. Remember to research the demographic, background, and
expectations of your audience to establish a connection and deliver a relevant message.

2) Set clear objectives: Objectives help you define the purpose and goals of your speech. They
also help you determine what you want your audience to take away from your presentation and
craft your content accordingly.

3) Thoroughly research the topic: It is essential that you provide accurate and reliable
information. Make use of reputed sources, conduct interviews, and gather supporting evidence
to enhance the credibility of your speech.

4) Structure your speech: It is crucial to organise your ideas logically and coherently.
Remember to divide your speech into sections, including an attention-grabbing introduction, a
well-developed body with key points, and a memorable conclusion that reinforces your main
message.

5) Create compelling visuals: Visuals can include slides or props that can enhance the impact
of your speech. These visual aids can help clarify complex concepts, engage the audience, and
make your presentation more memorable.

6) Anticipate questions: The anticipation of questions is a valuable skill to address potential

queries or concerns from the audience. Prepare well-researched and concise answers to ensure
you are prepared for any potential challenges or inquiries that may arise.

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Skills Course now!

2. Practice
Practice is another essential element for honing your Public Speaking skills and ensuring a
confident and effective delivery. It allows you to refine your message, build confidence, and
develop a smooth and engaging speaking style. Here are the key aspects to consider when it
comes to practice:
1) Rehearse your speech: Speech research is vital for familiarity and fluency. Practice
delivering your speech multiple times, ideally in front of a mirror or with a supportive audience.
A practice routine will help you become comfortable with the content and flow.

2) Timing and pace: A well-paced and timed speech will land a massive impact on your
audience. These are very important aspects to consider during practice. Ensure that your speech
fits within the allocated time, allowing for smooth delivery. Practice speaking at a moderate
pace, ensuring that you pause appropriately to emphasise key points or allow the audience to
absorb information.

3) Vocal variety and body language: Vocal variety and body language play a significant role
in captivating your audience. Experimenting with different tones, volumes, and inflexions
offers great amounts of interest and emphasis. Remember to incorporate gestures, facial
expressions, and movement to enhance your core message and connect with your listeners.

4) Seeking feedback: Feedback from trusted individuals is invaluable in improving your

speaking skills. Ask for constructive criticism and suggestions for improvement. Consider
joining Public Speaking groups or workshops, such as Toastmasters, where you can receive
feedback and learn from experienced speakers.

5) Recording yourself: Recording your speech during practice sessions allows you to
objectively assess your performance. Listening to the recordings helps you pay attention to
your tone, body language, pacing, and overall delivery. Identify areas where you can improve
and make necessary adjustments.

6) Joining Public Speaking groups or clubs: Your local Public Speaking community can
provide a supportive and encouraging environment to practice your skills. These platforms
offer opportunities to speak in front of a live audience, receive feedback, and learn from fellow
speakers.
 3. Present
The presentation of your speech is the result of the preparation and practice that goes into
Public Speaking. When you step onto the stage or stand before your audience, the confident
and impactful quality of your speech delivery is in your hands.

1) Establish a connection with your audience: The key to a successful presentation is to

establish a connection with your audience through eye contact, empathy, and compelling
storytelling.

2) Practice techniques: Effective language, persuasive techniques, and maintaining

enthusiasm throughout the speech are essential elements for delivering a perfect speech.

3) Learn to adapt to situations: Adapting to unforeseen circumstances and closing your

speech with a memorable message leave a lasting impression.

More importantly, it’s during the presentation phase that all your hard work and preparation
come together to captivate and inspire your audience.

Using Language Effectively

Language is an important consideration for your speech because at the most fundamental level,
this is how your audience will understand what you’re saying. From the actual words that come
out of your mouth to the points and topics you articulate, language is the vehicle that helps your
audience understand and agree with your statement or argument. What you actually choose to
say in your speech—every single word—must be carefully selected. Is each individual word
the best word you can use to convey your message or meaning? Is your phrasing easy to
understand? Are you using descriptive language? Do you connect similar thoughts for your
audience? Have you included points of contrast to illustrate broader points? These are all
important questions to consider as you begin to select each and every word that makes it into
your speech. Even more important are the words you choose to leave out: consider too, what
you aren’t saying.

This section explores strategies to use language effectively.

Simple Language

When asked to write a speech or a paper, many of us pull out the thesaurus (or call it up on our
computer) when we want to replace a common word with one that we believe is more elevated
or intellectual. There are certainly times when using a thesaurus is a good thing, but if you’re
pulling that big book out to turn a simple idea into one that sounds more complex, put it back
on the shelf.

Using a complex word when a well-known or simpler term will do inhibits your ability to
communicate clearly. Your goal as a speaker should be to be as clear as you possibly can. Using
language that makes it more difficult for your audience to understand your message can
 negatively impact your ability to get a clear message across to your audience. If your audience
can’t understand your vocabulary, they can’t understand your message.

Additionally, part of having strong credibility as a speaker is convincing your audience of your
sincerity, both in terms of your ideas and your character. When you use words that are not
typically used in conversational language, audiences may perceive you as insincere and
therefore less credible. Also, when the audience’s attention is focused on questions about your
character and veracity, they are less likely to pay attention to your message.

Specific Language

Concrete and precise language is specific, language that details an idea, action, sensation,
event. You will give clearer information if you use specific rather than general words. Evoke
senses of taste, smell, hearing, sight, and touch with specific word choices. But specifics do
clarify your meaning. Look for general words such as “things,” “very,” or “many,” which you
can replace with more specific terminology.

Concrete versus abstract language

Many misunderstandings stem from the language we use. You say you will call your friend
“later” and your friend got angry because you didn’t. By “later” you may have meant later in
the week while your friend thought later meant later that day. Often in these cases, both people
are right. So, how did the misunderstanding happen? One of the primary reasons we
miscommunicate is because language is abstract. As illustrated in the previous example,
meanings exist in people’s understandings of words, not the actual words. If you’re telling a
story about “a dog” you could be talking about a German Shepherd while your audience is
envisioning a Chihuahua. If you do not use concrete language, you risk at least sending a
different message than you intended. If you are speaking about a German Shepard, you want
to use the concrete term “German Shepherd” over the more abstract term “dog” to increase
audience understanding.

Below are two strategies to help you use concrete language.

Replace abstract terms with concrete words that have a clear and direct meaning.

 Abstract: The case sought to establish equality for people of all sexual orientations.
o Equality can mean a variety of things to different people: What does equality mean in this
instance?
 Concrete: The case sought to legalize gay marriage.

Use language that appeals to the senses.

 Abstract: The waiting room was unpleasant.

o What makes this setting unpleasant? Replace this term with specific, descriptive language.
 Concrete: The waiting room was cold, antiseptic-smelling, and crowded with sick people who
were coughing, groaning, or crying.
When you are writing your speech, look for words that you might need to define more clearly.
Many words mean different things to different people, so use concrete language over abstract
words to better your chances of communicating your message as intended.

Precise Language

Just as abstract language may be confusing, vague, overly general, subjective, or ambiguous
terms may be interpreted differently by different audience members, thus confusing the intent
of your message. As with concrete vs. abstract language, you do not want to choose words and
phrasing that could be interpreted in multiple ways. Choose words that most precisely,
concisely, and accurately convey your point. Someone might call a sweater “green” while
someone else calls it “teal.” Even though those are just differences in perception not purposeful
or mindless communication meant to be inaccurate, not being clear about exactly which color
you’re talking about can lead to confusion. It is best to remember to be as precise as possible
when choosing words. Don’t say something was “big”—tell us its weight or height, and to be
sure you’re communicating clearly compare that weight or height to something we understand.

The table below lists some examples of vague words and phrases edited to be precise. As you’ll
see, the precise versions of the phrases anticipate and answer questions that an audience may
have.

Vague Precise

many, a lot ten, sixteen, one thousand, etc.

cool (referring to
50 degrees Fahrenheit, 35 degrees Celsius, etc.
temperature)

most 90%, 94%, etc.

4:00 p.m., 10:00 p.m., etc. / in ten minutes, tomorrow morning at

later / very soon
8:00 a.m., etc.

staff supervisors, accountants, Nurse Practitioners, etc.

In the two weeks since inception, our four-member team has

We are making good achieved three of the six objectives we identified for project
progress on the project. completion; we are on track to complete the project in another
four weeks, by Friday, November 19.

For the same amount We examined several proposals in the $10,000 range, and they all
spent, we expected more offer more features than what we see in the $12,500 system ABC
value added. Corp. is offering.

Responding to a 911 call, State Police Officers Arellano and

Officers were called to
Chavez sped to the intersection of County Route 53 and State
the scene.
Highway 21.
 Several different colors The silk jacquard fabric is available in ivory, moss, cinnamon,
are available. and topaz.

At last count, the Apple iPhone had more than 500 applications,
This smartphone has many costing 99 cents or less; users can get real-time sports
more applications than scores, upload videos, browse commuter train schedules, edit e-
customers can imagine. mails, and find recipes—but so far, it doesn’t do the cooking for
you.

Note that clichés, or over-used expressions, are often vague. Clichés can be vague because
they have an agreed-upon meaning among a particular culture or group. However,
professionally, you may be working with people from many backgrounds who do not
understand the agreed-upon meaning. For example, ask a non-native speaker of English if
“things are looking up,” and the person may respond by physically looking upwards. So avoid
clichés or, if you have used them in an initial draft, make sure to replace them with more precise
language. For example:

Vague Clichés Precise Language

ballpark figure approximately, about

few and far between rare, infrequent

as plain as day obvious, clear, plain

needless to say obvious, of course

as clear as mud unclear, vague

The following video offers a quick definition and a few examples of precise language.

Vivid Language

Vivid Language helps your listeners create strong, distinct, clear, and memorable mental
images. Good vivid language usage helps an audience member truly understand and imagine
what a speaker is saying. Several strategies will help you to use vivid language.

Metaphors and Similes

Metaphors are comparisons made by speaking of one thing in terms of another. Similes are
similar to metaphors in how they function; however, similes make comparisons by using the
word “like” or “as,” whereas metaphors do not. The power of a metaphor is in its ability to
create an image that is linked to emotion in the mind of the audience. It is one thing to talk
about racial injustice, it is quite another for the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. to note
that people have been “…battered by storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of
police brutality.” Throughout his “I Have a Dream” speech the Reverend Dr. King uses the
metaphor of the checking account to make his point.

He notes that the crowd has come to the March on Washington to “cash a check” and claims
that America has “defaulted on this promissory note” by giving “the Negro people a bad check,
a check that has come back “insufficient funds.” By using checking and bank account terms
that most people are familiar with, the Reverend Dr. King is able to more clearly communicate
what he believes has occurred. In addition, the use of this metaphor acts as a sort of “shortcut.”
He gets his point across very quickly by comparing the problems of civil rights to the problems
of a checking account.

In the same speech the Reverend Dr. King also makes use of similes, which also compare two
things but do so using “like” or “as.” In discussing his goals for the Civil Rights movement in
his “I Have a Dream” speech, the Reverend Dr. exclaims: “No, no we are not satisfied and we
will not be satisfied until justice rolls down likewaters and righteousness like a mighty stream.”
Similes also help make your message clearer by using ideas that are more concrete for your
audience. For example, to give the audience an idea of what a winter day looked like you could
note that the “snow looked as solid as pearls.” To communicate sweltering heat you could say
that “the tar on the road looked like satin.” A simile most of us are familiar with is the notion
of the United States being “like a melting pot” with regard to its diversity. We also often note
that a friend or colleague that stays out of conflicts between friends is “like Switzerland.” In
each of these instances similes have been used to more clearly and vividly communicate a
message.

Rhythm

Rythm refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech. Whether
someone is striking a drum with a stick or standing in front of a group speaking, rhythm is an
important aspect of human communication. Think about your favorite public speaker. If you
analyze his or her speaking pattern, you’ll notice that there is a certain cadence to the speech.
While much of this cadence is a result of the nonverbal components of speaking, some of the
cadence comes from the language that is chosen as well.

Alliteration

Remember challenging yourself or a friend to repeat a tongue twister “five times fast?” Perhaps
it was “Sally sold seashells by the seashore” or “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”
Tongue twisters are difficult to say to say but very easy to remember. Why?
Alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of the initial sounds of words. Alliteration is a useful
tool for helping people remember your message, and it’s as simple as taking a few minutes to
see if there are ways to reword your speech so that you can add some alliteration— this is a
great time to use that thesaurus we talked about putting away early in this chapter. Look for
alternative words to use that allow for alliteration in your speech. You might consider doing
this especially when it comes to the points that you would like your audience to remember
most.
Antithesis

Antithesis allows you to use contrasting statements in order to make a rhetorical point. Perhaps
the most famous example of antithesis comes from the Inaugural Address of President John F.
Kennedy when he stated, “And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for
you; ask what you can do for your country.” Going back to Reverend Jackson’s “Rainbow
Coalition” speech he notes, “I challenge them to put hope in their brains and not dope in their
veins.” In each of these cases, the speakers have juxtaposed two competing ideas in one
statement to make an argument in order to draw the listener’s attention.

Parallel Structure and Language

Antithesis is often worded using parallel structure or language. Parallel structure is the balance
of two or more similar phrases or clauses, and parallel wording is the balance of two or more
similar words. The Reverend Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech exemplifies both strategies
in action. Indeed, the section where he repeats “I Have a Dream” over and over again is an
example of the use of both parallel structure and language. The use of parallel structure and
language helps your audience remember without beating them over the head with repetition. If
worded and delivered carefully, you can communicate a main point over and over again, as did
the Reverend Dr. King, and it doesn’t seem as though you are simply repeating the same phrase
over and over. You are often doing just that, of course, but because you are careful with your
wording (it should be powerful and creative, not pedantic) and your delivery (the correct use
of pause, volumes, and other elements of delivery), the audience often perceives the repetition
as dramatic and memorable. The use of parallel language and structure can also help you when
you are speaking persuasively. Through the use of these strategies you can create a speech that
takes your audience through a series of ideas or arguments that seem to “naturally” build to
your conclusion.

Repetition

As we mentioned earlier in this chapter, one of the major differences between oral and written
language is the use of repetition. Because speeches are communicated orally, audience
members need to hear the core of the message repeated consistently. Repetition as a linguistic
device is designed to help audiences become familiar with a short piece of the speech as they
hear it over and over again. By repeating a phrase during a speech, you create a specific rhythm.
Probably the most famous and memorable use of repetition within a speech is Martin Luther
King Jr.’s use of “I have a dream” in his speech at the Lincoln Memorial on August 1963 during
the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. In that speech, Martin Luther King Jr.
repeated the phrase “I have a dream” eight times to great effect.

Inclusive Language

Language can either inspire your listeners or turn them off very quickly. One of the fastest
ways to alienate an audience is through the use of non-inclusive language. Inclusive language
avoids placing any one group of people above or below other groups while speaking. Let’s
look at some common problem areas related to language about gender, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, and disabilities.

Gender-Specific Language

The first common form of noninclusive language is language that privileges one of the sexes
over the other. There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while speaking:
using “he” as generic, using “man” to mean all humans and gender typing jobs.

Generic “He”

The generic “he” happens when a speaker labels all people within a group as “he” when in
reality there is a mixed sex group involved. Consider the statement, “Every morning when an
officer of the law puts on his badge, he risks his life to serve and protect his fellow citizens.”
In this case, we have a police officer that is labeled as male four different times in one sentence.
Obviously, both male and female police officers risk their lives when they put on their badges.
A better way to word the sentence would be, “Every morning when officers of the law put on
their badges, they risk their lives to serve and protect their fellow citizens.” Notice that in the
better sentence, we made the subject plural (“officers”) and used neutral pronouns (“they” and
“their”) to avoid the generic “he.”

Use of “Man”
Traditionally, speakers of English have used terms like “man,” “mankind,” and (in casual
contexts) “guys” when referring to both females and males. In the second half of the twentieth
century, as society became more aware of gender bias in language, organizations like the
National Council of Teachers of English developed guidelines for nonsexist language (National
Council of Teachers of English, 2002). For example, instead of using the word “man,” you
could refer to the “human race.” Instead of saying, “hey, guys,” you could say, “OK, everyone.”
By using gender-fair language you will be able to convey your meaning just as well, and you
won’t risk alienating half of your audience.

Gender-Typed Jobs
The last common area where speakers get into trouble with gender and language has to do with
job titles. It is not unusual for people to assume, for example, that doctors are male and nurses
are female. As a result, they may say “she is a woman doctor” or “he is a male nurse” when
mentioning someone’s occupation, perhaps not realizing that the statements “she is a doctor”
and “he is a nurse” already inform the listener as to the sex of the person holding that job.
Speakers sometimes also use a gender-specific pronoun to refer to an occupation that has both
males and females.

The below table lists some common gender-specific jobs titles along with more inclusive
versions of those job titles.
 Exclusive Language Inclusive Language

Policeman Police officer

Businessman Businessperson

Fireman Firefighter

Stewardess Flight attendant

Waiters Wait staff / servers

Mailman Letter carrier / postal worker

Barmaid Bartender

Ethnic Identity
Another type of inclusive language relates to the categories used to highlight an individual’s
ethnic identity. Ethnic identity refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a
common culture. For example, within the United States, we have numerous ethnic groups,
including Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Japanese Americans, Vietnamese Americans,
Cuban Americans, and Mexican Americans. As with the earlier example of “male nurse,” avoid
statements such as “The committee is made up of four women and a Vietnamese man.” Instead,
say, “The committee is made up of four women and a man” or, if race and ethnicity are central
to the discussion, “The committee is made up of three European American women, an Israeli
American woman, a Brazilian American woman, and a Vietnamese American man.” In recent
years, there has been a trend toward steering inclusive language away from broad terms like
“Asians” and “Hispanics” because these terms are not considered precise labels for the groups
they actually represent. If you want to be safe, the best thing you can do is ask a couple of
people who belong to an ethnic group how they prefer to label themselves.

Sexual Orientation
Another area that can cause some problems is referred to as heterosexism. Heterosexism occurs
when a speaker presumes that everyone in an audience is heterosexual or that opposite-sex
relationships are the only norm. For example, a speaker might begin a speech by saying, “I am
going to talk about the legal obligations you will have with your future husband or wife.” While
this speech starts with the notion that everyone plans on getting married, which isn’t the case,
it also assumes that everyone will label their significant others as either “husbands” or “wives.”
Although some members of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender/transexual community
will use these terms, others prefer for more gender neutral terms like “spouse” and “partner.”
Moreover, legal obligations for same-sex couples may be very different from those for
heterosexual couples. Notice also that we have used the phrase “members of the gay, lesbian,
bisexual, and transgender/transexual community” instead of the more clinical-sounding term
“homosexual.”

Disability

The last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some
speakers relates to individuals with physical or mental disabilities. Below are some other
examples of exclusive versus inclusive language.

Exclusive
Inclusive Language
Language

Handicapped
People with disabilities
People

Person with a psychiatric disability (or label the psychiatric diagnosis,

Insane Person
e.g. “person with schizophrenia”)

Person in a
Person who uses a wheelchair
wheelchair

Crippled Person with a physical disability

 Exclusive
Inclusive Language
Language

Special needs
Accessible needs program
program

Mentally retarded Person with an intellectual disability

Use Familiar Language

The last category related to using language appropriately simply asks you to use language that
is familiar both to yourself and to your audience. If you are not comfortable with the language
you are using, then you are going to be more nervous speaking, which will definitely have an
impact on how your audience receives your speech. You may have a hard time speaking
genuinely and sincerely if you use unfamiliar language, and this can impair your credibility.
Furthermore, you want to make sure that the language you are using is familiar to your
audience. If your audience cannot understand what you are saying, you will not have an
effective speech.

Jargon

Jargon is a specialized language used by members of a profession. It is appropriate to use

jargon when you know that your audience understands the terms you are using. Jargon is often
used when communicating with other members of your profession. It makes sense, for
example, for a doctor performing a medical procedure to use jargon in speaking with the
anesthetist, nurses, and other medical professionals, since all of those others understand the
terms in the same way and the medical jargon eliminates the need for lengthy explanations.

However, jargon is not useful in situations in which your audience does not have the same
technical or professional background. If some technical terms are absolutely necessary to your
communication, be sure to explain each term and its context. Whether or not to use jargon is
often a judgment call and one that’s sometimes easier to make in speaking than in writing. In
an oral context, you may be able to know from immediate feedback whether or not your
audience understands a technical term, based on their facial expressions or body language. If
not, you can define the term immediately. If you must use jargon while speaking to a general
audience, be sure to define your terms and err on the side of over-clarification.

Slang
Slang is language that some people might understand but that is typically not considered
acceptable in formal conversation. It is informal language and can be a poor choice for a
speaker because some members of your audience may not be familiar with the slang term(s)
you use. Slang is often based on a very specific audience, defined by age, region, subculture,
etc. If you are speaking to an audience that you know will understand and respond positively,
you may choose to include that language in your speech. Otherwise, do not use slang, or you
may confuse and frustrate audience members and cause them to lose interest in your speech.
In addition, because slang is often not considered appropriate in formal and polite conversation,
using it in your speech may communicate negative ideas about you to audience members. Don’t
let a mindless use of slang negatively impact your audience’s perception of you and your
message.

Using Stylized Language

Stylized language is language that communicates your meaning clearly, vividly and with flair.
Stylized language doesn’t just make you sound better; it also helps make your speeches more
memorable. Speakers who are thoughtful about using language strategies in their speeches are
more memorable as speakers and therefore so too are their messages more unforgettable as
well.

Personalized Language

We’re all very busy people. Perhaps you’ve got work, studying, classes, a job, and
extracurricular activities to juggle. Because we are all so busy, one problem that speakers often
face is trying to get their audience interested in their topic or motivated to care about their
argument. A way to help solve this problem is through the use of language that personalizes
your topic. Rather than saying, “One might argue” say “You might argue.” Rather than saying
“This could impact the country in ways we have not yet imagined,” say “This could impact
your life in ways that you have not imagined.” By using language that directly connects your
topic or argument to the audience you better your chances of getting your audience to listen
and to be persuaded that your subject matter is serious and important to them. Using words like
“us,” “you,” and “we” can be a subtle means of getting your audience to pay attention to your
speech. Most people are most interested in things that they believe impact their lives directly—
make those connections clear for your audience by using personal language.