Issue

Brief
ISSUE NO. 749
NOVEMBER 2024

© 2024 Observer Research Foundation. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, copied, archived, retained or transmitted through print, speech or electronic
media without prior written approval from ORF.
Managing Avian Conservation,
Protection, and Diversity in
Indian Cities
Ramanath Jha
Birds provide multiple benefits to the world’s ecosystems. In recent
years, experts have raised the alarm about deteriorating bird
populations, with some species becoming extinct and others threatened
to dangerous levels. This decline in avian populations is primarily
attributed to urbanisation. Concerted efforts are required to conserve
birds and their habitats in cities. The Government of India, state
governments, urban local bodies, non-government organisations, bird
welfare organisations, and the urban community will all play a vital
role.

Attribution: Ramanath Jha, “Managing Avian Conservation, Protection, and Diversity in Indian Cities,” Issue
Brief No. 749, November 2024, Observer Research Foundation.

01
 T
here are more than 11,000 species of birds globally,1 populating
every country across all regions, displaying behaviours shaped
by their unique ecological challenges, and equipped with the
ability to adapt.2 For example, while some species have evolved
to adapt to extreme climates, others can fly long distances to
more suitable climates.a,3 Bird species contribute to the preservation of rural
and urban ecosystems through pollination, seed dispersal, forest regeneration,
scavenging, and weed and pest control. Around 5 percent of the plants used
by humans for food and medicine are pollinated by birds.4 Bird droppings
also contribute to nutrient distribution. In this context, the role of sea birds
is especially crucial. These birds eat fish and other sea creatures on the high
seas and nest in large colonies on land. The excrement of the birds provides
concentrated nutrients to the soil at their coastal breeding grounds,5 enabling
plant and grass growth.

Additionally, many birds consume pests in large quantities, thereby rescuing

crops threatened by pests. Barn swallows consume up to 60 insects an hour,
and western bluebirds are known to prevent damage to grapes in vineyards by
feeding on invertebrate pests.6 Larger birds like the barn owl feed on rodents.
Birds such as woodpeckers support the protection of other bird species—the
cavities hollowed out by woodpeckers are often used by other cavity-nesting
species for shelter and protection from predators.7 Scavenging birds, such as
vultures, eagles, kites, ravens, and crows play an indispensable role in the food
Introduction

chain.8 The loss of bird species is likely to increase insect and rodent populations
and vector-borne diseases.9 For example, the population decline of vultures in
the mid-1990s in India10 led to a sudden increase in the population of stray
dogs, especially in cities.11,12

When avian species become extinct, their specific functions and benefits are
also removed. Bird diversity is therefore critical, especially since introduced
species often struggle to perform the critical roles of native species.13

Birds and Human Health

There is a growing body of evidence that points to the positive impact of birds
on human mental health. A seminal study has found that birds provided
psychological, physiological, aesthetic, cultural, recreational, socio-economic,

a Certain birds, like the ostrich, kiwi, weka, kakapo, and penguin, cannot fly. Those that are constrained
in flight often compensate by running or swimming. See: https://www.britannica.com/list/8-birds-
that-cant-fly

3
 and spiritual benefits.14 The study covered more than 100 scientific articles to
assess the relationship between birds and human health.15

Higher bird diversity is likely to have direct positive impacts on mental health
and create a more relaxing environment that enables mental restoration.16
Studies have suggested that bird species diversity in a locality boosts the mental
health of residents.17 The number of people hospitalised for mood and anxiety
disorders is also found to be reduced in areas with higher bird diversity.18

The Social Value of Birds

In India, birds have been part of the art,19 culture,20 and folklore of societies,21
with the swan and the owl, for instance, having symbolic value in traditions.22
The birds of India are widely documented in ancient Indian literature.23 More
recently, the Hindi film industry has explored the value of birds.24

Certain birds have also been domesticated and are kept as pets. Popular
species in India include non-Indian parakeets, cockatiels, canaries, macaws,
and lovebirds.25 However, the Wildlife Protection Act prevents the keeping
of several species as pets.26 The species that can be legally kept are cockatiels,
parakeet, lovebirds, zebra finches, doves, and hyacinth macaws.27 Nevertheless,
all Indian species are protected under law.
Introduction

4
 T
he State of the World’s Birds 2022 report recognises that birds are
“an excellent barometer for planetary health” and are valuable
biodiversity indicators whose health is indicative of the health of
the global ecosystem.28 However, according to the report, one
out of every eight bird species is threatened with extinction,
and the overall status of birds continues to deteriorate along with a decline
in their overall number.29 It is estimated that 2.9 billion birds have been lost
in North America since 1970 and 600 million in the European Union since
1980.30 Among the critical factors responsible for this decline are agricultural
expansion and intensification, unsustainable logging, overexploitation, and
climate change. Threats are also posed by bycatchb from fisheries and poorly
planned energy production.

To be sure, conservation action has saved several endangered species from

extinction.31 Historically, conservation action and legislation have shown
positive results. Additionally, bird population recoveries validate that depleted
bird populations can recover following policy changes.32 For instance, in the
The State of the

United States, many raptor species experienced revival following the ban on
the insecticide DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane),33 and threatened
species grew in numbers following protection under the Endangered Species
Act.34 The State of the World’s Birds report urges governments to adopt the Global
World’’ s Birds

Biodiversity Frameworkc and implement the suggested plan of action, stating

that the “future of the world’s birds and ultimately our own species depends
upon it.”35
World

b Bycatch from fisheries refers to birds being caught on baited hooks and getting tangled in nets in the
process of unsustainable harvest of fish. Such unfriendly and careless seabird practices lead to the
death and mutilation of millions of sea birds.
c The Framework is designed to support the global response to the threat of climate change. It aims
to catalyse action by governments and civil society stakeholders at every level to halt and reverse
biodiversity loss.

5
 T
he State of India’s Birds was compiled from the observations of
30,000 birdwatchers and 30 institutions across the country.36
Overall, 1,350 bird species have been recorded in India. Of
these, 942 bird species were studied. The report found that,
India ’ s Birds

of the species studied, 142 were on the decline, with the great
Indian bustard, white-bellied heron, Bengal florican, and Finn’s weaver being
the most critically threatened species. On the other hand, 28 species populations
were found to be thriving, including the Indian peafowl, rock pigeon, Asian
koel, and house crow.37 In general, the study concluded that generalist speciesd
of birds had adapted to urban spaces, whereas survival and adaptability among
specialist species was more challenging, resulting in their decline.38 Other
research has indicated that omnivores39 have a better chance of survival in
cities, where food sources may not be diverse but are plentiful. Additionally,
bird species in cities are highly adaptable and learn to live alongside human
The State of India’

activity and urbanisation.40

The report categorises birds according to conservation priority. The highest

conservation priority category comprises 178 species on account of either their
numerical decline or small range of distribution, or both.41 The moderate and
low priority categories comprise 323 and 441 species, respectively. The report
also highlights focus areas in species, habitats, and threats.42 Additionally, the
report pointed out that there are wide knowledge gaps in regard to certain
birds and bird species, and more systematic research is required on problem
areas for a better understanding of the challenges in bird conservation.43
However, regenerative action for diminishing bird species needs to be balanced
with managing the multiplication of other species, such as pigeons and the
Indian peafowl. Failing to manage the multiplication of these species may lead
to a loss of any support for bird conservation.44

d Generalist species of birds are those that thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and that
make use of a variety of different resources. They display great adaptability.

6
 I
n India, urbanisation is named one of the primary factors for the decline
of birds.45 Increased construction activities have led to the destruction
of the natural habitats of birds, adversely affecting their species variety
and populations.46 Reduced canopy cover, decline in the variety of plant
species, and diminishing heterogeneity of vegetatione have adversely
impacted overall bird diversity.47 Additionally, pets such as cats and dogs prey
on birds and affect them by creating a landscape of fear.48 Studies in countries
outside India estimate bird loss in billions as a consequence of predatory pets.
However, the extent of the problem in India is uninvestigated.49 Urban noise is a
further deterrent to birds, forcing them to abandon previously suitable habitats.
Similarly, urban lights can disorient them, and glass facades of buildings are
Urbanisation and the

collision traps, killing large numbers of birds.50

The report established that the most urbanised areas have the least number
of bird species, including the rare ones and those that are insectivorous.
Urbanisation leads to the homogenisationf of bird communities due to the
increased abundance of birds that are adept at exploiting ecological niches,
including the rock pigeon, common myna, and house crow.g,51
Impact on Birds

e Vegetation heterogeneity refers to variability in the structure and composition of plant communities
over space and time.
f Homogenisation of bird species refers to a process by which urban characteristics, such as limited
biodiversity and food variety, force many specialist bird species to lose out and many dominant bird
species such as House Crows and feral Rock pigeons to thrive, thereby spawning uniformity among
urban bird species. Specialist bird species are those that are highly adapted to specific eco-systems,
that are very sensitive to temperature and environmental changes, may eat merely one or two types of
food and require one specific species of tree for nesting. In their absence, they find it difficult to thrive.
g Despite the challenges, a number of bird species can still be spotted in Indian cities. These include
the black kite, rose-ringed parakeet, kingfisher, red-vented bulbul, green bee-eater, black drongo,
Asian koel, purple sunbird, greater coucal, Indian roller, and Indian robin. See: https://jeevoka.com/
commonly-found-birds-in-indian-cities/s; https://www.prosperingindia.com/wildlife/15-most-commo
n-city-birds-found-in-india/

7
 I
n December 2019, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, Government of India proposed a draft ‘Visionary Perspective
Plan (2020-20230)’ (VPP) for the conservation of avian diversity, their
ecosystems, habitats and landscapes in the country.52

The VPP highlights that India ranks among the top 10 countries in
bird diversity globally, with 1,317 species of birds, and is a mega-biodiversity
country, with many endemic species. India’s territory also includes regions
such as the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, which are categorised as
‘global biodiversity hotspots’ that are under severe threat and requiring urgent
conservation measures.53 India is also a signatory to several international
Current Approach on

conventions and treaties that mandate the conservation of natural resources

and biodiversity for the protection of the planet.54 These include the
Avian Conservation

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and

Fauna, Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, and
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.55

The VPP also notes that the Indian Constitution stipulates that it is the duty
of every Indian citizen to protect the country’s natural environment, including
forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.56
The Constitution further exhorts the states to protect and improve the
environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife in their territory.57

Programme 10 of the VPP discusses the conservation of aviation diversity

in urban areas and notes that birds and bird species have either declined or
entirely wiped out from the urban landscape. Mounting urbanisation and the
intense pressure exerted on the natural resource capital of urban areas have led
to the depletion of habitats that support avian diversity. Various bird species in
the country have been adversely impacted by increasing urbanisation and are
witnessing a decline in their populations. Against this backdrop, it is necessary
to devise policies and master plans for urban development in the country
that integrate habitats for nature and biodiversity conservation. However,
insufficient data on urban avifauna and their ecology poses difficulties.58

The VPP builds on existing databases such as Asian Waterbird Census and
eBird to propose the generation and consolidation of baseline information
on birds and their populations in cities and towns in the country. It
recommends studying the impact of urbanisation on avian diversity, their
habitats, and behaviour, including their foraging and nesting ecology. The

8
 VPP further urges the development of Best Practice Guidelines for integrating
environmental issues such as habitats for nature conservation into master plans
and development plans in cities and towns. Another objective is coordination
between Central and State government departments, urban development
agencies, relevant institutions, and other stakeholders to incorporate the Best
Practice Guidelines in urban policy and planning.59

The VPP further proposes evaluating the implementation of the guidelines

by various State governments. It also suggests measures for effective
implementation, including monitoring bird-human interface in urban
environs for emerging health and other issues. The VPP has also specified
Current Approach on

thrust areas and an implementation schedule for each, categorised into long-
term, medium-term, and short-term applications. Conducting bird census in
Avian Conservation

urban agglomerations and developing a bird atlas for select cities through
citizen science initiatives are suggested strategies.60

9
 A
conscious attempt needs to be made for the well-being of birds
in urban settlements. Along with the implementation of the
suggestions provided by the VPP, cities can follow a threefold
approach for bird rejuvenation and protection: (i) threat
reduction measures for birds; (ii) protection and creation of pro-
bird habitats; and (iii) promotion of popular participation in the multiplication
Imperatives in Cities for

of bird-friendly neighbourhoods.

Urban local bodies (ULBs) play the most significant role in managing bird
populations. The plantation of trees and shrubs and other methods of greening
are necessary. Urban planners should safeguard natural habitats, including
terrestrial and wetland habitats, and maximise connectivity by promoting the
planting of native trees and shrubs in parks, gardens, and streets. Taller trees,
Avian Conservation

which are removed from the din, noise, and pollution, seem to provide greater
comfort to birds. Factors such as this should be considered by municipal tree
departments.

The Role of Trees

Trees play a vital role in wildlife conservation.61 They provide birds with nesting
sites and are a crucial source of food.62 Their branches and foliage also provide
shelter from predators and inclement weather. Consequently, trees help diversify
bird species and create corridors for bird migration.63 Birds, in turn, support
the health of trees by feasting on leaf-eating insects. Birds also eat and disperse
fruits and seeds, thereby allowing trees to multiply. Community engagement
programs can supplement municipal effort by mobilising volunteers to plant
and care for trees in cities.

While promoting green infrastructure planning, ULBs should integrate trees

and green spaces into urban development projects. As far as possible, ULBs
should avoid monocultural or ornamental tree plantations. Native varieties
and diverse tree species, especially fruit-bearing and flowering trees, ensure
suitable habitats and food sources for local bird populations. Trees that provide
good nesting sites,64 such as banyan and peepal trees, should also be preferred.
Additionally, botanical gardens, roof gardens, urban forests, and vegetation
around water bodies can be critical habitats that support many urban birds.65
ULBs should avoid developing lakes and parks where native vegetation is
replaced with exotic plants and green lawns. In such spaces, vegetation should
be native and selected with the objective of maintaining biodiversity. These steps

10
 can provide safe habitats for birds and strengthen the bond between humans
and nature while supporting diverse bird species.

Preserving Green Spaces

A study conducted by the Singapore National Parks Board (NPB) found that
Imperatives in Cities for

urban green spaces with semi-natural vegetation are highly supportive of bird
diversity.66 The study also highlighted that regular-shaped urban green spaces
and ones with fewer edges are more conducive for bird diversity.67 For instance,
large and more complex green spaces contain more birds with specific food
and nesting requirements compared to small and manicured parks.68 A water
body within or around a green space also elevates bird diversity. Dead and
decaying trees provide multiple sources of food for insect-eating birds as well
Avian Conservation

and are ideal for cavity-nesting birds such as owls, parakeets, mynas, barbets,
and woodpeckers because the wood is easy to carve. Deadwood areas are also
preferred by birds for protection and nesting.

Mitigating the Dangers of Glass Facades

The use of glass and glass windows on the facades of buildings is proving to be
destructive to bird populations. Windows that reflect trees and the sky result
in birds flying into them, as birds cannot differentiate between reflections and
real vegetation.69,70 In other instances, a bird views its own reflection as a rival
and launches several attacks on a window pane.71 Therefore, a large number
of birds, especially migrating birds that generally fly during night, become
casualties as they collide with buildings. To address this challenge, cities can
reduce the amount of glass on buildings, put markings on glass that are visible
to birds, or stick non-reflective stickers on the glass surface to stop reflections.
Shutters and shades, for instance, can be used to hide glass so that birds are not
drawn to the light from windows.

While the use of glass facades in India is more common in the larger cities, the
trend is catching up in other cities as well and could become a huge problem
over time. Awareness with regard to the danger of glass facades to birds, as well
as their role in the additional generation of urban heat, need to be raised. Rules
should be framed to disincetivise the use of such facades.

11
 City Regulations for the Protection of Birds

To make birds an integral part of the development control regulations of cities,

as the VPP suggests, cities should look towards the Best Practice Guidelines
to be developed by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC) with a view to integrating them into master plans and development
Imperatives in Cities for

plans of cities and towns.72 For instance, many American and Canadian cities
have bird-safe building regulations in place. Building design regulations
mandate the glazing or treatment of glass on the first few storeys above ground
level.73 The regulations also dictate a minimum value of building facade or glass
percentage that would pass the bird-safe test.74 In New York City, for example,
Local Law 15 was introduced in 2020 which specifically deals with bird-friendly
building design, making it mandatory for new buildings to comply with bird-
Avian Conservation

friendly design construction requirements.75

Indian cities can look to these laws for lessons, and ensure that the
implementation gaps in those foreign cities are not repeated.

Community-Level Interventions

At the community level, bird populations can be supported by taking steps

to meet their requirements for water, food, and shelter. Birdscaping, or the
creation of bird-friendly backyard gardens equipped with food, water, and
shelter can attract birds. Similarly, hanging bird feeders filled with birdseed
mix and natural food, as well as a clean water dish that allows them to drink
and frolic, are factors that attract birds. Additionally, the installation of
birdhouses and roosting houses on trees, walls, and windows can protect bird
populations.76

Internationally, the American Bird Conservancy and the Environment for

the Americas are collaborating to deliver practical solutions for community
interventions through the Bird City Network. The network enables a sharing
platform and assists local communities in advancing bird-friendly initiatives.77
Each programme takes shape under a city platform, such as Bird City Colorado,
Bird City Texas, Ciudad de las Aves Mexico, and Ciudad de las Aves Colombia.
The Bird City community aims to increase habitats, reduce threats, engage
people, and promote sustainability to help birds.78 To this end, the network
focuses on promoting native plants, controlling invasive plants, providing
nesting habitats, supporting focal species, and addressing water quality while
simultaneously working towards widening community participation across age
groups and increasing awareness and climate education.

12
 In India, the Bombay Natural History Society, BirdLife International, Royal
Society for Protection of Birds, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & History,
Indian Institute of Public Administration, Wildlife Institute of India, and other
non-government organisations have set up the Indian Bird Conservation
Network (IBCN).79 The IBCN aims to take steps for the conservation of
birds based on research. The network has state-level coordinators who collect
Imperatives in Cities for

regional and local information and feed these data and observations to the wider
network.80 The Bombay Natural History Society runs nation-wide projects for
data collection. The BirdLife International specifically deals with endangered
species or habitat-specific bird species to shortlist a minimum set of sites for
conservation. The IBCN also works in the areas of advocacy, education, and
scientific research.81
Avian Conservation

In 2019, the Bombay Natural History Society was supported by the

Government of India to conduct a study related to migratory birds. The
study, which ran from 2018 to 2023, covered 77 locations across 17 states, and
the findings will be part of India’s ‘National Action Plan for Conservation of
Migratory Birds and their Habitats along the Central Asian Flyway’.82

Birdwatching as an Urban Activity

Birdwatching can aid urban health, urban ecology, and community involvement
in a positive urban activity. The use of technology has led to increased interest
in birdwatching.83 It is predicted that, aided by technology and tech diffusion,
birding could become a social media movement by 2025.84 Traditionally,
birdwatching requires a pair of binoculars, a notebook, a spotting scope with
a tripod, and a field guide. Technology is now providing new tools to make
birding richer and simpler, allowing each birder to access a large amount of
information and knowledge.85 Available technologies include bird-identification
apps, online resources, and social media platforms.86

Artificial intelligence has enabled the development of apps such as Merlin,

which can instantly identify bird species in a region through photos and
sounds.87 The eBird app collects submissions from birders and creates an online
database that provides checklists of birds, real-time data about bird distribution
and abundance, and sighting records. The BirdCast project provides
information on localised bird migration by using machine learning, cloud
computing, and big-data analytics. Digital cameras and video cameras have
also made photography and videography in birdwatching more accessible88 to a
large numbers of birders.89

13
 T
he conservation of birds is imperative for the overall health
of ecosystems. Urbanisation is a critical threat factor in bird
populations, which makes it incumbent on city stakeholders
to engage in the conservation of birds and their habitats. This
attention needs to be especially focused on bird species that are
threatened with extinction and ones with dwindling populations. Accordingly,
there are three specific kinds of inputs required for bird conservation: more
research about birds in cities, targeted ULB action and regulation for birds,
and increased community participation for bird conservation.

Despite the high human and built density in Indian cities, it is possible to take
conscious steps to help birds, such as through birding, greening of available
open spaces, preserving water bodies, planting trees that bear flower and fruits,
installing birdhouses, providing drinking troughs, crafting nesting spaces, and
increasing roof gardens and plantations.

ULBs, while framing rules and regulations, could incentivise bird preservation
measures and encourage local communities to assist in bird preservation. The
task is intricate and cannot be accomplished without community support. It
would also be beneficial to recognise the services of the community, which can
incentivise them and encourage involvement.

There are gaps in the understanding of bird behaviour and the consequences
of human activity on their lives. To bridge these gaps and address challenges
in bird conservation, cities need to encourage related research projects and
Conclusion

activities such as birdwatching and documentation. As the VPP suggests, bird

censuses can be conducted to prepare a bird atlas, such as the Kerala Bird Atlas,
through citizen science initiatives. The youth of cities also need to be involved.
City-based bird organisations and bird experts can also create forums where
they can share their knowledge and discuss future course of action on bird
conservation in cities.

Dr Ramanath Jha is Distinguished Fellow, ORF.

14
 1 Lucy Haskell et al., State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis,
UK, BirdLife International, 2022, https://www.birdlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/
SOWB2022_EN_compressed.pdf

2 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

3 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

4 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

5 Lauren Leffer, “6 Unexpected Ways Birds Are Important for the Environment (and
People),” National Audobon Society, December 17, 2021

6 Leffer, “6 Unexpected Ways Birds Are Important for the Environment (and People)”

7 Leffer, “6 Unexpected Ways Birds Are Important for the Environment (and People)”

8 Xiaoying Gu, Rene Krawczynski, “Scavenging Birds and Ecosystem Services Experience
from Germany,” January 2012, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265172665_
Scavenging_Birds_and_Ecosystem_Services_Experience_from_Germany

9 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) for Conservation of Aviation Diversity, Their
Ecosystems, Habitats & Landscapes In The Country, (Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate change, December 2019) https://ourgovdotin.wordpress.com/wp-content/
uploads/2020/03/0-1.pdf

10 Eyal G. Frank, Anant Sudarshan, “The Social Costs of Keystone Species Collapse:
Evidence from the Decline of Vultures in India,” Becker Friedman Institute, January 2,
2023, bfi.uchicago.edu

11 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) For Conservation of Aviation Diversity, Their Ecosystems,
Endnotes

Habitats & Landscapes In The Country

12 Frank and Sudarshan, “The Social Costs of Keystone Species Collapse: Evidence from the
Decline of Vultures in India”

13 Leffer, “6 Unexpected Ways Birds are Important for the Environment (and People)”

14 Aimee Gray et al., “Birds and Human Health: Pathways for a Positive Relationship and
Improved Integration,” International Journal of Aviation Science, 2023

15 Aimee Gray et al., “Birds and Human Health: Pathways for a Positive Relationship and
Improved Integration”

16 Rachel T Buxton et al., “Exploring the Relationship Between Bird Diversity and Anxiety
and Mood Disorder Hospitalisation Rates,” Royal Geographical Society, August 7, 2023

17 Joel Methorst, “Positive Relationship Between Bird Diversity and Human Mental Health:
an Analysis of Repeated Cross-Sectional Data,” Lancet, May 2024, https://www.thelancet.

15
 com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(24)00023-8/fulltext

18 Rachel T Buxton et al., “Exploring the Relationship Between Bird Diversity and Anxiety
and Mood Disorder Hospitalisation Rates”

19 Venu Vasudevan, “Birds and Animals in Indian Art,” National Museum, https://
nationalmuseumindia.gov.in/assets/pdf/Birds-&-Animals.pdf

20 Jayashree Krishnan, “Avian Symbolism: Exploring Birds in Indian Culture through Art,”
October 8, 2023, https://www.caleidoscope.in/art-culture/avian-symbolism-exploring-birds-
in-indian-culture-through-art

21 Monica Kaushik, “Conserving Winged Wonders of Cities,” Azim Premji University, https://
azimpremjiuniversity.edu.in/conserving-winged-wonders-of-cities#:~:text=Urban%20
birds%20can%20be%20safeguarded,safe%20nesting%20and%20food%20resources.

22 Rooftop, “Observing the Beauty of Indian Birds in Rajasthani Miniatures,” October

27, 2023, https://rooftopapp.com/observing-the-beauty-of-indian-birds-in-rajasthani-
miniatures/

23 K N Dave, “Birds in Sanskrit Literature,” Exotic India, 2005, https://www.exoticindiaart.

com/book/details/birds-in-sanskrit-literature-old-and-rare-book-ide793/

24 Hasrat Jaipuri, “Chori,” 1957, https://gaana.com/lyrics/panchhi-banoon-udti-phiroon-3

25 Paws + Claws, “The 10 Best Types of Pet Birds,” https://www.tracyvets.com/site/

blog/2021/08/30/types-of-pet-birds

26 The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 (Last Updated 1-4-2023)

27 Pashudhan Praharee,“Most Popular Exotic Pet Birds That You can Legally Keep in
India,” March 20, 2022, https://www.pashudhanpraharee.com/most-popular-exotic-pet-
birds-that-you-can-legally-keep-in-india/
Endnotes

28 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

29 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

30 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

31 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

32 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

33 International Fund for Animal Welfare, “13 Animals that Recovered from Being
Endangered,” December 28, 2023, https://www.ifaw.org/international/journal/13-animals-
recovered-being-endangered

34 International Fund for Animal Welfare, “13 animals that recovered from being
endangered”

35 “State of the World’s Birds: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity Crisis”

16
 36 State of India’s Birds, 2023: Range, Trends, and Conversation Status, 2023, https://
stateofindiasbirds.in/#soib_report

37 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

38 Arathi Menon, “City Survival Tip for Birds: Don’t Be a Picky Eater,” MONGABAY,
February 25, 2021

39 Menon, “City Survival Tip for Birds: Don’t Be a Picky Eater,”

40 Menon, “City Survival Tip for Birds: Don’t Be a Picky Eater,”

41 Suhel Quader, “Nature in our Cities: Insights from the State of India’s Bird Report 2023,”
Azim Premji University, September 29, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R55Kxq_
QXWU

42 Quader, “Nature in our Cities: Insights from the State of India’s Bird Report 2023”

43 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

44 Quader, “Nature in our Cities: Insights from the State of India’s Bird Report 2023”

45 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

46 Ramanath Jha, “Indian Cities and Their Symbiotic Relationship With Birds,” Observer
Research Foundation, July 26, 2024, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indian-
cities-and-their-symbiotic-relationship-with-birds#:~:text=By%20and%20large%2C%20
urbanisation%20leads,Common%20Myna%2C%20and%20House%20Crow.

47 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

48 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

49 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

Endnotes

50 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

51 “2023: Insights and Solutions for the Biodiversity”

52 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) For Conservation Of Avian Diversity, Their Ecosystems,
Habitats & Landscapes In The Country”

53 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) For Conservation of Avian Diversity, Their Ecosystems,
Habitats & Landscapes in The Country

54 Indian Forest Service, “ International Conventions, Treaties and Institutions – India as

Partner,” https://ifs.nic.in/dynamic/main/book.htm

55 Indian Forest Service, “International Conventions, Treaties and Institutions – India as

Partner”

17
 56 Constitution of India, Article 51-A

57 Constitution of India, Article 48-A

58 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) for Conservation of Avian Diversity, Their Ecosystems,
Habitats & Landscapes in The Country

59 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) for Conservation of Avian Diversity, Their Ecosystems,
Habitats & Landscapes in The Country

60 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) for Conservation of Avian Diversity, Their Ecosystems,
Habitats & Landscapes in The Country

61 Priyanka Velhal, “10 Key Roles of Urban Trees for Bird Conservation,” May 13, 2024,
https://nelda.org.in/urban-trees-bird-conservation/#:~:text=By%20supporting%20
these%20insect%20populations,balanced%20urban%20ecosystem%20for%20birds.

62 Velhal, “10 Key Roles of Urban Trees for Bird Conservation”

63 Priyanka Velhal, “10 Key Roles of Urban Trees for Bird Conservation”

64 Menon, “City Survival Tip for Birds: Don’t be a Picky Eater”

65 Menon, “City Survival Tip for Birds: Don’t Be a Picky Eater”

66 “NPARks Survey Shows How Green Spaces can Be Made Conducive for Birds,” Channel
News Asia, May 25, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiHPiTT052Q

67 “NPARks Survey Shows How Green Spaces Can be Made Conducive for Birds”

68 Kaushik, “Conserving Winged Wonders of Cities”

Endnotes

69 NParksSG, “Urban Birds in Our City Nature,” October 23, 2021, https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=jFxq9lAZS2o

70 NParksSG, “Urban Birds in Our City Nature”

71 NParksSG, “Urban Birds in Our City Nature”

72 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Draft

Visionary Perspective Plan (2020-2030) For Conservation of Avian Diversity, Their Ecosystems,
Habitats & Landscapes in The Country

73 Birds Connect Seattle, “ Bird-Safe Regulations: Where and What are They?,” December
20, 2021, https://birdsconnectsea.org/2021/12/20/bird-safe-legislation-and-advocacy/

74 Birds Connect Seattle, “Bird-Safe Regulations: Where and What are They?”

75 NYC Buildings, “Local Law 15 of 2020: Bird Friendly Building Design,” November 2020,
https://www.nyc.gov/assets/buildings/pdf/ll15of20_sn.pdf

18
 76 Chloe Tan et al., “Biodiversity Oases in the Urban Jungle: A Study of 32 Roof Gardens in
Singapore,” https://www.nparks.gov.sg/-/media/cuge/ebook/citygreen/cg11/cg11_a_study_
of_32_roof_gardens_in_singapore.pdf

77 Bird City Network, “Programs & Communities,” https://birdcity.org/communities-and-

programs-map

78 Bryan Lenz, “Bird City Network: Collaboration for Community Conservation,” YouTube
video, 57:55 min June 26, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFYcGi6GnA0

79 IndiaBirdWatching, “Bird Conservation in India,” 2001, https://www.indiabirdwatching.

com/bird-conservation-in-india/

80 IndiaBirdWatching, “Indian Bird Conservation Network”

81 IndiaBirdWatching, “Indian Bird Conservation Network”

82 IndiaBirdWatching, “Bird Sensitivity Mapping Tool,” 2019, https://www.

indiabirdwatching.com/bird-conservation-in-india/

83 Kate Wong, “We Are in the Golden Age of Bird-Watching,” Scientific American, April
25, 2024, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/we-are-in-the-golden-age-of-bird-
watching/

84 Peter Hart and Steve Kelling, “Birding with Technology In The Year 2025: Our
Predictions,” January 9, 2020

85 WKBN27, “How new technology is impacting bird watching,” 2:24 min, May 26, 2023,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgflyEERE34

86 WKBN27, “How new technology is impacting bird watching”

87 Hart and Kelling, “Birding With Technology In The Year 2025: Our Predictions”
Endnotes

88 Jason Polak, “How to Photograph Birds,” Photography life, May 29, 2024, https://
photographylife.com/how-to-photograph-birds

89 Benjamin Clock, “How to Shoot (good) Bird Videos with your Camera,”
August 17, 2017, https://www.audubon.org/news/how-shoot-good-bird-videos-
your-camera#:~:text=Shoot%20Video%20in%20Low%20(or%20Bright)%20
Light%E2%80%8B&text=In%20the%20early%20morning%20or,subtle%20motion%20
blur%20of%20video.

Images used in this paper are from Getty Images/Busà Photography.

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