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 Abstract

Understanding of Self-Confidence in High School Students

by

George P. Ballane

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Project Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
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of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Education
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Walden University

February 2019
 Abstract

Students at a private high school in New Jersey exhibited low academic self-confidence

as compared to other indicators on the ACT Engage exam. The purpose of this

qualitative case study was to gain an understanding of academic self-confidence,

academic performance, and learning within a sample of students. This research explored

students’ and teachers’ perceptions of self-confidence and their impact on academic

performance. The research was guided by Weiner’s attribution and Bandura’s self-

efficacy theories. The research questions focused on 3 areas: students’ and teachers

‘perceptions of academic self-confidence as factors impacting students’ academic

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performance; and the perceived relationship between academic self-confidence, academic
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performance, and learning. Data were collected from a sample of 10 sophomore students

and 10 teachers of sophomore students through 2 separate focus groups using a

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semistructured focus group guide. Using Clarke and Braun’s framework for thematic

analysis, the data were analyzed. Results revealed 2 student themes: (a) developing
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confidence and (b) set for success, and 3 themes from the teacher focus group: (a) student

academic performance, (b) creating a positive space, and (c) student confidence.

Professional development was designed for local application, including strategies to

enhance students’ academic self-confidence to lead to enhanced academic performance.

Implications for social change includes increased student success as they transition to

college.
Understanding of Self-Confidence in High School Students

by

George P. Ballane

Project Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

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of the Requirements for the Degree of
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Doctor of Education
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Walden University
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February 2019
 Table of Contents

List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v

Section 1: The Problem ........................................................................................................1

The Local Problem .........................................................................................................1

Rationale ........................................................................................................................1

Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level ........................................................... 1

Evidence of the Problem From the Professional Literature .................................... 2

Definition of Terms........................................................................................................3

Significance of the Study ...............................................................................................4

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Research Questions ........................................................................................................5
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Review of the Literature ................................................................................................6

Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 6

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Review of the Broader Problem .............................................................................. 9

Implications..................................................................................................................29
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Summary ......................................................................................................................30

Section 2: The Methodology..............................................................................................33

Qualitative Research Design and Approach ................................................................33

Participants ...................................................................................................................36

Access to Participants ........................................................................................... 38

Establishing a Researcher-Participant Relationship ............................................. 39

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 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... 40

Role of the Researcher .......................................................................................... 41

Data Collection ............................................................................................................42

Instrumentation ............................................................................................................44

Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................45

Limitations ...................................................................................................................46

Data Analysis Results ..................................................................................................46

Qualitative Findings .....................................................................................................48

Themes Derived from Students’ Responses ......................................................... 49

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Themes Developed From Teachers’ Responses ................................................... 61
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Evidence of Quality .............................................................................................. 73

Summary ......................................................................................................................74
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Section 3: The Project ........................................................................................................76

Introduction ..................................................................................................................76
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Description and Goals ..................................................................................................76

Rationale ......................................................................................................................77

Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................77

How to Construct Professional Development ....................................................... 79

Principal Features of Professional Development .................................................. 80

Writing Professional Development Plans ............................................................. 84

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 Project Description.......................................................................................................87

Project Evaluation Plan ................................................................................................89

Project Implications .....................................................................................................89

Section 4: Reflections and Conclusions .............................................................................90

Project Strengths and Limitations ................................................................................90

Project Strengths ................................................................................................... 90

Project Limitations ................................................................................................ 92

Recommendations for Alternative Approaches ...........................................................92

Mixed-Methodology Approach ............................................................................ 93

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Alternative Solution to Low Self-Confidence in High School Students .............. 95
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Scholarship, Project Development and Evaluation, and Leadership and

Change .............................................................................................................97
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Reflection on Importance of the Work ........................................................................98

Implications, Applications, and Directions for Future Research .................................99

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Recommendations for Local Practice ................................................................... 99

Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................. 101

Conclusion .................................................................................................................102

References ........................................................................................................................104

Appendix A: Professional Development Plan .................................................................119

Appendix B: Professional Development Evaluation .......................................................138

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Appendix C: Research Questions With Associated Focus Group Questions for

Students ................................................................................................................139

Appendix D: Research Questions With Associated Focus Group Questions for

Teachers ...............................................................................................................141

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iv
 List of Tables

Table 1. Relationship Between Research Questions and Themes from Student Focus

Group .....................................................................................................................49

Table 2. Relationship between Research Questions and Themes from Teacher Focus

Group .....................................................................................................................62

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v
 1

Section 1: The Problem

The Local Problem

There was a problem in a private high school in a small town on the East Coast of

the United States. Students were performing well on standardized test scores such as the

SAT, with the average scores higher than national and state averages for the class of 2016

and 2017, yet based on the results of the ACT Engage College (AEC) they had lower

mean percentile ranks on the academic self-confidence scale as compared to other scales

of the test (school principal, personal communication, October 10, 2017). The mean

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percentile-rank score for academic self-confidence on the AEC for the students at the
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school was lower than all other indicators, and lower than the national average (school

principal, personal communication, October 10, 2017). These results showed that the
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scale of academic self-confidence was lower than almost all other scales measured by

that instrument, including goal-striving ability, general determination, academic

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discipline, and steadiness. Based on self-confidence, academic self-confidence refers to

students’ beliefs in their ability to perform well in school and has been demonstrated to

improve academic performance in college (Martin, Nejad, Colmar, & Liem, 2013).

Rationale

Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level

Academic self-confidence has been demonstrated to improve academic

performance in college (Martin et al., 2013). The AEC developers have defined

academic self-confidence, in the context of exam results, as the belief in one’s ability to
 2

perform well in school. Additionally, at both the state and national level, scores on the

AEC for the academic self-confidence scale have consistently aligned with scores for

other scales, such as commitment to college and academic discipline. However, there

was a gap in practice in the local setting because, according to the principal at the site

(personal communication, June 15, 2017), the mean percentile ranks for academic

confidence have been lower than for the other scales for the years 2014, 2015, and 2016,

and lower than the national average. Although teaching faculty, counselors, and

administrators were aware of the problem, there was lack of understanding regarding

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what may contribute to this gap. Because academic self-confidence may influence
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college performance, students in the local setting could benefit from improving scores on

the academic self-confidence scale.

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Evidence of the Problem From the Professional Literature

Academic self-confidence has been shown to be one of the most salient factors
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leading to enhanced academic performance as student’s transition to college (Komarraju

& Nadler, 2013). Academic self-confidence is based on self-confidence and is defined as

students’ beliefs in their ability to perform well in school. Students are likely to perform

well in school if they believe they can perform well (Komarraju & Nadler, 2013).

Komarraju and Nadler (2013) established that students with high levels of academic self-

confidence had increased level of academic performance. Additionally, students with

high levels of academic self-confidence welcomed challenges and showed a desire to

learn, which have also been linked to academic performance (Komarraju & Nadler,
 3

2013). Stankov, Lee, Luo, and Hogan (2012) found that self-confidence was a better

predictor of performance than other factors. Consequently, low academic self-confidence

can lead to poor academic performance (Komarraju & Nadler, 2013; Stankov et al.,

2012). The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain an understanding as to why

students at a private high school in New Jersey have low academic self-confidence scores

and offer suggestions on how it can be improved in the learning environment. The

qualitative data were collected through interviews of students and teachers, through

which I explored their experiences and perceptions related to academic self-confidence.

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Definition of Terms
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The following terms are defined for use in this project study.

Academic performance: Academic performance refers to students’ success in

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reaching personal and institutional educational goals (Stankov, 2013).

Academic self-confidence: Academic self-confidence refers to students’ beliefs

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that they can perform well in school (Komarraju & Nadler, 2013).

Self-belief: Self-belief is defined as individuals’ opinions of how they feel about

themselves and refers to the three major self-constructs in educational psychology,

including self-efficacy, self-concept, and self-esteem (Stankov, Morony, & Lee, 2014).

Self-confidence: Self-confidence refers to individuals’ beliefs that they can

accomplish a given task or achieve a desired objective (Stankov et al., 2012).

Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy refers to motivational beliefs and confidence that fuel

persistence when difficulties are encountered (Komarraju & Nadler, 2013).

 4

Significance of the Study

High schools have a responsibility to bridge the gap between education and

practice (Komarraju & Nadler, 2013). Educators, counselors, and administrators in the

high school setting are expected to produce innovative strategies that facilitate transition

to higher education or vocational settings (Reed, Kirschner, & Jolles, 2015). In the local

setting at a private high school in New Jersey, students have consistently had lower mean

percentile scores on the academic self-confidence scale in comparison to the other scales

of the test (school principal, personal communication, October 10, 2017). This was

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inconsistent with and below the expected results when compared to national averages
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(school principal, personal communication, October 10, 2017)

The score on the academic self-confidence scale has been associated with
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academic performance in higher education (Reed et al., 2015). This study was the first

one at the local setting, a private high school in New Jersey, to provide understanding
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regarding low scores on the academic self-confidence scale of the AEC. This study holds

great significance in filling the gap in practice and increasing understanding of this

problem of low academic self-confidence scores in the local setting. The evidence

obtained from this study will directly benefit future high school students in the local

setting. One significant benefit for local high school students to have higher academic

self-confidence scores is preparation for performance in higher education (Stankov,

2013).
 5

Regarding social change, self-efficacy, self-concept, and self-esteem directly

relate to motivation and performance relative to student academic performance and are

negatively impacted by poor psychological well-being, negative stereotyping, gender

inequalities, and other factors (Anderman & Patrick, 2012; Bong, Cho, Ahn, & Kim,

2012). Students who are able to manage their emotional and psychological well-being

more effectively through adaptability and self-regulation, both in academic and

nonacademic settings, experienced a positive correlation to academic performance and

available opportunities for growth (Bandura, 1997; Martin et al., 2013). Therefore, I

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attempted to affect positive social change by focusing on many emotional and
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psychological factors that impact the self-concepts that one experiences.

Research Questions
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In order to explore the problem and gain an understanding of academic self-

confidence, I designed the research questions to enable the collection of qualitative data
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to support this qualitative study. Using attribution theory as a guide to attempt to

understand academic self-confidence, the research questions were developed with a focus

on self-confidence.

1. How do students perceive academic self-confidence as an influence on

academic performance?

2. How do teachers perceive academic self-confidence as an influence on

academic performance?

3. What do students perceive as ways to improve their academic self-confidence?

 6

4. What do teachers perceive as ways to improve students’ academic self-

confidence?

Review of the Literature

In the review of literature, I examined the broader problem of academic self-

confidence and academic performance to contextualize this investigation of academic

self-confidence in a sample of students at a private high school in New Jersey. This

qualitative case study was designed to facilitate understanding of how academic self-

confidence can be improved in this learning environment. In this review, I compared,

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contrasted, and synthesized literature on academic self-confidence, self-efficacy, and
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academic performance to provide a clear picture of the current research. I searched the

following databases at the Walden University Library and included Education Source,
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Education Research Complete, ERIC, Teacher Reference Center, CINAHL Plus With

Full Text, and Proquest. Keywords used either individually or in conjunction included
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students, high school, secondary school, academic performance, academic self-

confidence, education, learning, self-efficacy, self-confidence, self-concept, and self-

beliefs.

Conceptual Framework

Self-efficacy (see Bandura, 1997) served as part of the conceptual foundation for

this project study. For decades, one of the dominant issues in educational psychology has

been the question of why some students give up trying when confronted with academic

difficulties, while others “rise to the occasion using strategies and perseverance” and go
 7

on to earn higher grades (Mega, Ronconi, & De Beni, 2014, p. 121). Social cognitive

self-theories (or self-constructs) figure prominently in research on academic performance

and motivation (Bandura, 1997; Bong et al., 2012; Cleary & Kitsantas, 2017; Kitsantas,

Winsler, & Huie, 2008; Komarraju & Nadler, 2013; Reed et al., 2015; Sander & Sanders,

2003, 2006; Shi, 2016; Wolters, Fan, & Daugherty, 2013). Self-efficacy is arguably the

most extensively studied of these self-constructs and tends to demonstrate the strongest

effect on performance (Bong et al., 2012; Cleary & Kitsantas, 2017; Hannon, 2014; Shi,

2016).

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Underlying Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory is the concept of human
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agency: the belief that people are capable of using initiative to achieve desired outcomes.

According to Bandura, beyond affecting behavior directly, self-efficacy perceptions

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operate indirectly through their impact on factors such as aspirations and goals, outcome

expectations, thinking and strategy, strength of commitment, effort exertion, stress and
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anxiety, resilience to adverse conditions, and appraisals of obstacles and opportunities in

the social environment. Without the belief that one can produce desirable results by

persisting in a course of behavior or changing an unsuccessful one, there is minimal

motivation to act. Self-efficacy is similar to confidence and holds that individuals are

more likely to accomplish a task if they believe that they can accomplish it (Bandura,

1997). Academic self-confidence is based on the idea of self-confidence, and academic

self-confidence refers to students’ beliefs in the abilities to perform well in school

(Stankov, 2013). Because students with high academic self-confidence are likely to
 8

perform well in school, self-efficacy is a suitable theoretical foundation for this project

study.

Weiner’s (1985) attribution theory served as the other part of the conceptual

framework for this project study. Weiner developed attribution theory to help understand

and explain human behavior. According to attribution theory, individuals attribute causes

to behavior in an attempt to understand why people behave the way they do (Weiner,

1985). Weiner referred to behavioral control as being either external (outside the

individual’s control) or internal (within the individual’s control), and identified effort,

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ability, task difficulty, and luck as key determinants of motivation. Students’
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performance may be attributed to innate ability (something outside of their control) or to

effort (something within their control; Reed et al., 2015).

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What factors students’ performances are attributed to may influence the students’

academic self-confidence, which may influence their academic performance. For

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example, attributing academic performance to innate ability may enhance academic self-

confidence (Reed et al., 2015). However, Bandura (1997) holds that mastery experiences

based on efforts expended to meet challenges are necessary to build self-efficacy, making

self-efficacy a necessary component of the conceptual framework as well. As Weiner’s

(1985) attribution theory is directly related to the performance of an individual, related to

internal and external factors, it will guide this research to help understand self-confidence

and its relation to academic performance.

 9

Review of the Broader Problem

Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1997) and attribution theory (Weiner, 1985) will

help to understand the relationship between academic self-confidence and academic

performance. Academic self-confidence is defined as students’ beliefs in their ability to

perform well in school (Komarraju & Nadler, 2013). Academic self-confidence is based

on self-confidence and self-efficacy. Academic self-confidence has been shown to be a

crucial factor for enhanced academic performance as student’s transition to college

(Komarraju & Nadler, 2013). Additionally, whether students attribute academic success

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to innate ability or effort helps to understand their performance in relation to confidence.
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Therefore, the review of the literature includes synthesis and analysis of research on self-

constructs in educational psychology, such as self-efficacy and self-esteem, and research

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on causal attributions of academic performance.

Academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy is not contingent on students’

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knowledge and skills per se, but rather on how they perceive their abilities to apply them

to successfully reach intended goals (Bandura, 1997). Profiles of gifted students in

mathematics and science drawn from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009

revealed that only 23% of the math students and 14% of the science students had high

self-efficacy for their respective subjects (Andersen & Cross, 2014). The combination of

high ability and low motivation was not unusual, defining 15% of the math students and

28% of the science students. Students high in both science ability and motivation

represented the smallest group (Andersen & Cross, 2014).

 10

In the Netherlands, where secondary school students are stratified into ability

tracks, high self-efficacy for mathematics in sixth grade was negatively related to

performance in ninth grade among students in the highest track (Reed et al., 2015). One

explanation, according to Reed et al. (2015) is that these high-ability students may have

excelled in primary school with minimal effort. As a result, they were unprepared for the

rigorous, academically demanding secondary school curriculum. The high track

curriculum is designed to prepare students for a university education. Evidence suggests

that U.S. students of similar age (11 years) and grade level may have inflated and

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unrealistically optimistic self-appraisals of their academic competencies, leading to a
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decline in self-esteem when their academic performance falls short of their expectations

(Honicke & Broadbent, 2016).

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Academic indicators such as high school GPA and SAT or ACT scores can play a

significant role in predicting performance in college (Hannon, 2014); however, they are
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insufficient for explaining individual differences in performance and persistence. In fact,

GPA is a poor predictor of academic performance in college (Hannon, 2014). Rather,

students’ self-efficacy, self-rated abilities, and adjustment proved to be the decisive

factors in college success (Hannon, 2014). SAT scores, however, were only significant

for freshmen (Hannon, 2014).

The transition to middle or secondary school is widely recognized as presenting a

challenge to learners’ self-concepts and self-efficacy (Reed et al., 2015; Romero, Master,

Paunesku, Dweck, & Gross, 2014). Beyond academic challenges, adolescence can be a
 11

difficult stage of development. Nevertheless, the transition to higher education marks a

much more dramatic departure from a familiar learning environment. Consequently,

academic self-concepts, self-efficacy, and confidence can fluctuate considerably (Gorges

& Goke, 2015). Roughly one quarter of students who enter college, including those who

entered with high GPAs, do not return for their sophomore year (Kena et al., 2016). Only

60% of the students who entered a baccalaureate program in 2008 graduated within 6

years (Kena et al., 2016). Changes at the high school level and during adolescence can

influence students’ self-concepts, including academic self-confidence, necessitating

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exploration of academic self-confidence in relation to academic achievement.
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Attributions for academic performance. From a social cognitive perspective,

students’ attitudes, perceptions, and judgments are at least as significant in predicting

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academic outcomes as prior performance and ability levels (Bandura, 1997; Wolters et

al., 2013). The focus of Wolters et al.’s (2013) research on high school students’
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academic functioning was on performance goals and causal attributions. Weiner (1985)

developed an attributional theory of motivation and emotion, and identified effort, ability,

task difficulty, and luck as key determinants of motivation and performance. In

educational research, the driving question is usually whether students attribute success

and failure to innate ability or effort (Weiner, 1985). Task difficulty is examined to a

lesser extent, and some studies include teaching or other environmental influences on

learning (Enlund, Aunola, & Nurmi, 2015). Because innate ability and effort are salient
 12

components of academic self-confidence (Weiner, 1985), attributional theory was

suitable for the study of academic achievement.

Western cultures tend to view individuals as independent, autonomous entities

with internal characteristics to which their actions and outcomes are attributable (Wolters

et al., 2013). Such an attitude is especially common in the United States. Students in the

United States, for example, often believe that a person who is good at something or

preforms well in school is successful with little effort because of natural ability (Wolters

et al., 2013). Indeed, students with high self-confidence tend to ascribe their success to

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ability and their failure to lack of effort (Wolters et al., 2013).
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Attributing failure to lack of ability is especially detrimental as it can lead to

feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, therefore reducing self-efficacy and confidence

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(Verniers & Martinot, 2015). At the same time, if individuals perceive ability or

intelligence to be a fixed attribute, they are likely to view effort as compensation for
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intellectual limitations (Verniers & Martinot, 2015). This attitude has been implicated in

perpetuating gender stereotypes that inhibit the mathematics performance of female

students and dissuade many women from pursuing mathematical careers (Verniers &

Martinot, 2015). In a study of French secondary school students, Verniers and Martinot

(2015) found that the hardest working girls were judged to have less academic potential

than their less-diligent female peers. No parallel pattern was observed for boys. In the

United States, performance in mathematics and writing have been found to impact girls’

and boys’ self-esteem differently, likely reflecting cultural expectations for their
 13

respective performance in the two disciplines (Honicke & Broadbent, 2016). Therefore,

students may attribute effort to lack of innate ability, influencing academic self-

confidence, and, in turn, their achievement.

In somewhat similar fashion, teachers often attribute the success of majority

culture students to ability and minority students’ success to effort (de Haan & Wissink,

2013). Teachers may inadvertently create a learning environment that fosters

maladaptive attributions for performance and undermines students’ motivation and

confidence (Anderman & Patrick, 2012; Jones & Shindler, 2016; Rattan, Good, &

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Dweck, 2012; Wiesman, 2012; Yeager & Dweck, 2012). Therefore, it was important to
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obtain students’ and teachers’ perspectives on academic self-confidence and improving

learning environments in focus groups that took place at my study site.

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Self-constructs in educational psychology. Self-efficacy, self-concept, and self-

esteem are the most widely studied self-constructs in educational psychology, particularly
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in relation to motivation (Bong et al., 2012). Bong et al. (2012) noted that despite this

extensive study, researchers still find it difficult to separate them empirically, leading to

inconsistent findings regarding their respective roles in academic endeavors. Self-

concept and self-efficacy have the most direct relationship to academic performance and

motivation. Self-esteem is less clearly defined in the literature. Broadly, self-esteem

refers to “how individuals feel about themselves and evaluate their global self-worth”

(Bong et al., 2012, p. 337). Of the three self-constructs, self-esteem is typically regarded

as the least context-specific and the most relevant to the student’s overall psychological
 14

well-being. In the context of attributions and achievement goals, students who attribute

failure to ability are likely to choose unchallenging performance goals as a mechanism

for preserving their sense of self-worth (Anderman & Patrick, 2012).

Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to people’s appraisals of their ability to plan and

execute the actions needed to achieve a desired goal (Bandura, 1997). Individuals with

high self-efficacy strive for challenging goals and exhibit determination to persist through

obstacles to attain them (Bandura, 1997). Setbacks are viewed as challenges to overcome

and often motivate them to intensify their efforts. In contrast, those with low self-

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efficacy attempt to avoid difficult tasks and are less committed to achieving their
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personal goals (Bandura, 1997). Rather than being motivated to try harder in the face of

setbacks and obstacles, individuals with low-self-efficacy are more predisposed to

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interpret setbacks as signs of personal weakness or deficiency (Bandura, 1997).

Experiences that produce enduring effects on self-efficacy involve setting and

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striving toward challenging but realistic goals. Bandura (1997) emphasized that self-

efficacy is based on the self-appraisal of one’s level of competence. Bandura’s

conceptualization of self-efficacy is primarily domain specific. Once internalized, high

self-efficacy tends to generalize to other situations with attributes similar to the

experiences on which the efficacy beliefs are built.

Bandura (1997) described four sources of self-efficacy. Mastery experiences

represent the most powerful and direct source of self-efficacy, and vicarious learning or

modeling is the second source of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). The effectiveness of