SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME

The basis of the Biological (Positive) theories and

the Psychological theories were that there are
some specific Biological or psychological factors
that are responsible for criminal behaviour .
These factors differentiate criminals from non
criminals and are often termed as determinism.
Both these theories focus on the individual criminal
and looks at crime a disconnected incident.
The Sociological theories had challenged this
concept in early twentieth century, by looking at
a crime from a sociological point of view, stating
crime is an isolated event rather takes place in
the society and is the product of the social
forces.
Man by nature is social and it is the society that
shapes, moulds and influences his behavior,
aspirations, goals, morality, ambitions etc.
Sociological theory considers that criminal
behaviour can be explained by examining the
society.

With a very wide scope the sociological schools

intend to examine all social institutions such as
family, educations, economy and government to
find the justification for deviance and
delinquency.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BIOLOGICAL
POSITIVISM AND SOCIOLOGICAL
POSITIVISM
Individual Positivism Sociological Positivism

⦿ Crime is caused by ⦿ Crime is cause by

individual abnormality societal pathology
or pathology ⦿ Crime is viewed as a
⦿ Crime is viewed as a product of dysfunctions
biological, psychiatric, in social, economic and
personality or learning political conditions.
deficiency ⦿ Behaviour is determined
⦿ Behaviour is determined by social conditions and
by constitutional, genetic structures
or personality factors
CNTD.
Individual Positivism Social Positivism
⦿ Crime is a violation of ⦿ Crime is a violation of a
the moral consensus collective conscience
surrounding legal codes ⦿ Crime varies from
⦿ Crime varies with region to region
temperament, depending on economic
personality and degree and political milieux
of ‘adequate’ ⦿ Crime can be treated
socialization via programmes of
⦿ Criminals can be treated social reform, but never
via medicine, therapy completely eradicated.
and resocialization and ⦿ Crime is a normal social
the condition of the fact, but certain rates of
majority thus cured crime are dysfunctional
⦿ Crime is an abnormal
individual condition
TARDE’S LAWS OF IMITATION

⦿ One of the earliest formulations of a learning

perspective on deviance is discovered in the
writings of the French social theorist Gabriel
Tarde (1843-1904). Tarde’s theory of
imitation is a 19th century social learning
theory; he was the forerunner of modern-day
learning theorists.
Forms of behaviour, ways of thinking and feelings
are social processes that are passed by generation
to generation, group to group and person to
person. Tarde believed crime is a learned
behaviour and criminals are normal people who
had been exposed and nurtured in criminal
environment.

Tarde analyzed human progress on the basis of their

invention, imitation and opposition which came
from all their relations and interactions they
experienced as they were growing up.
"Invention," according to Tarde, is the source of
all progress that occurs, he believed more
coherent ties and better communication among
gifted individuals can lead to higher stimulation
ultimately leading to new discoveries and a
greater flow of new ideas.
“Imitation”, is much more common among people
as it is more typical that people copy others
instead of being their own person and raising
their own ideas and beliefs.
“Oppositions” the last idea, may be associated
with social groups, like nations, regions, or
social classes. Opposition takes place when two
or more inventions act with each other.
⦿ His theory was of “Imitation and Suggestion”.
The origins of deviance were pictured as very
similar to the origins of fads and fashions.
Each were socially learned, governed by
what Tarde referred to as the "three laws of
imitation." These included (1) the law of
close contact, (2) the law of imitation of
superiors by inferiors, and (3) the law of
insertion.
 THE LAW OF CLOSE CONTACT
⦿ The first law states that individuals in close intimate
contact with one another imitate each other’s
behavior By the law of close contact, Tarde meant
simply that people have a greater tendency to
imitate the fashions and customs of those with whom
they have the most contact. If someone were
regularly surrounded by people involved in a world of
deviant behavior or lifestyles, they would be more
likely to imitate these people than they would others
with whom they had little association. Direct contact
with deviance was believed to foster more deviance.
Tarde theorized that there was short-term behavior
(fashion) and long-term behavior (custom). He
suggested that, as population became denser,
behavior would be oriented more toward fashion than
toward custom.
 THE LAW OF IMITATION OF SUPERIORS BY
INFERIORS
⦿ Tarde’s second law of imitation spreads from the
top down; consequently, youngsters imitate older
individuals, paupers imitate the rich, peasants
imitate royalty, and so on. Crime among young,
poor or low-status people is really their effort to
imitate wealthy, older, high-status people. This
law suggests perhaps people follow the model of
high-status in hopes their imitative behavior will
procure some of the rewards associated with
being of a "superior" class. In any event, Tarde’s
ideas have a particular relevance in our own age
of visibly "high-class" deviance.
 THE LAW OF INSERTION
⦿ Tarde’s third law is the law of insertion: new acts and
behaviors are superimposed on old ones and
subsequently either reinforce or discourage previous
customs. This law refers to the power inherent in
newness or novelty; new fashions were said to replace
old "customs." For example, drug taking may be a
popular fad among college students who previously
used alcohol. However, students may find that a
combination of both substances provides even greater
stimulation, causing the use of both drugs and alcohol
to increase. Another example would be a new
criminal custom developing that eliminates an older
one – truck hijacking replacing train robbing. When
two mutually exclusive ways of doing something come
into conflict, Tarde believed the newer one would
ordinarily win out. The replacement of the knife by
the gun as a weapon of deviant destruction was also
cited as an example of this process.
⦿ From its early inception in Tarde’s three laws of
imitation, the learning perspective, has exerted an
enormous impact on the study of deviance and social
control. It is the product of learning in the world in a
particular way, learning with and from others about
how to define, feel, and act within a world which we
create together.
⦿ As we examine social learning more, we see a lot of
theories integrated, which originated to some extent
from Tarde’s imitation theory. Social psychologists
suggest that drug abuse patterns may result from the
observation of parental drug use. Parental drug abuse
begins to have a damaging effect on children as young
as two years old, especially when parents manifest
drug-related personality problems, children imitate
their behavior. Children whose parents abuse drugs
are more likely to have persistent abuse problems
than the children of no abusers, because one is more
exposed intimately than the other.
CHICAGO SCHOOL
⦿ During the 1920s Chicago went through an
enormous expansion as within a span of short
time some 5 million people arrived and
settled there. With the new comers, mostly
immigrants, the crime rate of Chicago
increased significantly and the city became a
laboratory for criminologists. The Chicago
theory, a brain child of the Department of
Sociology of the University of Chicago has
attempted to explain criminal behaviour by
taking a model from the plant ecology. Thus it
is often called the theory of Human ecology.
⦿ Robert Park and Ernest Buress took the
ecological model and applied it to human
society. By studying the human relations
and their environment in the
neighbourhoods with high crime rate, they
explained the growth of American cities
like Chicago . According to them this
growth took place by means of three
factors: Invasion, Dominance and
Succession. The developed a concentric
cycle to explain their theory which was
divided in 5 zones.
SUTHERLAND’S DIFFERENTIAL
ASSOCIATION THEORY
⦿ Edwin H. Sutherland(1883-1950) is considered as the
leading criminologist of his generation. He is best
known for his study of white collar crime, life history
analysis of a professional thief and the development of
the “theory of differential Association” .
⦿ Sutherland made his first formal statement of the
theory of Differential Association in the 3rd edition of
his textbook “principle of Criminology” in 1939.When
he revised the theory a bit in 1947 it had already been
“ considered to be one of the best known and most
systematic and influential of interpersonal theories”.
According to Matsueda, “the theory was instrumental in
bringing the perspective of sociology to the forefront of
criminology”.
⦿ In assessing the Differential theory influences
of Tarde’s three laws of imitation, the works
of Sutherland’s friends and colleagues in the
university of Chicago, works of John Dewey,
George Herbert Mead, W. I. Thomas etc can
easily be seen. Interaction and Cultural
conflicts are the two themes in the theory.
While interaction focuses on how individuals
construct social reality through communication
with one another, cultural conflict insist that
crime is result of the clash of different
cultures. Later on Sutherland developed two
further ideas of Differential Social
Organizations and Differential Group
Organizations.
THE THEORY IS BASED ON 9 PROPOSITIONS:
1. Criminal behaviour is learned.
From the moment an individual is born they are
being conditioned to the norms of society. They
learn gender roles through their interactions with
their parents and observations of gender specific
characteristics. Interaction and observations are
the same methods of communication through
which criminals learn their deviance. Criminal
behavior, Differential Association theory argues,
is more prevalent in individuals who associate and
interact with individuals who exhibit criminal
mind sets and behaviors.
2. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with
other persons in a process of communication.
3. . The principle part of the learning of criminal
behaviour occurs within intimate personal
groups.
Learning criminal behavior occurs within
primary groups (family, friends, peers, their
most intimate, personal companions)
An individuals’ behavior is primarily influenced
by their family, since that is the first group
interaction they receive. Additionally an
individual’s behavior is influenced by their peer
group (through direct and indirect interaction)
and through their intimate relationships with
other individuals.
4. When criminal behaviour is learned, it
includes (a)techniques of committing the
crime (which are sometimes complicated,
sometimes simple) and (b) the specific
direction of motives, drives, rationalization
and attitudes.
Learning criminal behavior involves learning
the techniques, motives, drives,
rationalizations, and attitudes.
Surely, just because an individual has a
criminal in their primary reference group
doesn’t mean that they’ll partake in criminal
behavior.
However, it does mean that they a resource into
the criminal rationale. Criminals are not
inherently deviant, they learned the deviance.
They were taught to rationalize what they once
knew to be unacceptable behavior into
acceptable behavior. For example, many
convicted sexual assailants admit that the first
time they committed sexual assault they felt
guilty. The guilt comes from their socialization
of societal norms that rape is unacceptable.
5. the specific direction of motives and drives is
learned from the definitions of legal codes as
favourable and unfavourable.
This principle comes into play when
considering cultural variations and/or
interpretations of legal codes. In specific, in
the United States, there are so many different
cultures and each culture’s interpretation of
what is favorable or unfavorable varies.
Cultural norms can conflict with societal
norms.
6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess
of definitions favourable to violation of law over
definitions unfavourable to violation of law.
This is the dominant premise for Differential
Association theory. The premise that because an
individual associates with more members of a group
who favor deviance, than with members of a group
who favor societal norms, that individual is more
inclined to act defiantly. Pfohl writes in his book,
Images of deviance and social control, that the
likelihood of deviant behavior could be determined
by calculating the difference between favorable
and unfavorable associations (1994).
7. Differential association may vary in
frequency, duration, priority and intensity.
Referring to the contact an individual must
have with proponents of criminal behavior;
this principle suggests that there is a varying,
but direct, relationship that effects how often,
for what length of time, how important and
how intense deviant behavior occurs.
8. The process of learning criminal behaviour
by association with criminal and anti-criminal
patterns incorporates all the mechanism that
are involved in any other learning.

Accordingly this means that criminal behavior,

like any other learned behavior, is not only
learned through observance but through
assorted methods as well. For example,
coercion and seduction could lead to acts of
deviance. Also, criminal behavior can be
credited to acts of spontaneity.
9. Although criminal behavior is an expression of
general needs and attitudes, criminal behavior and
motives are not explained nor excused by the same
needs and attitudes, since non criminal behavior is
explained by the same general needs and attitudes.

This last principle asserts that even those criminals, who

rationalize their behaviors as trying to fulfill basic needs,
are not above reproach. Non criminals are subject to
obtain the same general needs as criminals and do so in a
non deviant fashion.
⦿ The theory makes it clear that criminal behaviour
is not inherited rather learned in the same way
any other behaviour is learned through
interpersonal interaction in intimate
groups(primary groups). Particular attitudes,
motivations and techniques of committing crimes
are learned through this process. However, being
exposed to such learning does not mean one
would automatically engage in criminal behaviour.
To become a criminal or a delinquent one must
learn specific situational meanings or definitions.
⦿ Sutherland called the process of social interaction
by which definitions are acquired Differential
Association.
⦿ The term “Differential Association” was chosen by
Sutherland to emphasize that,
“In any society, the two kinds of definitions of
what is desirable in reference to legal codes exist
side by side, and a person might present
contradictory definitions to another person at
different times and in different situations”

All associations are not equal. As Sutherland

proposed they vary in frequency, duration,
priority and intensity, meaning-
*associations that occur frequently and are long
lasting would have greater impact
*associations that occur early in a person’s life is
likely to be more important (priority)

*associations with those people one esteems in

high regard is likely to have more impact than
with those people with whom individuals are
socially distant (intensity)

⦿ Simultaneously the propositions accept that

prolonged or frequent or early childhood
association or associations with influential
individuals does not guarantee criminal
behaviour.
ASSESSING THE THEORY
⦿ Questions like why individuals who have equal
opportunity to commit crime do not all engage in
criminal activity or why is it that individuals
equally pressured to be innovates or rebels do not
all become so or why do some people who have all
of their needs met still embezzle business funds,
defraud customers, create price syndicate etc
could not be answered by the anomie, strain,
subculture or opportunity theories. The differential
association theory had addressed these issues. The
theory provides an explanation of how individuals
become criminal or delinquent but it has also tried
to explain group and societal variations of crime
rates.
⦿ The strength of any theory is the extent o which
it is supported by empirical testing. Thus the
greatest weakness of the differential association
theory is it is untestable. The question is how can
one assess, observe or measure the excess of
favourable definitions to unfavourable one. But
criminologists have developed ways to
empirically test the theory. One is asking
juveniles about their values and behaviour. For
example, how many of your friends have been
arrested in the last year or how many of your
friends have adopted a certain behaviour.
Through that process support for the theory can
be seen but validity can not be proved
⦿ In other words, “the data indicate a
relationship between delinquent behaviour and
interaction with others, but they do not
demonstrate that it is in fact the contact with
these certain others that caused this
behaviour”. Nor does rule out other factors.
⦿ For example one can argue “birds of feather
flock together” i.e.; those who already have
delinquent or criminal values seek out peers
like themselves.
⦿ In a 1976 study researchers found data both
for and against the differential association
theory.
⦿ It was found that as Sutherland has argued, “ the
attitude of adolescents are influenced by the
attitudes …of their peers, and those attitudes in
turn affect delinquency”. It has also found that
the behaviour of friends have a very strong affect
on adolescent behaviour independent of
attitudes. This indicates that may be Sutherland’s
theory is incomplete as it emphasizes on
definition favourable to law violation. The theory
has been criticized on other issues such as the
role of media in learning criminal behaviour or
that it is too simplistic. It does not appreciate the
psychological aspects.
⦿ From all these debates various others theories
have come to life such as Aker’s social learning
theory, differential identification or anticipation
theories etc.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
▪ Behaviour is learned through punishment and
reward thus individuals learn violence and
aggression through behavioral modeling.
▪ Children fashion their behaviour after others
thus behaviour is transmitted through examples
which come from family, subculture and the
mass media.
▪ It has been found that parents who adopt
violence in family teach the children to use
similar tactics. Thus the circle of violence may
become perpetual.
▪ Healthy and happy environment tends to result
in constructive and positive modeling.
PHYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
⦿ Psychologists have considered a number of factors to
find the relation with criminality with psychological
disposition.
⦿ Defective consciousness, emotional immaturity,
inadequate childhood socialization, maternal
deprivation, poor moral development – have been
studied to see whether they attribute to individual
differences.
⦿ They have also studied how people learn aggressive
behaviour, situations/environments that promote
violent or delinquent reaction, how crime is related
to personality factors and the relation between
various mental disorders and criminality.
⦿ Psychological theories of crime stems from the
psychoanalytical theory of Sigmund Freud. Though
the theory has long been criticized, it’s three
basic principles are still accepted by modern
psychologists-
The actions and behaviors of an adult can be
understood in terms of that person’s childhood
development.
Behaviour and unconscious motives are
intertwined and if we want to understand
criminality then we must understand that
interaction
Criminality is a representation of psychological
conflict
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
⦿ Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg found that moral
reasoning develops in three phases-
⦿ Preconventional Level: a child’s moral rules and
values consist of Dos and Don’ts to avoid
punishment (until the age of 9-11)
⦿ Conventional Level: Individuals believe in and
have adopted values and rules of society in this
level.(adolescent)
⦿ Post Conventional Level: Individuals examine
customs and social rules according to their own
sense of universal human rights, moral principles
and values. (generally seen after the age of 20)
⦿ According to Kohlberg and his associates most
criminals and delinquents reason at the pre
conventional level.
⦿ However, low moral development or working in
the pre conventional level does not cause
criminality alone. Presence and absence of
social-environmental factors play a role as well.
⦿ Kohlberg argued that moral principles and social
norms are learned through social interaction and
role playing.
⦿ Children learn to moral by playing with people
with higher level of moral development.
MATERNAL DEPRAVATION AND
ATTACHMENT THEORY
▪ Research has found that shortly after birth of
any mammal a phenomenon takes place. It is
the creation of an emotional bond or
attachment between the infant and it’s mother.
This bond is very important for the social
development of the child.
▪ The strength of this attachment determines or
at least affects the child’s ability to form
attachment in his future.
▪ In essence a socially healthy child needs a
warm, caring and interactive mother.
▪ Psychologist John Bowlby proposed that
attachment has 7 features:
-Specificity: attachments are selective
-Duration: this attachment persists and endure
-Engagement of emotion: most intense emotions
are associated with this attachment
-Ontageny or Course of development: this
attachment is formed with a primary figure
within 9 months of birth and this person is the
one who provides the child with most social
interaction
-Learning: learning from this attachment is a
feature but not the fundamental one
-Organization: attachment behaviour follows a
developmental organization from birth
- Biological function: attachment behaviour is a
biological function for the survival of the child.
▪ Securely attached: child needs a warm, loving
and continuous relation with mother or mother
substitute to have secured attachment
▪ Anxiously Attached: when a child is taken away
from mother or the mother rejects it, anxious
attachment results.
Anxious attachment hampers the ability of the child
to develop intimate relationships with others.
Habitual offenders usually lack this ability.

In a study of forty children seen when they were at

18 months and it was noted that anxiously
attached children are less empathetic,
independent, compliant and confident than the
securely attached children.
 CONTROL THEORY
⦿ Most criminological theories focus on the question
“why o people commit crime?” But the control
theorists have a Hobbsian view of human nature
and consider that everyone is criminal at heart.
Everyone is equally motivated to commit crime as
one can fulfill his desires more efficiently,
effectively and pleasurably by violating the law. To
a control theorist the question on the table is “why
do people obey the rules of their society?”
⦿ They say that it’s their personal ties, bonds, links,
attachments, institutions such as the family, school
that inhibit their criminal motivation.
 HIRCHI’S CONTROL THEORY
⦿ In 1969 Travis Hirchi presented his own version of
the control theory with an analysis of data he
gathered.
⦿ His assumption was “delinquent acts result when
an individual’s bond to society is weak or broken".
He specified four elements of social bond
attachment, commitment, involvement and
belief.
⦿ Attachment: Attachment is the most important
bond and refers to one’s sensitivity to the feelings
of others. “If a person does not care about the
wishes and expectations of other people-that is, if
he is insensitive to the opinion of others-then he is
to the extent not bound by the norms. He is free
to deviate”.
⦿ Thus attachment causes one to internalize the
social norms and the development of a
conscience.

⦿ Commitment: In getting education, building a

career or establishing one self as a respectful
member of the society one invests their time,
energy, money, emotions. Thus facing a choice of
committing crime they must factor in what they
stand to lose by it. “Most people simply by the
process of living in the society acquire goods,
reputations, prospects that they do not want to
risk losing. The accumulations are society's
insurance that they abide by the law”.
⦿ Involvement: Involvement basically refers to the
available opportunity of committing a crime. A
person engaged in regular activities such as study,
working, playing sports etc he or she would not
have the time to participate in deviant or criminal
activities.
⦿ Belief: Belief refers to the extent a person believes
he or she is bound to obey the rules of the society.
The less a person believes he is bound to obey a
rule the lower the person’s belief in the moral
validity of the rule thus a greater likelihood that he
or she will violate the rule.
⦿ Hirchi believed that the four elements are
interrelated. Thus a person with strong bond with
his parents would have strong belief over the
societal norms.
⦿ For his theory Hirchi studied 400 boys and
found ample support. He found that youths
that have strong attachment to their parents
and teachers are less likely to commit crime
than those who do not. Boys with strong
attachment with their friends were also less
likely to commit crime. Hirchi found,
“delinquent boys have, only weak and distant
relations with others including their peers”
*one of the most important findings of Hirchi
was there was no relation between social class
and delinquency and delinquency changed only
slightly for race.
*he found that academic success fostered belief
in conventional values.
 LABELING THEORY
⦿ Labeling theory constituted a bold new approach to
explain crimes. The theory is often called the
Social reaction theory and focuses on how some
behaviours are come to be defined as criminal and
what consequence such definitions have on the
people engaged in those activities.
⦿ Labeling theorist see crime form a realist point of
view. An act becomes criminal or deviant only
when it is defined as such by a group of observers.
⦿ Firstly, labeling theorists pointed out that what is
defined as a crime depends on factors such as
historical and situational contexts in which the
behaviour occurs, the characteristics of the people
engaged and the characteristics of the definers.
⦿ E.g many behaviours that were formally illegal are
now legal and vice versa. On the other hand the
characteristics of the actors and definers is
significant. For example, law enforcement agencies
put in a lot of effort in the street crimes(often
petty) while over looking white collar crimes. The
race, sex, social class of the street offenders and
corporate offenders play a huge role. Thus one is
more likely to get arrested and processed while the
other is allowed to escape .
⦿ Secondly, this theory sees crime as the product of
social interactionism. Meaning the act of crime is
less important to the social reaction it gets. How
others view him as deviant or criminal. This
change of status can happen informally and
formally.
⦿ For example when one goes through court hearing
or trials a fundamental change in his identity takes
place. Labeling theorists have termed this as the
Status Degradation Ceremonies. The incident of
being labeled as criminal or deviant changes the
status of the individual and becomes prominent
over all other status. Other members of the society
change their behaviour to the individual from their
notion of what a criminal is like-untrustworthy,
unpredictable, sinister. They can even change their
regular behaviour after they start to view a person
as criminal. In such a situation the labeled person
may eventually come to accept the label and begin
to alter his or her behaviour to conform to it –Self
fulfilling prophecy.
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DEVIATION
⦿ A simple way of understanding the labeling theory
is by Primary and Secondary deviation
distinguished by Lemart.
⦿ Primary Deviation is simply breaking the rule.
Such behaviour may be caused by any number of
factors and it is of little concern unless it is
detected and elicits a reaction.
⦿ Secondary Deviation is the deviation that results
from societal reaction. Such societal reaction can
lead to a total reorientation of the individuals self
perceptions. As Cohen wrote, “ the label- the
name of the role –does more that signify one who
has committed such and such a deviant act etc.
Each label evokes a characteristics imagery.
⦿ It suggests someone who is normally or habitually
given to certain kinds of deviance; who may be
expected to behave in this way; who is literally a
bundle of odious or sinister qualities. It activates
sentiments and calls out responses in others:
rejection, contempt, suspicion, withdrawal, fear
and hatred.
⦿ In other words the reaction of others may close off
legitimate or non deviant opportunities and
interactions for the labeled individuals.
⦿ With the legitimate options barred and a destroyed
public image the labeled person has little choice
but to follow the deviant lifestyle.
⦿ The secondary deviation is a or adaptive move on
the part of the labeled individuals to survive.
 VALIDITY OF THE LABELING THEORY
1. Many studies have failed to show that being
labeled criminal or delinquent leads to a
negative self image on the part of those
labeled.
2. Informal labels imposed early in life, especially
by parents have a far greater impact on
individual's self concept than formal “public
degradation ceremonies” that may not occur
until adolescence.
3. The theory presupposes that during the labeling
process the individual is passive while in reality
they resist it vigorously.
4. Moreover, contrary to the theory labels are not
indelible or irremovable- people have over come
stigmas.
5. In some cases the deviant labels are sought after
and valued for example