Watershed

Management Programs

June 2016
 Contents
4 The Water Crisis: Issues and Concerns

5 Hard Facts

6 EdelGive Foundation and Watershed Program: 2011 - 16

7 EdelGive Foundation’s Timeline in Watershed Program

8 Why EdelGive Foundation works in Watershed Projects

9 EdelGive Foundation’s Watershed Program Framework

10 The History of Watershed Management in India

14 Approach of EdelGive Foundation in Watershed programs

15 Different types of Watershed Structures supported by EdelGive

18 Why Invest in Watershed Management Programs

20 Stakeholders and Partners in Watershed Projects

21 2025: EdelGive’s Goals and Aspirations for Watershed Programs

22 EdelGive’s Water Management Partners

29 Glimpses: EdelGive’s past Water Management Programs

32 Annexures

34 References
 Abbreviations

AIBP Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme

CBO Community-Based Organizations
CCT Continuous Contour Trenches
CPR Community Property Resources
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
DDP Desert Development Programme
DLR Department of Land Resources
DPAP Drought Prone Areas Programme
DRDA District Rural Development Agencies
GoI Government of India
IAEPS Integrated Afforestation and Eco-Development Scheme
IWDP Integrated Wastelands Development Program
IWMP Integrated Watershed Management Program
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoEF Ministry of Environment & Forests
MoRD Ministry of Rural Development
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MoWR, RD & GR Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NRAA National Rain-fed Area Authority
NWDPRA National Watershed Development Project for Rain-fed Areas
OFWM On-Farm Water Management
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisals
PMKSY Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
PRI Panchayati Raj Institutions
SC Scheduled Caste
SHG Self-Help Groups
ST Scheduled Tribe
VDC Village Development Committees
WDT Watershed Development Team
WSD Watershed Development
The Water Crisis
India is home to 18% of the world’s population but only 4.2% of its water resources and 1%
of its forest cover1. This vast population is sustained by 142 million hectares of agricultural
land, which is either completely dependent on rainwater or rain-fed2. At the same time the
per capita availability of agricultural land among the developed nations is 1.4 ha per farmer,
while in India it is merely 0.3 ha3. Much of this land is also experiencing acute shortage of
moisture content and depleting groundwater levels. Water shortages and volatility in
availability make Indian agriculture highly vulnerable to both pre- and post-production risks.

In much of India, very little rainwater is captured, infiltrated and stored as groundwater –
most is lost in runoff to oceans and evaporation, usually taking fertile surface soil with it. In
light of this, the only sustainable and eco-friendly solution to manage and raise groundwater
levels, and revive water resources, is the development of watershed management programs
to harvest, secure and conserve rain water.

Water: Issues and Concerns

Depleting ground and surface water tables
Dwindling quality of water
Soil erosion and contamination
Multi-nutrient deficiency of soil
Droughts and Famines
De-forestation
Rapid urbanization
Inadequate water polices

1 Thakare, Parag R., Jadhav, Raj A. and Kumawat Hastimal S. 2013. Watershed Management-A case study of Satara Tanda
Village. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE), (3) 3: 2278-3075.
2 Joshi PK, Jha AK, Wani SP, Sreedevi TK and Shaheen FA. 2008. Impact of Watershed Program and Conditions for

Success: A Meta-Analysis Approach. Global Theme on Agro ecosystems, Report 46. International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics and National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research.
3 Rao, Srinivasa., Lal, Ratan., Prasad, Jasti., Gopinath, Kodigal., Singh, Rajbir., Jakkula,Vijay S Kanwar., Sahrawat L.,

Venkateswarlu, Bandi., Sikka, Alok K, and Virmani, Surinder M. 2015. Potential and Challenges of Rainfed Farming in
India. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press. pp. 113 -114.
Hard Facts

India's annual per capita availability of water decreased from 6,042 cubic meters in
1947, to 1816 cubic meters in 2001, and was down to 1,545 cubic meters in 2011.
By 2025, India's annual per capita availability of water will further reduce to 1,340
cubic meters and by 2050, to 1,140 cubic meters.
90 % of waste water discharged in rivers fails to meet environmental norms.
65% of rainwater runoff goes into the sea.
In India, the agricultural sector is the biggest user of water, followed by the
domestic and industrial sectors.

Probability of occurrence of drought in different meteorological subdivisions

Meteorological subdivision Frequency of deficient

rainfall
(75% of normal or less)
1 Rajasthan Once in 2 years
2 Gujarat, East Rajasthan, Western Once in 3 years
Uttar Pradesh
3 Tamil Nadu and Telangana Once in 2.5 years
4 Karnataka, Eastern Once in 4 years
Uttar Pradesh & Vidarbha
5 West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Once in 5 years
Konkan, Bihar and Orissa
6 Assam Very rare, once in 15 years

Source: National Rainfed Area Authority, 2013

 EdelGive Foundation’s
Support to Water Projects
Total Rs. 5.60 Crores
Total Beneficiaries 35,000
Land benefitted 17,000 Acres
Projects in 4 water-scarce states

EdelGive Foundation and Watershed Program: 2011 - 16

Over the last eight years, the EdelGiveFoundation has been a catalyst for social change in
the development sector, especially in the fields of Livelihoods, Women’s Empowerment and
Education. In livelihoods, the focus is almost entirely rural and the Foundation’s approach
focusses on three themes – Migration, Financial Inclusion and Water. Agriculture dominates
India’s rural economy, but its contribution to India’s GDP has declined from 52% in 1950 to
14% in 20134. This, coupled with a lack of employment opportunities and poor availability of
broader infrastructure such as education and roads, has caused severe economic and social
strife in rural India.

Scarce local employment opportunities and the increasing unviability of agriculture due to
water shortages and ever smaller land holdings have accelerated the urban migration of
low-skilled and less-educated rural men. This puts pressure on cities and aggravates
disparities in migrant rights, including access to health, education and basic human rights.
Their families remain behind to battle the financial hardship of rural life, relying heavily on
remittances. The net result is a vicious cycle of grinding poverty, and lack of access to basic
health and education, compounded by a lack of access to basic financial literacy and
inclusion in the absence of credit and social security schemes.

EdelGive’s intelligent, community-based interventions in the areas of Migration, Water and

Financial Inclusion draw on our vast experience on the ground with some of the most highly-
regarded organizations in this sector. This wide-ranging exposure to rural livelihood
programs has given EdelGive rich insights into the various water problems facing rural India.
These range from severe drought, to erratic rainfall, to pollution, wastage and overuse of
water resources. To address these issues, EdelGive Foundation began systematic
interventions in water projects through integrated watershed management programs in 4
states, implemented by grassroots organisations.

4
Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) 2014.
EdelGive Foundation’s Timeline in Watershed Program

2008 2009 2011 2014 2015 2016

•EdelGive •Commencement •First Watershed •Initiated •Initiated Water •Initiated Water

Foundation of Livelihood Project in Research on Projects in Projects in
established Portfolio Maharashtra Watershed Rajasthan & Chattisgargh
projects Maharashtra and Gujarat

EdelGive Investments: 2011 - 2016

Aggregate Funding Statewise

2,40,67,232

1,56,87,157

96,64,000

45,80,074

Maharashtra Chattisgargh
Chhattisgarh Rajasthan Gujarat
Why EdelGive Foundation works in Watershed Projects

Creating sustainable livelihoods is the surest way to help individuals escape the vicious circle
of poverty. The main effect of poverty is the inability to meet essential needs, so creating
sustainable livelihoods has wide-ranging benefits. The key outcome is that individuals can
take charge of their own lives, choose the services and products of which they wish to avail,
and invest in themselves and their future generations, rather than relying on charity or
public services for their basic needs. Rural livelihoods fall into two broad categories: farm
and non-farm based activities. Watershed management programs are a part of farm-based
activities and have several impacts.

• Reduction in migration to cities and towns

• Quality of life improvement in rural areas
Social • Increased food security

• Increase in household income

• Decrease in the cost of irrigation
Economic • Increase in agricultural production

• Drudgery of women reduced in fetching water

• Increased participation of women in decision-making
Women • Increase in enrollment of girls in schools

• Increase in soil moisture content

• Increase in ground and surface water levels
Ecological • Increase in the forest cover area
EdelGive Foundation’s Watershed Program Framework

In the course of designing its approach to watershed management, EdelGive consulted a

number of water project experts, scoped over forty organisations, visited over ten
organisations and finally initiated funding to seven organisations (the details of which are
attached at the end of this document) across four states in India. While selecting each
organisation for funding by EdelGive a long and meticulous process was followed:

Process flow
Research & Scoping of organisations EdelGive Board Evaluation
Proposal submission Grant-making by signing MOU
Field and community visit Monitoring and Evaluation
Due Diligence Impact Assessment

Framework of evaluation
‘Demand-driven’ rather than ‘supply-driven’ water projects
Implementation through local community, village-level committees and SHGs
Greater involvement of women and vulnerable groups
Greater community participation, contribution and resource-sharing
Integration of traditional and modern techniques for water security
Decentralized process of decision-making
Indigenous solutions to address local problems of water scarcity
Generating demonstrable economic benefits to the community
Equal rights on common property resources

Implementation process
Baseline Survey
Community Mobilisation
Formation of Community-Based Organisations
Village meetings & Participatory Rural Appraisals
Village Development Committees’ Training
Site Identification for Water Shed Structures
Construction and Implementation of Watershed Programs
Community Monitoring and Maintenance
Impact Assessment of Watershed Management Programs
Scaling and Replication of Watershed Programs
History of Watershed Management Programs

Several studies have shown that effective management of natural resources through
watershed management programs delivers sustainable ecological benefits and drives
community development. This includes increasing crop production, recharging groundwater
levels, rejuvenating dried-up rivers and ponds, improving livelihoods, reversing the process
of migration, protecting the environment, boosting women’s empowerment and ensuring
food, fodder and fuel security5.

Over the past thirty years, watershed management programs have produced three major
changes in India. The first generation of watershed projects was introduced in the 1970s,
the second generation by the mid-1980s and the third by the early 1990s6. However, a
closer examination of current watershed programs and structures reveals that many are still
executed under the first- and second- generation models i.e. with a top-down (rather than a
bottom-up approach) and smaller participation from communities.
I Generation

II Generation

III Generation
1970s 1980s 1990s

Agency/Organisation Rural development 'People-first'-

driven, engineered and poverty alleviation Emphasis on collective
structures, aimed agenda, emphasising community
mainly at preventing improvements in the participation and
soil erosion and productivity of crops action; inclusion of
harvesting rainwater, and livelihood community-based
and followed a top- generation through organizations, non-
down and supply- watershed projects governmental
driven approach organizations and
Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs)

1. Pre-Independence Scenario
Agriculture has been the driving force of the Indian economy, both before and after
Independence, and the majority of the rural population was heavily dependent on

5
Joshi PK, Jha AK, Wani SP, Joshi L and Shiyani RL. 2005. Meta-analysis to assess impact of watershed
program and people’s participation. Research Report 8, Comprehensive Assessment of watershed management
in agriculture. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and Asian Development Bank.
21 pp.
6
Wani SP, Ramakrishna, Sreedevi TK, Long TD, Thawilkal Wangkahart, Shiferaw B, Pathak and Kesava Rao.
2006. Issues, concepts, approaches and practices in the integrated watershed management. Experience and
lessons from Asia in integrated management of watershed for agricultural diversification and sustainable
livelihoods in Eastern and Central Africa: Lessons and experiences from Semi-Arid South Asia. Proceedings of
the International Workshop held in December 2004 at Nairobi, Kenya. pp. 17–36.
agriculture for its livelihood. The following is cursory glance at references to watershed
irrigation in ancient Indian folklore and literature:

The Satavahanas (1st Century B.C. – 2nd Century A.D.) introduced brick and ring wells
for extraction of water.
Lake and well irrigation techniques were developed on a large scale during the
Pandya, Chera and Chola dynasties in southern India (1st to 3rd Century A.D) and
large dams were built across Cauvery and Vaigai rivers.
In the south, the Pallavas expanded the irrigation systems in the 7 th Century A.D. The
famous Cauvery Anicut was built during this period.
The Chola period (985-1205 A.D) witnessed the introduction of advanced irrigation
systems, which brought about prosperity in the Deccan region.
The Rajput dynasty (1000-1200 A.D) promoted irrigation works in northern India.
The 647 sq. Km. Bhopal Lake was built under King Bhoja.
In eastern India, Pal and Sen Kings (760-1100 A.D) built a number of large tanks and
lakes in their kingdoms.
Rajtarangini of Kalhana gives a detailed account of irrigation systems developed in
the 12th Century in Kashmir.
In the Medieval period, Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.) encouraged the
farmers to build their own rainwater harvesting systems and wells.
Feroze Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388
A.D.) built the Western Yamuna
Canal in 1355 to extend
irrigation facilities in the dry
land tracts of the present-day
Haryana and Rajasthan.
Emperor Shahjahan built many
canals, among them the Bari
Doab or the Hasli Canal.
Under the rule of Rangila
Muhammad Shah, the Eastern
Yamuna Canal was built to
irrigate large tracts in Uttar Pradesh.
The Vijaynagar Kings (1336-1548 A.D.) built large and small storage tanks in the
south.
Anantraj Sagar, a 1.37 km. earthen dam tank, was built along the Maldevi River.
Emperor Krishnadevaraya built the well-known Korangal dam.
Canal irrigation was first introduced by the Bahmani rulers (1388-1422 A.D.) in the
eastern provinces of the Deccan.
An extensive network of canals was subsequently built by Sultan Zain Uddin (1420-
1470 A.D.) in Utpalpur, Nadashaila, and Bijbihara and Advin areas of Kashmir.
 2. Post-Independence Scenario
After Independence, the tempo of irrigation development was sharply accelerated with the
objective of attaining self-sufficiency in food grains to meet the needs of a growing
population. Construction of large dams like Bhakra, Hirakud, and Nagarjunasagar were
taken up and completed. The criteria for economic evaluation of these projects were
changed from a purely financial evaluation approach to one of cost-benefit evaluation.

The Government’s Return-on-Investment now became secondary, and the benefit to the
farmer (if at a cost to the Government) became the principal criterion. The development of
irrigation took place in successive plans by leaps and bounds. The country achieved self-
sufficiency in food grains, and import of food grains became a thing of the past. The Second
Irrigation Commission, set up in 1969, while not advocating any major change in the policy
of irrigation development, cautioned in its report that areas like conjunctive use of surface
and groundwater, command area development. The flow of institutional finance was
generally about 60% of the total outlay for groundwater development. Groundwater
development became critical to the economy because of its role in stabilizing agriculture.
There was even greater emphasis on this resource during recurring periods of drought, as
the levels of surface reservoirs dwindled and groundwater provided an alternative.

3. Government and Integrated Watershed Management Program

The Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) India has become a part of the
national approach to poverty alleviation by improving agricultural production in rain-fed
regions. Since the 1970s, the programme has sought to restore degraded watersheds in
rain-fed regions to increase their capacity to capture and store rainwater, reduce soil
erosion, and improve soil nutrient and carbon content, so as to boost agricultural yields and
local incomes. In 2010, Government decided to integrated several centrally-sponsored
schemes into the IWMP, among them the former watershed development programmes of
the Department of Land Resources, including the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP),
the Desert Development Programme (DDP) and the Integrated Wastelands Development
Programme (IWDP).

a. Understanding the Integrated Watershed Management Program

More than 54% of cultivated area across India is rain-fed. Many of these areas are plagued
by poverty, water scarcity, low productivity, and malnutrition, and are vulnerable to acute
land degradation. The watershed development programme has been developed to address
the grave concerns of the rain-fed or waste land areas, and the cost of the program is
shared by the Central and State Governments in a 90:10 ratio.

b. Modus operandi of Integrated Watershed Management Program

Organisational Structure and Implementing Agencies of Watershed management program

1. Ministry of Rural Development - Department of Land Resources

•Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) amalgamated Accelerated Irrigation
Benefit Programme (AIBP), River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR, RD & GR),
Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) of Department of Land Resources
(DoLR) and the On Farm Water Management (OFWM) schemes.

2. State level - Nodal Agency

•The state level Nodal Agency is the implementing authority to implement and plan the
activities in the state with relevant departments in the ministry.

3. District level - Watershed cell-cum-data centre

•At district level, watershed cell-cum-data centre supervises and coordinates the integrated
watershed management programs projects, set up in District Rural Development Agencies
DRDA/Zilla Parishad of the state governments.

4. Project level - Project Implementing Agency

•Project implementation is supervised by the Project Implementing Agency as per the
Common Guidelines for Watershed Projects - 2008 (revised in 2011).

5. Watershed Development Team

•Panchayats, Government and NGOs function as project implementing agencies by
constituting a Watershed Development Team (WDT) comprising of technical experts.

6. Village Level - Watershed Committee

•The Watershed Committee is constituted by the Gram Sabha to implement the project at
field level. This Watershed Committee consists of at least 10 members, comprising the
members representing Self-Help Groups, User Groups, SC/STs, Women and the Landless,
plus one member from Watershed Development Team.

Funding of IWMP for the watershed programs in the past years

Year No. of Projects Area Covered Funds Released

Sanctioned (in million hectares) (Rs. In Crores)
2009 - 10 1324 6.310 501.48
2010 - 11 1865 8.824 1496.83
2011 - 12 1898 9.080 1865.92
2012 - 13 1066 5.000 2720.54
2013 - 14 1051 5.046 2162.80
2014 - 15 1010 4.809 2099.45
Total 8214 39.069 10847.02
Source: Government of India (2015) Annual Report -2014-15, Ministry of Rural Development
Approach of EdelGive Foundation in Watershed programs

1. Collective participatory approach

The watershed management programs of the EdelGive Foundation are based on a collective
participatory approach involving the local community and people. This involves active
community participation and collective action from the local community, local non-
government organisations, governments, corporates and research institutions, and draws
on extensive hydrology, engineering, agronomics, natural resource management, forestry
and social sciences expertise in developing the watershed programs.

2. Bottom-up approach
In the early days of watershed management programs, most of the water programs were
mainly ‘agency-driven’ or ‘supply-driven’ rather than ‘demand-driven’ i.e. implementing
agencies developed and implemented water-shed projects with no active participation or
contribution from the community. However, this failed to achieve even the most basic goals
of the projects. On the other hand, the ‘bottom-up’ approach makes sure that watershed
interventions are planned, designed, implemented and monitored by the local community.

3. Integrated approach
Watershed projects must make conscious efforts to recognise the stakes and interests of
small- and large-scale farmers, women and landless labourers at every level, from decision-
making to implementation to project-monitoring. Watershed management programs may
not yield the desired results if the integrated and collective approach is ignored, which
entails the following risks:
Unequal distribution of benefits of watershed programs to vulnerable groups.
Water projects are abandoned or inadequately maintained after construction.
Absence of community ownership, participation, contribution (in terms of labour or
resources), and accountability.
Different types of Watershed Structures supported by EdelGive

Watershed Benefits Cost INR

Development (per unit)
Activity
1 Farm pond Surface water conservation 1,00,000
Adaptation to unreliable rainfall
Reduction in drudgery of women
2 Khadin Surface water conservation
development Increase in food production and 40,000
reduction in migration
Increase in household income
3 Horticulture & Increasing vegetation and forest cover 30,000
Plantations Increase in household income
establishment Reduction in migration
Increase in agricultural produce
4 De-silting of Increase in water availability 2,25,000 – 4,00,000
Nadi/pond Increasingly hygienic living conditions
Improvement in groundwater levels
Improved girl child education
Reduction in drudgery of women
5 Building capacity of Enhanced understanding of judicious 50,000
CBOs, NGOs and use of water
local community Increased sense of ownership of water
Livelihood options development for
women
6 Gabian structure Improvement in groundwater levels 50,000
Increase in household income
7 Cement Check dam Water available throughout the year 2,00,000 –
Tanker-free villages 19,00,000
Increase in household income
Increase in food production and
reduction in migration
Reduction in drudgery of women
8 Well repair and Reduction in drudgery of women 1,00,000
deepening Farmers start taking Rabi crops
Farmers start multi-cropping pattern
9 Renovation and Yield improvement and increase in 1,50,000
repair of existing production
check dams Crop quality improvement, leading to
greater return for the production
10 Cleaning and Water available throughout the year 40,000 – 1,50,000
rejuvenating the Improvement in groundwater levels
existing nala/canal Increase in household income
 from forest dam to Increase in food production and
the fields/farm reduction in migration
areas
11 Excavation for Main Farmers start taking Rabi crops 45,000 – 1,40,000
nali/canal Farmers start practicing multi cropping
construction from pattern
existing canal to
new
12 Groundwater Farmers start taking Rabi crops 30,000
resource estimation Farmers start practicing multi cropping
for future pattern that helps soil fertilization
projection &
planning for
livelihood
promotion
13 SRI promotion Promotion of modern agriculture 45,000
practices
Low input and low water consumption
for cultivation
14 Formation of Farmers start taking Rabi crops 60,000
farmers’ cluster and Farmers start practicing multi-cropping
exposure visits for pattern that helps soil fertilization
farmers
15 Drip and sprinkler Increase waste land area under 40,000
irrigation cultivation
Farmers start practicing multi cropping
pattern that helps soil fertilization
16 Earthen check dams Increase in annual income of villagers 2,25,000 –
on the back of improved agriculture 13,00,000
production due to avilability of water
storage structures
Increase in availability of drinking
water sources
17 Loose boulder Effective structure to store water 10,000
structures during the rainy season to be used for
irrigation in the post-monsoon period
Provision of protective irrigation
resulting in an increase in crop
18 Shirpur / Dove Increase in irrigation facility 300000 - 750000
Wells and bore wells get recharged
19 Budki Model Provision of water for animals and 75000 - 140000
humans in summer
Improvement in groundwater levels
20 Dug well recharge, Villages benefit from greener fodder 35000 - 85000
repairing and Bore and greater moisture content in soil
well recharge Increase in groundwater levels
 Green fodder availability for live stock
21 Vanrai Bandhara Groundwater level and soil moisture in 6000 - 9000
the area is increased
Increase in green fodder availability for
livestock
22 Diversion Based More land brought under protective 2,50,000
Irrigation Project irrigation
(PHAD Irrigation) Increase in groundwater level and soil
moisture in the area
Increase in green fodder availability for
livestock
Crop quality improvement, leading to
greater return for the production
Water user groups develop and
manage the distribution of water
Why Invest in Watershed Management Programs
kNOw Water kNOw Life

1. Water harvesting, security and conservation

In water-scarce regions, systematically harvesting, securing and conserving water is the only
way to ensure its availability for irrigation, drinking and other domestic purposes. Most
watershed programs supported by the EdelGive Foundation follow the principle that water
structures should harvest rain water to elevate underground water tables, rather than
collect water at surface level in check dams. Moreover, with the increase in groundwater
tables, the moisture content of the soil also increases, which enables higher agricultural
yields. At present, rural areas are highly dependent on groundwater drawn through tube
wells or water tankers for irrigation and domestic purposes. However, these practices can
be highly unsustainable and expensive, and they deplete groundwater levels much faster
than they can be replenished.

2. Empowerment of women and vulnerable groups

Women’s empowerment is a process through which women in a society gain the power of
decision-making and a greater share in control over material, human, information, and
financial resources. In India, women are usually responsible for drawing water and
preserving it in the household for domestic purposes. They often travel long distances and
expend considerable time and energy in the quest of securing water. The programs
supported by the EdelGive Foundation are gender-sensitive and aim at empowering women.
Thanks to these watershed management programs, women now spend less time securing
water, and can therefore utilise the extra time for education, recreation or other creative
purposes. The EdelGive Foundation ensures that the benefits of watershed program reach
women, and sees to it that they are represented in all the decision-making and monitoring
forums and committees.

3. Livelihood generation and poverty alleviation

Much of India’s rural population remains dependent on a rain-fed agricultural economy that
provides meagre and uncertain income. Their plight is aggravated by degraded soil quality
and depleting water resources. Watershed management programs are primarily aimed at
the development and improvement of poor rural household income levels. These programs
have helped millions of farmers improve their income and quality of life. The programs
ensure that farmers secure two to three crops a year, thereby enhancing the income of each
household while helping them reverse the process of forced migration from villages to
cities. In this way, watershed programs bring micro- and macro-economic changes to
households that are dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
 4. Agricultural development and food security
The watershed management programs supported by EdelGive aim to restore and maintain
traditionally tested and ecologically sustainable agro-farming practices. This particular
approach helps in generating more livelihood opportunities through improvements in crop
production and conservation of soil health. In addition to construction of watershed
structures and training and capacity building programs, farmers are also supported with
supplementary programs like promotion of less water-intensive crops, multiple crop
plantation in the same field, crop rotation, crop plantation according to rainfall patterns,
seed storage or development of seed banks after harvest, tree plantation alongside
agricultural fields, and water structure construction at required locations. Beyond this, the
loosening of hard land areas helps in the penetration of water, so that the roots of crops
and plants may easily penetrate after tilling. EdelGive’s water programs not only secure
water, but also conserve fertile soil, since soil lost through erosion cannot be restored. In
summation, our watershed programs balance water and soil conservation.

5. Ecological conservation
The primary aim of EdelGive’s watershed management programs is the conservation of the
ecosystem and natural resources, and the reversal of the process of climate change and
global warming. Ecological conservation is at the heart of watershed programs, as they
address the root causes of water scarcity and soil degradation. The supplementary projects
of watershed program are forestation programs, horticulture units, drip irrigation methods
and plantations which ensure the sustainability of water programs. Watershed programs
should not be seen in isolation as a practice that merely harnesses agricultural yields,
conserves rainwater or generate livelihoods, but as a holistic process to develop the systems
and practices that enable future generations to enjoy nature in its glorious abundance.
 Stakeholders and Partners in Watershed Projects

Coming together is a beginning; keeping together is progress;

working together is success

Partnerships between corporates, governments, foundations and donors have delivered

tremendous results in the fields education, microfinance and health.
Water and soil conservation is a relatively unexplored sector, but the collaboration of
corporates, governments, foundations and donors could likewise have a great impact here.

Corporate Social Government

Responsibility
The Government of India has
The activities accepted as CSR by accorded high priority to water
the Indian Companies Act 2013 conservation and its
include the provision of safe management, for which
drinking water; livelihood Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
enhancement and Yojana (PMKSY) has been
environmental sustainability, formulated with the vision of
ecological balance, animal extending the coverage of
welfare, agro-forestry, irrigation and improving water
conservation of natural use efficiency ‘More crop per
resources, and preservation of drop' in a focused manner.
the quality of soil, air & water.
Water and Soil Conservation Projects
Partnerships

Foundations and Trusts Donors and Funders

Many Foundations and Trusts There is a growing awareness

are recognising the importance among donors and funders
of development of rural about supporting projects that
communities through scalable, provide greater impact through
sustainable and replicable community participation. This
projects, and there growing realisation has led them to
awareness among these explore unique social projects
organisations that water that are impactful and scalable;
projects for enhancing rural such as watershed
livelihoods can deliver a real management projects.
impact on the ground.
 2025
EdelGive’s Goals and Aspirations for Watershed Program

By 2025, in association with the like-minded partners like corporates, Governments,

Foundations, Corporates and Donors, EdelGive Foundation expects to:

Impact 1 million rural lives Impact

Provide Rs. 500 million in grant funding 1 million
Convert 1 lakh acres of land into water secure Rural lives
Train 1 lakh farmers for sustainable agricultural practices
Enhance income levels of 1 lakh beneficiaries
Support 20 non-profit organisations on water projects
Publish 10 research reports and case studies of best practices

EdelGive Water Projects

Activities Related to Organisation of Education, Health and
Nutrition (AROEHAN)
Maharashtra

Founded: 2006
Founder: Anjali Kanitkar
Head: Shraddha Shringarpure

Activities Related to Organisation of Education, Health and Nutrition (AROEHAN) focusses on the
holistic development of tribal communities by working on the issues of health, education, livelihood
and effective governance in the Mokhada area of Thane district of Maharashtra. AROEHAN works in
regions with a peculiar terrain for rainwater harvesting, such as high run offs due to extremely high
rainfall. The undulating and rocky terrain allows little scope for water percolation. Hence,
groundwater reserves are almost empty, and women spend hours walking to fetch their daily
requirement of two pots of water. Water-procurement becomes the most important and time-
consuming daily chore. Water from the wells is also unhygienic, leading to water-borne epidemics.
The Mokhada region has also been notorious for malnutrition deaths. The majority of the population
is dependent on agriculture as their main source of income. Hence, increasing agricultural income is
essential to improving families’ economic status. Similarly, there are many landless households with
seasonal migration, so securing an income for these households through other livelihood options
becomes imperative, in order to reduce migration and mitigate its effects on women and children.

EdelGive Support
Locations: Nashera, Shirasgaon, Adoshi villages of Maharashtra
Watershed Development Funding: Rs. 2 Crores (2010 – 2016, of which Rs. 52 lakh is for
watershed projects from 2011 – 2016)
Geography: Water-scarce region
Main Approach: Check Dams, Drip Irrigation, Building capacity of CBOs, NGOs and local people

EdelGive Foundation Supported Watershed interventions implemented by AROEHAN

Building of watershed structures like River bunds, Sub-surface bunds, Cordons, Check dams
etc. to increase the groundwater table and moisture content in the soil.
Organising exposure visits for farmer groups to explore new livelihood options and share
agricultural knowhow.
Area treatment from Natural Resource Management perspective (Tree Plantation, Farm
Ponds, Trenches etc)
Increasing groundwater through sub-surface bunds resulting in water retention in wells
Connecting farmer groups to markets to facilitate marketing of their products, and working
to link farmers with formal banking services.

Partners of AROEHAN: R. Jhunjhunwala Foundation, Siemens’ Ltd., Oxfam Foundation, Save the
Children, Concern India, BPCL, Tata Motors, All Cargo Logistics, Narottam Seksaria Foundation, Bay
Diligence, Rotary and Lions Clubs et al.
Action for Food Production (AFPRO)
Chhattisgarh

Founded: 1967
Head: Mr. D K Manavalan and Dr. S. Srivastava

AFPRO was established in 1966 as a secular Indian technical service organization. It was registered
(registration No.3516) in 1967 under the Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860. AFPRO endeavors to
bring together resources of overseas funding agencies, government agencies, financial institutions
and grassroots level NGOs for implementation of developmental projects to improve the quality of
life of weaker sections of the rural community. AFPRO works with and in support of the Government
of India, and for people without regard for caste, creed, race, religion or nationality. AFPRO reaches
out to poor and marginalized communities throughout India, particularly small and marginal farmers
and landless tribals by providing and developing livelihoods through proper natural resource
management. AFPRO works with communities to develop low-cost options for water and sanitation,
food security and rural livelihoods. EdelGive Foundation supports its water projects in Chhattisgarh.

Context of the Region for water projects

About 70% of the state’s population is rural with the main livelihood being agriculture and
agriculture-based activities and over 70% belong to the small and marginal farmer category
It is largely a rain-fed mono-crop belt and less than a quarter of the area is double-cropped
A majority of farmers practice traditional methods, resulting in low growth and productivity

Major Recognitions of AFPRO

AFPRO is empanelled in the Advisory Board for framing the policies and guidelines for
implementation of the National Water Mission under the Ministry of Water Resources
AFPRO is a member of Drafting Committee for the National Water Policy

EdelGive Support
Locations: Kosmi, Tengna, Barpara, Nahanda and Kaparmeta villages of Chhattisgarh
Watershed Development Funding: Rs. 1.6 Crore (2016 – 2019)
Geography: water scarce region
Main Approach: farm ponds, excavation of canals, check dams, ground water resource
estimation for livelihood promotion, formation of farmer groups, exposure visit of farmers.

EdelGive Foundation Supported Watershed interventions implemented by AFPRO

Construction of Check dams, Stop dams, Dug wells, Farm ponds, Canals, Boulder checks, and
Gully plugs, CCTs, Water diversion structures, Earthen dams in different watershed projects.
Exposure visit of farmers to sensitize & awareness for improved agricultural practices
Education around rainwater harvesting measures, water management, agricultural practices,
formation of farmer groups and other interventions to streamline livelihood promotion.

Partners of AFPRO: Sterlite Technologies, Ultratech, UNICEF, Lafarge India Pvt. Limited, HDFC,
Canadian International Development Agency, International Fund for Agricultural Development,
NABARD, Sir Ratan Tata Trust, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Council for Advancement of
Peoples Action and Rural Technology and many others.
Dilasa Janvikas Pratishthan
Maharashtra

Founded: 1991
Founder: Sanjeev Unhale

Dilasa Janvikas Pratishthan works in the villages of Maharashtra to improve the condition of water,
soil and vegetation along with empowerment of women. Dilasa is a Resource Support Organization
of NABARD in Marathwada under the Indo-German Watershed Development Programme and in
Vidarbha under NABARD’s Holistic Watershed Development Programme. Dilasa has implemented
aquifer management projects in Aurangabad, which is recognized as a landmark concept in
watershed management. Watershed treatments executed include - Farm bunding, Agro
Horticulture, Stone outlets, Grass seeding, Dry land horticulture, Afforestation works - Continuous
Contour Trenches, Earthen Gully Plugs, Drainage Line Treatment, Earthen Nalla Bund, Cement Nalla
Bund, Louse Boulder Structures, Gabions, Women empowerment, training & demonstration, etc.

Context of the Region for water projects

The regions in which Dilasa works falls in high priority zone as earmarked by the Central
Government, due to recurring acute shortage of water, food and fodder
The area receives rainfall with varying intensity for a few days, hence farmers are unable to
plan agricultural activities, resulting in poor productivity or crop failures
The region witnesses persistent drought
Due to rain fed farming and uncertainties in prices of agricultural produce, farmers face
heavy indebtedness and severe poverty

EdelGive Support
Locations: Jalkotwadi, Manmodi and Aliyabad watersheds in Marathwada region of
Maharashtra
Watershed Development Funding: Rs. 35 Lakh (2016)
Geography: Drought prone region
Main Approach: Earthen nala bunds, loose boulder structures,

EdelGive Foundation Supported Watershed interventions implemented by Dilasa Janvikas

Pratishthan
Developing natural resources through construction of water storage structure to mitigate
the drought situation.
Improving the standard of living of farmers through increased income, sustainable livelihood
options for poor, landless and marginal farmers.
Recharging ground water through systematic soil & water conservation measures and water
harvesting structures.
Rejuvenating the river flow through water structure managements.
Reducing the drudgery of women in fetching potable water.

Partners of Dilasa Janvikas Pratishthan: NABARD, World Bank, Unicef, KFW-Germany, Mahindra &
Mahindra, United Breweries, ACC Cement, DHFL, CAPART, Johnson & Johnson, Rural development
department of Central & State of Maharashtra and many others.
Gramin Vikas Vigyan Samiti (GRAVIS)
Rajasthan

Founded: 1983
Founders: L. C. and Shashi Tyagi
Head: Dr. Prakash Tyagi

Gramin Vikas Vigyan Samiti (GRAVIS) works in the Thar Desert region of Rajasthan and in
Uttarakhand. The Thar Desert spans over 120,000 square miles, covering the majority of the state of
Rajasthan, and is home to 23 million people, making it the most densely populated desert in the
world. The driest parts experience less than 100 mm of rainfall annually. The fundamental work of
Gravis is the mitigation of drought through watershed programs in the Thar Desert region. Gravis
derives its core principles from Gandhian philosophy of Gram Swaraj, which is village self-rule and
self-sufficiency. Over the last three decades, GRAVIS has done commendable work in developing
watershed models across many villages of Rajasthan.

Context of the Region for water projects

Annual rainfall varies from 100 to 300 mm and its distribution is erratic, primarily occurring between
July and September. The region's average temperature ranges from 24 to 48°C in the summer to 4 to
10°C in winter. Due to low rates of precipitation and high temperatures, the region is ridden with
drought and water insecurity. The region has also been experiencing rapid desertification due to
natural and man-made factors, namely, a combination of aridity and erosion with unsustainable
agricultural practices, overexploitation of natural resources and the use of pesticides and fertilizers.

EdelGive Support
Locations: Dujasar, Kahalaa, Khabia, Jajiya, Meghwalon ki Dhani, Harlaya, Indon ki Dhani,
Bher Bhakhri, Shiv Nagar, Padashla villages of Rajasthan
Watershed Development Funding: Rs. 97 Lakh (2015 - 2018)
Geography: Desert / Water scarce region
Main Approach: Farm pond, Khadin development, Horticulture & Plantations establishment,
De-silting of Naadi, Building capacity of CBOs, NGOs and local people.

EdelGive Foundation Supported Watershed interventions implemented by GRAVIS

The water and food security interventions include watershed structures like khadins and
naadis. Desilting of naadi are low-cost, technically sound and sustainable.
Developing and strengthening community based organizations in the form of Village
Development Councils and Self Help Groups.
Building networks of representatives from the beneficiary community who participate at
every stage of the process, from planning to monitoring

Partners of GRAVIS: Canadian International Development Agency, Central Social Welfare Board,
Government of India, Dalyan Foundation, United Nations Development Programme, World Health
Organization, Wells for India, International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas and many
others.
UGAM Gramin Vikas Sanstha
Maharashtra

Founded: 1996
Founder: Jayaji Paikrao

Ugam Gramin Vikas Sanstha works for empowering the most vulnerable sections of the communities
in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra. Ugam believes that the path towards sustainable
development and overcoming economic deprivation is through enhancing livelihood capabilities of
the poor and empowering them through knowledge and skills. Ugam is actively involved in
promotion of environmental and agriculture sustainability through ‘Natural Resource Management’.
Ugam follows an ‘Integrated Rural Development’ approach of working collaboratively on issues of
women, children and youth; creating awareness among the villagers and imparting knowledge and
skills.

Context of the Region

The area is characterised by drought which largely impacts agricultural activity causing the young to
migrate under distress to cities for employment, leaving behind the old and women in a crisis-like
situation, arising out of non-availability of employment opportunities and loss of land. Due to
irregularity of rainfall and low water tables, farmers are unable to cultivate Kharif and Rabbi Crops.
Percentage yields have dropped significantly, and frequent borrowing from moneylenders, crop
failures, and low market price of farm produce has further burdened farmers causing a spate of
suicides in the region.

EdelGive Support
Locations: Telangwadi, Nimtok, Amdari, Rajdari villages of Maharashtra
Watershed Development Funding: 1.05 Crores (2015 - 2018)
Geography: Drought hit and water scarce region
Main Approach: Shirpur / Dove, Budki Model, Dug well recharge, repairing and Bore well
recharge, Vanrai Bandhara, Check Dams, Farm Ponds etc.

EdelGive Foundation Supported Watershed interventions implemented by UGAM

To conserve and harvest water - various models of watershed structures, e.g. Shirpur / Dove
model, Farm ponds, Budki Models, Cement Nala Bandhs, Vanrai Bandharas etc.
Developing water shed project through ‘Ridge to Valley’ approach (treating the land from a
higher elevation and gradually lands of lower elevations are treated).
Planning of natural resource management through people participation, by involving all
stakeholders in planning execution and monitoring.
Generating livelihood resources for farmers, landless labour, women and youth through
long-term self employment planning.

Partners of Ugam: Terre Des Hommes, Japan Consulate, Habitat for Humanity India, Finnish
Society, Institute for Integrated Rural Development, Indian Institute of Science Education and
Research and many others.
UTTHAN
Gujarat

Founded: 1981

Founders: Padma Chowgule, Indu Mishra, Penelope Lane Czarra and Nafisa Barot

Utthan works in the tribal belts and coastal regions of Gujarat among the economically poor and
socially excluded populations, with extremely low health status of women, low education, and high
levels of migration for employment. Its major thrust areas have been: access to safe water and
sanitation as a basic human right; integrating perspective of gender equality and women’s
empowerment; conflict prevention through conflict transformation, peace and justice; and
Livelihood security through protection, conservation and augmentation of natural resources.

Context of the Region

The geographical situation in the areas in which Utthan operates is such that all the rainwater is
carried away into the catchment area of two dams situated in this area. Due to the lack of any major
river, water cannot be conserved easily in this area. Also the area being on a slope causes soil
erosion resulting in reduction of forest cover. Agriculture is rain-fed and therefore there is a high
element of risk. Many of the families migrate to enhance their incomes to urban centres in the
district, to other regions of Gujarat and even outside the state.

EdelGive Support
Locations: Bhamari village of Gujarat
Watershed Development Funding: Rs. 46 Lakh (2015 - 2017)
Geography: Drought hit and water scarce region
Main Approach: Organising communities and women and enhancing their capacities, their
exposures to other farmers groups having best practices, facilitating building of Check dams,
Farm bunds, Gabian structures, Drip Irrigation, Well deepening, etc.

EdelGive Foundation Supported Watershed interventions implemented by Utthan

Conserving soil and water by using community centred gender sensitive approach and ‘ridge
to valley’ concept in order to reduce soil loss and maximize harvesting of water and retain
soil moisture.
Increase cropping intensity of agriculture land by converting waste land and from a single
crop to double cropping farm land therefore addressing the issues of poverty, migration,
food security, education etc.
Utilization of land according to its capacity for realizing its production potential on a
sustainable basis.
Create awareness among the people about the nature and seriousness of the problem and
the action possible for regeneration of natural resources, environment protection and of
improved best agriculture and water conservation practices.

Partners of Utthan: India WASH Forum, NABARD, Indo-German Watershed Development Program,
Water and Sanitation Management Organisation-Swajaldhara Rashtriya Shram Vikas Yojna,
Gender Water Alliance, Global Water Partnership, South Asia Consortium for Interdisciplinary
Waters, Water and Environmental Sanitation Network, Pravah and many others.
Yuva Rural Association
Maharashtra

Founded: 2002
Founder: Dattatray Shankar Patil

Yuva Rural Association (YRA) works to address the rural issues in Western India with its core
existence in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra where YUVA had initiated development
interventions through a network called Vidarbha Lokvikas Manch. At present, YRA works in Natural
Resource Management, Livelihoods, Gender and Governance. YRA works in comparatively backward
regions of Maharashtra which faces numerous problems including farmer's suicides, lack of irrigation
facilities, lack of proper health and education services.

Context of the Region

A majority of the population in the Vidharbha region is employed in agriculture. Yet, 78% of the land
is cultivated under rain-fed conditions. Vidharbha accounts for the maximum number of farmers’
suicides. The problems are compounded due to low crop yield and only oncrop per year due to lack
of irrigation. Crop failures are rampant due to dry spells and erratic rainfall. Farmers face
infrastructural and financial bottlenecks such as storage facilities and bank credit. Farmers have
higher input costs with single cropping and the risk of total crop failure. The lack of scientific soil
management has led to erosion of the fertile top-soil and reduction in crop productivity. The
situation of small and marginal farmers in this context is extremely serious.

EdelGive Support
Locations: Bhandarbodi, Wadamba, Mahadula, Panchala, Shivani villages of Maharashtra
Watershed Development Funding: Rs. 51 Lakh (2016 - 2018)
Geography: Drought hit and water scarce region
Main Approach: PHAD structures, Drip Irrigation, Formation of farmers’ groups, exposure
visit of farmers etc.

EdelGive Foundation Supported Watershed interventions implemented by Yuva Rural Association

Enhancing ground water level and soil moisture. Diversion based irrigation, locally called
‘Phad Irrigation Model’ is very economical and an environment friendly method of irrigation
(as it doesn’t require power for lifting water and is affordable to poor farmers)
Securing first season crops and preparing for second and third yields of crops, thereby
increasing financial security
Increasing water avaibility, whereby farmers start practicing multi cropping pattern.
Farmers are trained in techniques of sustainable agriculture and other agriculture-allied
interventions for greater agriculture outputs
Water user groups developed in the villages for managing and monitoring the distribution
and management of water

Partners of YRA: NABARD, Watershed Support Service and Activities Network, VNCS, AME
Foundation, Tribal Development Department, SRTT, Maharashtra State Bio- Diversity Board, Swiss
Aid India, Women and Child Development department. United Nations Development Programme,
UNICEF, NABARD, Watershed Support Service and Activities Network, Swiss Aid India, NACO and
many others.
Glimpses
EdelGive Foundation Supported water projects

Construction of watershed structures in Mokhada, Maharashtra – AROEHAN

Converting desert land into cultivable farms

Villagers participating in Participatory Rural Appraisal

 Women participating in water user groups Edelweiss employees volunteering

Women having to spend hours to collect water

Exposure visits to water shed programs

Site of a watershed project village

Water shed structures site identifications, lay-out and demarcations

People travel long distances to collect water

Community mobilisation A well running dry

 Annexure I
Chronology of Government WSD programs and guidelines in India

Year Program/Policy Major objectives Relevant institution

1974 Programme Promote economic development and MoRD
(DPAP) mainstreaming drought prone areas through
Soil and moisture conservation
1978 Desert Minimize adverse effects of drought and MoRD
Development desertification through reforestation.
Programme
(DDP)
1990 Integrated Regenerate degraded non-forest land MoRD
Wasteland through silvipasture and soil and water
Development conservation on the village and micro-
Programme watershed scale.
(IWDP)
1989 Integrated Restore and regenerate the ecological Ministry of
Afforestation balance of degraded forests on a watershed Environment &
and Eco- basis using a participatory approach. Forests (MoEF) and
Development State Forest
Scheme (IAEPS) Department
1991 National Promote sustainable natural resource Ministry of
Watershed management, enhance agricultural Agriculture
Development production, restore the ecological balance, (MoA)
Project for reduce regional disparities, and create
Rainfed Areas sustained employment opportunities in
(NWDPRA) rainfed areas.

1992 Indo-German Rehabilitate micro-watersheds for the National Bank for

Watershed purpose of regeneration of natural resources Agriculture
Development and sustainable livelihoods, using a and Rural
Programme participatory approach. Development
(NABARD)
1994 Guidelines for Provide common guidelines for WSD focused MoRD
Watershed on the watershed scale and having a
Development participatory focus (Represented around a
third of the GOI’s investment in micro-
watersheds and sought to leverage the
success of NGOs).
2000 Watershed Provide financial support to scale up MoA and National
Development successful participatory WSD projects in 100 Bank for
Fund priority districts; promote a more unified Agriculture and
strategy to WSD. Rural Development
(NABARD)
2003 Hariyali Integrate community institutions more MoRD
 Guidelines meaningfully in DPP, DPAP, and IWDP and
simplify procedures.
2008 Common Promote a fresh framework to guide all WSD National Rainfed
Guidelines for projects in all departments and ministries. Area Authority
Watershed (NRAA)
Development
(Neeranchal)
2009 Integrated Consolidated three programs: IWDP, DPAP, MoRD
Watershed and DPP. Programs adopted a cluster
Management approach focusing on a cluster of micro-
Programme watersheds (1000 ha to 5000 ha scale).
(IWMP)
2015 IWMP will be PMKSY has been conceived amalgamating MoRD
implemented as ongoing schemes viz. Accelerated Irrigation
the Watershed Benefit Programme (AIBP) of the Ministry of
Component of Water Resources, River Development &
Prime Minister Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR, RD&GR),
Krishi Sinchayee Integrated Watershed Management
Yojana (PMKSY) Programme (IWMP) of Department of Land
Resources (DoLR) and the On Farm Water
Management (OFWM) of Department of
Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC). The
scheme will be implemented by Ministries of
Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural
Development. Ministry of Rural Development
Source: Planning Commission, 2012
 References

1. Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), 2014.

2. EdelGive Foundation Annual Reports: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
(http://www.edelgive.org/resources_reports.php).

3. Joshi PK, Jha AK, Wani SP, Joshi L and Shiyani RL. 2005. Meta-analysis to assess impact of
watershed program and people’s participation. Research Report 8, Comprehensive
Assessment of watershed management in agriculture. International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics and Asian Development Bank. 21 pp.

4. Joshi PK, Jha AK, Wani SP, Sreedevi TK and Shaheen FA. 2008. Impact of Watershed Program
and Conditions for Success: A Meta-Analysis Approach. Global Theme on Agro ecosystems,
Report 46. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and National Centre
for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research.

5. Rao, Srinivasa., Lal, Ratan., Prasad, Jasti., Gopinath, Kodigal., Singh, Rajbir., Jakkula,Vijay S
Kanwar., Sahrawat L., Venkateswarlu, Bandi., Sikka, Alok K, and Virmani, Surinder M. 2015.
Potential and Challenges of Rainfed Farming in India. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.
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case study of Satara Tanda Village. International Journal of Innovative Technology and
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7. Wani SP, Ramakrishna, Sreedevi TK, Long TD, Thawilkal Wangkahart, Shiferaw B, Pathak and
Kesava Rao. 2006. Issues, concepts, approaches and practices in the integrated watershed
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agricultural diversification and sustainable livelihoods in Eastern and Central Africa: Lessons
and experiences from Semi-Arid South Asia. Proceedings of the International Workshop held
in December 2004 at Nairobi, Kenya. pp. 17–36.