Practical 3 ANIMAL NUTRITION

Learning Outcome
 Distinguish the nutrients and its sources;
 Justify the important role of feed nutrients in the whole process of production;
 Compare the digestive systems of non-ruminants and ruminants;
 Formulate rations for different farm animals and
 Calculate animal nutrition related problems,

LET’s LEARN THIS

Overview

Nutrition is the science that deals with food or feed and the nutrients it
contains. It includes the process of providing body cells with the proper amount and
balance of nutrients to enable the cells to functions in the many metabolic and
endocrine processes involved in growth, body maintenance, work, production
(meat, milk, eggs, and wools), reproduction, and optimal formations of the body's
defense mechanisms against disease. Thus, nutrition has an inveterate and
profound effect on the whole process of animals.

Definition of Terms
Th The study of various physical and chemical processes that transform
Nutrition food elements to body elements and the influence of various feed
additives to various processes in the body. It involves the ingestion,
digestion and absorption of various nutrients, their transport to all
body cells, its metabolism and the removal of unusable nutrients
and waste products and metabolism.
 The series of processes by which an organism takes in and
assimilates food for promoting growth and replacing worn-out
or injured tissues,
 Encompasses several fields of discipline like biochemistry,
chemistry, physiology, endocrinology, microbiology, genetics.

Food/Feed Term given to any materials that embraces naturally in both plants
and animals including its by-products prepared from them. Example:
corn, rice bran, fish meal, soybean meal, etc.

Feedstuff Term given to any materials both natural in origin and synthetically
prepared that when properly used have nutritional value in the diet.
Example: Corn, DL - Methionine, Feed supplements, some vitamins
premixes, etc.

Nutrients are substances or elements found in the feeds that are very

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 necessary to support normal life processes of the animals. These
are the carbohydrates, fats, protein, minerals, vitamins and water.
 Any feed constituent, or a group of feed constituents of the
same general chemical composition that aids in the support
of life.
 May include synthetically produced vitamins, chemically
produced inorganic salts or biogenically synthesized amino
acids.
Ration food given to the animals with balance of all nutrients needed by
the animals within 24 hours requirement/food allowance.

Diet the kind of food given to animals regardless whether balance or

unbalance of nutrient requirements needed by the animals

Digestion the process of breaking down of food particles through mechanical,

enzymatic and/or microbial process in the preparation for nutrient
absorption.

Absorption The transport of all digested nutrients to all parts of the body tissues
and cells.
 Transfer of substance from gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) to the
circulatory (blood, or lymph) system.

Metabolism the next process of nutrient utilization in the body after it is

digested and absorbed in the cells. It is the sum total of all physical
and chemical changes occurring in the body where nutrients are
metabolized into energy in the form of ATP, carbon dioxide and
water (metabolic water)
 Combination of anabolic (reactions that build and maintain
the body through energy formation) and catabolic (reaction
that release energy by the breaking down of substances)
reactions occurring in the body with the liberation of energy.

Metabolic the water produced from the nutrients (carbohydrates, fats and
water protein) when metabolized in the cells.

Enzymes complex protein produced in living cells that causes changes in

other substances; within the body without being changed itself
(organic catalysts).

Acid Detergent This value represents the fiber portion of the forage that is left after
Fiber treatment with detergent in acid conditions Its value essentially is
the indigestible and poorly digestible portions of the plant and can
thus be used to estimate digestibility of the forage when fed.

Neutral value represents the fiber portion of the forage that is left when
Detergent treated with a I neutral detergent. Its value is essentially the
Fiber digestible and indigestible portions of j the cell wall. Neutral
detergent fiber is inversely related to dry matter intake. This means
that as the NDF in forages increases, animals will be able to
consume less | of the forage.

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Crude fat measure of the total fat in the forage.

an indigestible non-carbohydrate component in forage. It increases

in forages as they mature
This value approximates the carbohydrates that can be rapidly
fermented in the rumen and usually represents pectin, starches,
and sugars.
The total protein in a feed ingredient estimated from the total
nitrogen measured.
CP = %N * 6.25
True Protein protein which is composed of only amino acids

Non-Protein- Compounds which are not true protein in nature but contain N and
Nitrogen can be converted to protein by bacterial action (i.e. urea)

Digestible portion of the crude protein which is the animal can digest;
Protein represented by the difference what is present in the feed and what
is appear in the feces.

Available Protein that is not damaged or bound and is available for use by the
Protein animal

Unavailable Protein that is unavailable to the animal. Heat damaged protein is

Protein found in this fraction

Neutral This is protein that is contained within the neutral detergent fiber of
Detergent the forage. Typically this fraction contains the slowly digested
Crude Protein protein and the bound or unavailable protein.

Soluble Protein This protein is completely soluble (dissolves) in the rumen and is
rapidly converted to ammonia.

Degradable The portion of the protein that is degraded in the rumen

Protein

Total Digestible is a measure of the total digestible energy in the forage.

Digestible
Nutrients

Activity 1: Nutrients and Its Sources

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 In the operation of any livestock and poultry enterprise, feeds
constitute a large portion of expenses. They account for as much as 80% in
swine and poultry productions. Thus, a good knowledge of feed greatly
influences the success or failure of such enterprise. Knowledge on feeds
and feedstuff such as when and how to use them for different species and
classes of farm animals is important prior to engaging in animal
production.

The Six Nutrients and its Function

Feed composition and routine laboratory analysis (Wattiaux, 2005)

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A. Carbohydrates
Functions:
a. source of energy
b. source of heat
c. building stones for other nutrients
d. stored in animal body when converted to fats

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Classification of Carbohydrates (McDonald, 2010)
B. Fats (Lipids or Ether Extracts)

Functions:
a. energy supply
b. source of heat, insulation and protection for animal body
c. source of essential fatty acids
 linoleic (C18:2) and linolenic (C18:3) apparently cannot be
synthesized by animal tissues, or at least not in sufficient
amounts to prevent pathological changes and so must be
supplied in the diet.
 arachidonic acid (C20:4) can be synthesized from C18:2, and
therefore, is required in the diet only if C18:2 is absent.
d. serve as a carrier for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
e. Storage fuel
 Contains no water; more compact energy storage substance
 Contains twice as much energy as carbohydrates
f. Plasma membrane structure
g. Hormone production
h. Myelin sheaths of nerve fibers
i. Bile salts
j. Insulation and cushioning
k. Vitamin D synthesis
l. Production of some blood clotting factors

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 C. Protein

Functions:
a. Basic structural of animal body, i.e., collagen, elastin, contractile
protein, keratin proteins, blood proteins
b. Body metabolism - enzymes (digestion process, degradative process,
synthesis process), hormones and lipid transport, immune bodies,
hereditary transmissions
c. source of energy after deamination
d. Muscle contraction
e. Structural components of cellular membranes
f. Major component of connective tissues
g. Oxygen binding
h. Major component of blood clotting factors, antibodies,
neurotransmitters
i. Emergency fuel source

D. Minerals

Functions (General)
 Skeletal formation and maintenance -> Ca, P, Mg, Cu, Mn
 Function of protein synthesis -> P, S, Zn
 Oxygen transport by hemoglobin and myoglobin -> Fe, Cu
 Fluid balance (osmotic pressure and excretion) ->Na, Cl, K
 Regulating acid-balance of the entire system -> Na, Cl, K
 Activators and/or components of enzyme systems -> Ca, P, K, Mg,
Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn
 Mineral-vitamin relationship -> Ca P, Co, Se
 Structure of bones and teeth
 Component of macromolecules and electrolytes
 Buffers stomach acid

Deficiency Major
Mineral/ Major Symptoms Interrelationship
Sources Functions and Toxicities
Calcium Bone and tooth Rickets (young) Vit D involved absorption
[Milk, legumes, formation; Osteomalacia and bone
steamed bone Blood coagulation; (adult) deposition;
meal, calcium Muscle Tetany Excess PO4
phosphate, contraction; Slow growth and decrease
ground oyster Nerve functions; bone development absorption; Excess
shelll Cell permeability Thin-shelled egg Mg
Enzyme activiation decrease
absorption,
replaces Ca in bone
and increases Ca

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 excretion

Phosphorous Bone and teeth Rickets (young) Vit D involved in renal

[Milk and eggs, formation; Osteomalacia absorption and bone
oilseeds and (adult) deposition; Excess
hulls cereals, Phosphorylation; Rough hair coat, Ca and Mg causes
steamed bone High energy pica Lowered decrease in
meal, phosphate appetite absorption
dicalcium bond; Slow growth and
phosphate, PO4 chief anion low utilization of
tripoly- radical of feed
phosphate, intracellular Lower blood plasma
deflourinated fluid; PO4 phosphorus
phosphate] important in
acid- base
balance
Component of
many enzyme
systems
Release
body energy,
part of DNA and
RNA
Magnesium Enzyme activator Vasodiation; Excess upsets Ca and P
[Allfeeds primarily in Hyperirritability metabolism
particularly glycolytic with
plant system; convulsions,
products – Bone formation loss of
leafy equilibrium
vegetable and
and cereals trembing;
grains] Tetany; Lowered
appetite
(anorexia)
Profuse
salivation
Sodium Major cation of Reduced Salt toxicity readily
[Common salts, extracellular growth or loss occurs in non-
Cured meats, fluid weight ruminants with levels
cheese] where it is Eyedisturbance above 8% in the diet;
involved in with comeal Staggering gait;
osmotic pressure lesions; blindness; and other
and acid-base Reproduction nervous disorder.
equilibrium; impairment
Preservation of (infertility
normal muscles males, delayed
cell irritability; sexual maturity
Cell permeability in females)
Component of Craving of salt or

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 bile, which aids eating of soil
in fat digestion Reduced
Appetite
Chlorine Major anion Hydrochloremic
[Common salt] involved in alkalosis
osmotic pressure (usually due to
and acid-base physiological
balance disturbances
(chlorine shift); as vomiting
Hydrochloric acid rather than
in digestion deficiency)
Potassium Major cation of Hypokalemia:
[Normal rations] Intracellular Lethargic
fluid condition with
where it is high incidence
involved in of comas and
osmotic death;
pressure Diarrhea, distended
and acid-base abdomen and
balance; untidy
Muscle activity appearance
Maintenance of Heart lesions
electrolytes Loss weight and
balance Enzyme reduced
activator appetite
Muscle weakness
Poor wool growth
Sulfur [Protein Sulfur containing Primarily growth
supplements, amino acids; effect due to
forages, SH group function sulfur amino
cereals] in tissue acid
respiration requirement for
Synthesis of amino protein
acids in synthesis
ruminants Low feed
(component of efficiency
sulfur-containing Slow wool growth
amino acids) in sheep
Iron Cellular respiration Hypochromic- Ca - P ratio influence
[Egg, soil, (hemoglobin, microcytic absorption;
forages and cytochromes, anemia Cu required for proper
grains, iron myoglobin) Thumps in pigs metabolism;
injection, liver, Component of Diarrhea or loss of Pyridoxine deficiency
ferrous sulfate] many ezymes appetite decrease absorption
Copper Cofactor in Fading hair coat or Excess Mo, Zn inhibit its
[Feedstuff several lack of wool; utilization and storage;
and CUSO4] oxidation- Nervous symptoms Toxicity occurs at levels
reduction or atoxia; above 250 ppm with
enzyme Lameness, swelling much the same
systems; of joints and symptoms as

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 Hemoglobin fragility of bones; deficiency.
synthesis; Bone Anemia delayed
formation; sexual
Maintenance of maturity in
myelin of nerves females)
Erythropoises; Craving of salt or
Preservation of eating of soil
normal muscle Reduced appetite
cell irritability;
Cell permeability
Component of bile,
which aids in fat
digestion
Chlorine Major anion Hydrochloremic
[Common salt] involved in alkalosis (usually
osmotic due to
pressure physiological
and acid-base disturbances as
balance vomiting rather
(chlorine shift); than deficiency)
Hydrochloric acid
in digestion
Potassium Major, cationof Hypokalemia:
[Normal rations] Intracellular Lethargic
fluid condition with
where it is high incidence of
involved in comas and
osmotic death;
pressure Diarrhea, distended
and acid-base abdomen and
balance; untidy
Muscle activity appearance
Maintenance of Heart lesions
electrolytes Loss weight and
balance Enzyme reduced
activator appetite
Muscle weakness
Poor wool growth
Sulfur [Protein Sulfur containing Primarily growth
supplements, amino acids; effect due to
forages, cereals] SH group function sulfur amino acid
in tissue requirement for
respiration protein synthesis
Synthesis of amino Low feed efficiency
acids in Slow wool growth in
ruminants sheep
(component of

sulfur-containing
amino acids)

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Iron Cellular respiration Hypochromic- Ca -P ratio influence
[Egg, soil, (hemoglobin, microcytic absorption;
forages and cytochromes, anemia Cu required for proper
grains, iron myoglobin) Thumps in pigs metabolism;
injection, liver, Component of Diarrhea or loss of Pyridoxine deficiency
ferrous sulfate] many enzymes appetite decrease absorption
Copper Cofactor in several Fading hair coat or Excess Mo, Zn inhibit its
[Feedstuff and oxidation- lack of wool; utilization and
CUSO4] reduction Nervous symptoms storage;
enzyme or atoxia; Toxicity occurs at levels
systems; Lameness, swelling above 250 ppm with
Hemoglobin of joints and much the same
synthesis; fragility of symptoms as
Bone formation; bones; deficiency.
Maintenance of Depraved appetite
myelin of nerves Stunted growth
Coenzymes Diarrhea or ataxic
system gait
Hair pigmentation Loss condition
Reproduction Aortic pressure in
Collagen and swine and poultry
elastin synthesis
Iron utilization
Zinc Component or Poor hair or feather High Ca and P level
[Forages, ZnO, cofactor of several development and requirement;
ZnC03 or ZnS04] enzyme systems slipping of wool; Excess Zn interferes Cu
including Rough and metabolism and may
peptidases and thickened skin or cause anemia
carbonic parakeratosis
anhydrase Retarded growth
Anorexia
Parakeratosis in
swine
Hyperkeratosis
in chicks Poor
feathering and
hatchability
Manganese Thought to be an Poor growth; Excess Ca and P
[MnS04 at activator of Shortened long decreases absorption
100g/ton of feed, enzymes bones;
nuts and seeds, systems Impaired
milk, Legumes involved in reproduction
and cereals] oxidative (testicular
phosphorylation, degeneration of
amino acids males,
metabolism, defective
fatty ovulation of
acid synthesis females):
and cholesterol Perosis
metabolism; or slipped

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 Bone formation tendon
(organic matrix); in chicken and
Growth and other fowl
Reproduction Lowered
hatchability and
egg shell
strength,
lameness and
stiffness
Cobalt Components of Anemia (varies
[Cobalt Vitamin B12 from
pellets/salts] normocytic-
normochromic
to
megaloblastic or
macrocytic
Iodine Thyroxine Goiter; Still births;
[Iodized salts, Hairless pigs or
cod- liver oil] wool-less lambs at
birth
Selenium Destroys Mortality in poultry; Chronic toxicity;
[Oil meals and peroxides; if Blind staggers -10 -
grains] related to E is also deficient 20ppm Alkali disease-5-
Vitamin or suboptimal; 10 ppm Acute toxicity:
E absorption Exudative diathesis 20 ppm
and/or retention (chicks) and above
which prevents Muscle dystrophy Sudden death SO4
peroxide Liver necrosis protector against
formation Alkali disease or toxicity
blind staggers if
excess above 5
ppm)
Molybdenum Purine metabolism Lack of conversion Excess interferes with Cu
[Widely Enzyme systems of xanthine to uric activations of enzymes;
distributed, Affects copper acid but not likely Causes anemia and
rarely a problem] absorption and to be deficient in diarrhea; SO4 protects
availability to natural diet Loss of against toxicity
tissues weight; diarrhea
Fluorine Traces protect Decreased appetite Levels above 5-10 ppm
[Water] against teeth and slow growth blocks vital oxidative
decay enzymes by interfering
with Mn;
Causes bone deformities,
enamel defects and
organ degeneration;
Ca and Al salts protect
against toxicity

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 E. Vitamins -> are organic substance essential for the maintenance of
health and life of farm animal though needed in very minute amounts.

Functions
 Coenzymes for many metabolic pathways
 Antioxidants
 Component of visual pigment
 Hormone (vitamin D)

Vitamin/Sources Main Function Deficiency Hyper-

Symptoms Vitaminosis
A Bone formation Xerophthalmia; Hyperostosis:
[Yellow corn, alfalfa (mucopolysaccharide Night Blindness; Hyperkeratosis;
and grasses, egg release); Hyperkeratosis; Most of the same
yolk, liver, fish Vision (rhodopsin) or Skeletal lesions symptoms which
liver regeneration of visual and bone occur with
oil, milk fat, green purple in eyes remodeling; deficiency
vegetables, Epithelial tissue Poor growth and
commercial (digestive, respiratory, appetite;
preparations] reproductive) Reproductive
maintenance; failures
Glucose synthesis Muscle
(adrenocorticol incoordination
hormone) Rough haircoat
Growth or cellular and plumage
metabolism
Proper function of
immune system
D (sterol) Bone formation (Ca Rickets (growing Decalcification of
D2 - ergocalciferol absorption, P period); skeleton and
D3 - cholecalciferol absorption from renal Osteomalacia calcification of
[Fish liver oils, tubules, osteoblast (adults); tissue
irradiated yeast, formation and Soft egg shells
egg yolks, milk fat, calcification). and reduced
field-cured hays, CHO metabolism egg
commercial (phosphorylation). production
preparation, Growth (related bone and
exposure to formations) hatchability
sunliqht]
E (tocopherol) Antioxidants; Muscle dystrophy; Relatively non-
[Cereal grains Muscle structure (muscle Encephalomalcia; toxic
(germ), egg yolk, oils dystrophy); Exudative
of soybean, peanuts Reproduction diathesis;
and cottonseed, (seminiferous epithelium) Reproductive
alfalfa, beef liver, Hatchability of eggs failures;
wheat germ oil, Cell nucleus activity Steatitis
commercial Liver necrosis
preparations] Cardiac muscle
abnormalities

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 Dental
depigmentation
K Green leafy plants, Prothrombin (for normal Spontaneous Relatively non-
liver, egg yolk, fish blood clotting) hemorrhages and toxic
meal, synthetic form formation increase blood
(menadione)]. clotting time
lowered
prothrombin
levels.
Thiamine (Bi) Coenzyme, Thiamine Polyneuritis and Relatively non-
[Milk and milk pyrophosphate; convulsion toxic
products, brewers' Decarboxylation of a-keto (head
yeast, wheat acids or Transketolase retraction in
germ, reaction chickens);
unmilled cereals, Promote normal appetite Cardiovascular
grain byproducts, and digestion disturbances;
lean pork, liver, Helps keep the nervous Beri-beri (man);
kidney, egg yolk, system healthy and Anorexia and
good quality hay, prevents irritability emaciation
synthetic Hyperirritability
preparation] Reproductive
failure in horse
Riboflavin (B2 or G) Coenzyme, Flavin Ectodermal (skin, Non-toxic
[Milk, cheese, liver, Mononucleotide (FMN) eye) and
kidney, eggs, fish, and Oxidize Adenine nervous system
green forage, oil dinucleotide (FAD); lesions;
meals, Dehydrogenase Dermatitis and
fermentation (hydrogen hair
products, acceptance) loss;
commercial Energy transfer (helps cell Curled toe
preparations] use oxygen) paralysis in
Protein metabolism birds Depressed
Component in xanthine appetite and
oxidase retarded growth
Healthy skin
Pantothenic acid Coenzyme A; Acyl transfer Dermatitis, loss of Relatively non-
[Liver, egg yolk, milk, hair and toxic
hay, peanut meal, graying of hair
cane molasses,
yeast, rice, wheat (depigmentation);
brans, cereal Spastic gait,
grains goose
and by-products, stepping or
royal jellys of bees] posterior
incoordination
and paralysis;
Ententes;
Poor growth and
reproduction
Skin, nervous

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 system and
adrenal gland
lesions
Gastrointestinal
trouble
Niacin or Nicotinic Coenzyme, DPN and TPN; 3D’s—dermatitis, Vasolidation with
acid Hydrogen transport diarrhea, itching and
[Milk, meat, eggs, Can be spared by the and dementia burning of skin;
green vegetables, amino acid tryptophan (Pellagra or black Fatty liver
peanut butter, Health of digestive and tongue);
animal and fish by- nervous system Irritability;
products, distillers Inflammation and
grains and yeast, ulceration of
fermentation mouth, tongue,
soluble, oil meals] digestive tract
Loss of appetite
and weight
Vomiting
Anemia
Pyridoxine (Be) Coenyme; Convulsion, Convulsion and
[Yeast, liver, muscle, Pyridoxal phosphate; neuritis Death
meat, egg yolk, milk, Amino acid and
cereal grains, decarboxylation;
vegetables] Transamination and hyperirritability;
removal of sulfhydryl Hypochromic –
groups microcytic
anemia;
Increased
excretion
xanthurenic acid
Biotin Coezyme, Carboxylase; Dermatitis Non-toxic
[Yeast and organ Carboxylation or (β- Loss of hair
meats, whole grains, decarboxylation; Disturbance of
molasses, milk] CO2 nervous system
fixation
Fat synthesis
Deamination of certain
enzyme
Functions in enzyme
system
Folic acid One carbon carries Macrocytic Non-toxic
[Green leafy Synthesis of purines and anemia and
materials, organ certain methyl groups leucopenia;
meats, cereals, Erythropoiesis Cervical paralysis
soybeans, animal by- in turkeys
products] Retarded growth
Poor feathering
and
pigmentation of
feathers

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Choline Methyl donor; Fatty Persistent diarrhea
[Milk, egg, meat, fish Lipotropic substance; liver(cirrhosis)
all naturally Constituent of and kidney
occurring fats] acetylchloride and degeneration;
phospholipids Poor reproduction
Components of and lactation
phospholipids Renal tubular
Essential in building and degeneration
maintenance of cell Enlarged
structure spleen and
Transmission of nerve hemorrhagic
impulses conditions of
Fat metabolism in the kidneys
liver Perosis in chicks
Cyanocobalamine Labile methyl and purine Macrocytic Non-toxic
(B12) [Milk, meat, group synthesis anemia with
fish meal, animal by- CHO and fats metabolism; megaloblastic
products, Isomerization reaction marrow;
commercial Nucleic acid synthesis Neurological
preparartions] Known as animal protein disturbances;
factor (APF) Hatching
problems
in chicks;
Reduced growth
Posterior
incoordination
Unsteadiness of
gait
C Collagen formation; Scurvy - slow Non-toxic
[Citrus fruits, Hydrogen transport wound healing
tomatoes, green (activation of folic acid) Spongy gums
leafy materials, Formation and Swollen joints
potatoes, synthetic maintenance of Hemorrhaging
preparation] intercellular material in Anemia
bones and in soft Loss of teeth
tissues Acts as a tissue
catalyst
(aids in healing);
Antioxidant
Inositol Lipotropic action in Alopecia (loss of
[Occurs in plant certain rat diets, where hair)
products in other vitamins are
the deficient
organic
phosphorous
substance phytin.
Para-aminobenzoic Anti-gray-hair factor in Graying of hair
acid (PABA) mice and rats
[Synthetic Growth stimulant in (achromotrichia)

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preparation] chicks in animals other
than human

F. Water (H20)

Function:
a. Transport of nutrients and excretion
b. chemical reactions and solvent properties
c. body temperature regulation
d. maintain shape of body cells
e. lubricates and cushion joints and organic in body cavity

Classification of Feedstuff

a. Concentrate Feeds - are feed materials usually having low

moisture and fiber content (less than 18%) with relatively high
digestibility Concentrates are classified into:

i. Basal (carbonaceous) concentrates - those feed materials

rich in energy (less than 20% CP)

Example: Cereal grains - yellow corn, rice bran D1,

sorghum, barley, oats, wheat pollard
Root crops - cassava, gabi,
camote
Oil/Fats – coconut oil. fish
oil, tallow
Molasses – sugarcane
molasses

ii. Protein concentrates - those feed materials either pure or

mixed rich in protein either plant and animal origin (more
than 20% CP)

Example: Plant protein - soybean meal, peanut meal,

cotton seed meal, copra meal, ipil-ipil leaf
meal, sunflower seed meal, rubber seed
meal, etc.

Animal protein – meat and bone meal, blood

meal, feather meal, tankage, skim milk,
animal waste
Marine protein -- fish meal, shrimp meal
Single cells protein -- produced by yeast or
bacteria non-protein nitrogen - urea may be fed
to

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 ruminants but not for swine and poultry
- Biuret is a mixture of the nitrogen compounds
resulting from controlled pyrolysis (chemical
change due to heat) of urea.
iii. Minerals and Vitamins Supplements

Minerals - (Macro) - Limestone, Oyster Shell, Bone meal,

Dicalcium Phosphate, Tricalcium phosphate, Mono
Dicalcium phosphate, calcium bicarbonate, salt;
(Micro) are either pure or synthetic preparation which
are commercially available in premixes.

Vitamins -- are either pure or synthetic preparations

which are available commercially in premixes.

Feed additives (non-nutritive feed) -- feed ingredients

with no nutrient value added usually in small
quantity to the basic feed mix for the purpose of
fortifying to improve its digestion and utilization.

Examples: antibiotics, prebiotics, probiotics, anti-

oxidants, hormones, enzymes, mold inhibitors,
flavoring, coloring, toxic binder, pellet binder and
acidifier.

b. Roughage -- are feed materials with higher proportion of fiber or

non-digestible material (more than 18%) with relatively poor
digestibility

Roughages are classified into:

Degree of water
a) Succulent roughages - high in water content and more digestible

Soilage – green fodder that are cut by human and feed to the
animal
fresh
Pasture -- green fodder/grass that are graze by the animal in the
field
Establishment: -> cleaning or clearing, land preparation
(plowing,
harrowing, furrowing), planting, care and management
(weeding, fertilizer application), harvesting (cut and
carry or grazing or tethering)

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 Some pasture species (grass or legumes):
Source: www.tropicalforages.info

 Napier grass - Pennisetum purpureum

 Guinea grass - Panicum maximum
 Para grass - Brachiaria mutica
 Signal grass - Brachiaria decumbens
 Star grass - Cynodon plectostachyus
 Bagocboc - Themeda triandra
 Cogon - Imperata cyclindrica
 Alabang x - Andropogon nodosus
 Centrosema - Centrosema pubescens
 Kudzu - Pueraria phaseoloides
 Calopogonium - Calopogonium muconoides
 Stylo - Stylosanthes guianensis
 Siratro - Macroptilium atropurpureum
 Pintoi peanut - Arachis pintoi
 Ipil-ipil - Leucaena leucocephala
 Kakawate - Glyricidia sepium
 Madre de agua - Tricanthera gigantea
 Indigofera - Indigofera spicata or I. schimperi
 Sesbania - Sesbania seban, S. grandiflora, S. rostrata
 Calliandra - Calliandra calothyrsus
 Rensonii - Desmodium cinereum
 Flemengia - Flemingia macrophylla
Silage – grass or crop residues that are being process (compressed and
stored
under anaerobic condition in a container called a silo) thru
fermentation before being fed to animals.

b) Dry roughages - contain less water content

Hay - are either grasses or legumes consisting of the leaves, flowers and
stems
being cut and cured either by sun or air drying; by dehydrating green
forage to a moisture content of 15% or less

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 Straw - are mostly from cereal crop residues which contain high
percentage
of indigestible fiber and are low in digestible carbohydrates, protein,
vitamins and minerals.

Level of contents
a. proteinaceous roughages -> contain more than 10% CP (dry
matter basis); made up primarily of legumes and some immature
grass

b. carbonaceous roughages -> contain less than 10% CP (dry

matter basis); made up primarily of non- legumes and low-quality
roughages

List of Common Feed Ingredients

Banana Meal
Banana meal is the product obtained after chopping, drying and grinding the
ripe banana fruit, which may either be peeled or unpeeled.
Barley
Barley is used as fine-ground ingredient. It contains about 75% as much
energy and three times as much fiber as corn. Therefore, its use is limited
specially in feed mixtures that must be high in energy and low in fiber. Cost
of energy must be considered when barley is to be substituted for other
energy feeds. Also, higher inclusion rates of barley may require enzyme
supplementation.
Blood Meal
Blood meal is ground, dried blood. It is often used as source of lysine and is
also a good source of bypass protein for ruminants. It is low in amino acid
isoleucine.
Brown Sugar
Brown sugar is the unrefined cane sugar. It is added to feeds to enhance
palatability.
Canola Meal
This is produced from grinding cakes remaining after the extraction of oil
from genetically modified rapeseed. It contains minimal glucosinolates and is
a good substitute for soybean meal.

20
Cassava Meal
Cassava meal is produced by grinding dried, sliced cassava roots. Also
known as tapioca or manioc, cassava meal may replace corn in a mixed diet
up to 50%. which is about 25-30% of the mixed diet. However, proper
attention should be given to the hydrocyanic acid (HCN) content of this
feedstuff.

Copra Meal
Also known as coconut oil meal and coconut meat meal, copra meal is a
byproduct obtained after the oil has been extracted from the dried coconut
meat. Copra meal is both on energy and protein source but due to some
amino acid deficiencies, it is best used in combination with other protein
sources.
Corn
Corn is the most common grain used for feeding poultry and swine. There
are two types of corn used as feedstuff, the yellow and the white corn. Yellow
corn is preferred to white corn because of its carotene and xantophyll
contents. Xantophyll provides a yolkw pigment to chicken skin and erg >olk.
Corn Bran
Corn bran is the outer covering of the corn grain with bttlc or none of the
starchy part of the germ. It contains practically all the crude fiber found in
the grain.
Corn Germ Meal
Corn germ meal is obtained after the corn oil has been partially extracted. It
is a valuable nitrogenous concentrate but not always available in the market.
Corn Gluten Feed
Corn gluten feed consists of gluten meal and corn bran ground together. It is
lower in protein and higher in etude fiber than gluten meal, duo to the
addition of corn bran.
Corn Gluten Meal
Corn gluten meal is a byproduct of corn when processed to produce oil and
starch. This feedstuff contains a concentration of yellow pigment <if yellow
corn is used), whxh is desirable for producing the desired yellow pigment in
poultry products. Com gluten meal is low in arginine, lysine, tryptophan and
threonine.

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Corn Grit
Com gnt is the hard, flinty portion of sound corn, with little or none of the
bran or germ. It is a byproduct in dry milling of corn.

Dried Skim Milk

Skim milk powder is a product resulting from the removal of fats and water
from Clean, sound milk. It is highly digestible, palatable and suitable for
feeding of young piglets weaned earlier than the conventional age of
weaning.
Dried Whey
Dried whey is the product resulting from the removal of water from clean,
sound cheese or casein whey. Whey is rich in lactase and unidentified growth
factors.
Fish Meal
Fish meal is the clean, dried, ground tissues of undccompnsed whole fish or
fish cuttings either or both with or without the extraction of oiL Fish protein
contains a good balarcc of essential amino acids. A recent product
commercially available in the feed ingredient market is Fish Meal <FM)
Analogue. FM Analogue, whose components include ingredients other than
fish and fish parts, approximate the protein values of fish meal.
Full Fat Soybean Meal
Also termed extruded soybean meal, this is the ground meal produced by
extrusion of whole soybeans, without the removal of any component parts.
Hominy Feed
Hominy feed is obtained after separating corn grits in ground corn kernels. It
is composed mainly of corn bran, corn germ and part of the starchy post ion
of com kernels.
Hydrolyzed Feather Meal
Hydrolyzed feather meal is the product resulting from the treatment under
pressure of clean, undceomposed feathers from slaughtered poultry.
Hydrolyzed poultry* feather is deficient in a number of amino acids, namely:
methionine, lysine, tryptophan and histidine.

22
Ipil-ipil Leaf Meal
This is made from ipil-ipil leaves that are sundried and ground or milled. Ipil-
ipil leaf meal is a very $>od source of xanthopvll. The amount ivcommended
for practical use is limited due to its high content of mimosine. a toxic
substance.
Meat and Bone Meal
Meat and bone meal is the dry rendered residue of animal tissue exclusive of
hair. hoof, blood and contents of the digestive tract. The phosphorus level is
a reflection of the relative amount of bone to soft tissues in the product.
Meat products are generally low in methionine and tryptophan, two of the
essential amino acids.
Molasses
Cane molasses is a byproduct in the manufacture of sugar from sugarcane. It
is rich in niacin and pantothenic acid. It is used in top-dressing mash feeds
and enhances the palatabihtv of feeds. However, this feedstuff has laxative
effect due to its high potassium content: high inclusion rates may also cause
mixing problems.
Oils
Oils used in poultry and livestock feeds come from various sources, and
should contain very minimal moisture and free fatty acid contents. Kxamplcs
of oils are aayu odl (oil extracted from soybean seeds), fish oil. palm kernel
oil (oil extracted from palm nuts), coconut oil (either crude or refined) and its
acid oil (produced by acid treatment of the byproduct of refining crude oil).
Peanut Oil Meal
Peanut oill meal or peanut meal is a ground product of the shelled peanuts,
either mechanically or solvent extracted.
Rape seed Meal
Rapeseed meal is obtained by grinding the cake which remained after the
removal of most of the seed's oil from rapesecd plant. It is unpalatable and
contains the toxic factor glucosinolate.
Rice Bran (darak)
Rice bran is the perearp or bran layer of rice. The different grades of rice
bran are DJ# and Df. Dt is the fine rice bran containing a maximum of 7%
crude fiber. Da is the coarse rice bran containing a maximum of 12% crude
fiber. Rice bran with more than 12% crude fiber isD r

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Rough Rice
Rough rice is commonly referred to as palay or paddy rice. It is the entire
rice kernel including hull. It contains about 7% crude protein and is high in
fiber.
Shrimp Meal
Shrimp meal is a ground, dried waste of shrimp processing. It consists of
head, shell andAir whole shrimp.
Sorghum
Sorghum grains are comparable to that of corn, except that these do not
contribute Vitamin A and has fewer fat content. Proper attention should be
given to the tannic acid content of this ingredient. Both metabolizable
energy (ME) and protein availability decreases as the tannin content of the
sorghum increases.
Soybean Oil Meal
Soybean oil meal is the mast frequently used oil seed meal in livestock
feeds. It is a byproduct from the extraction of ail from soybean. Grade
protein content of the soybean oil meal is dependent upon whether or not
the soybean hull is added back to the mi-extracted bean. The soybean
should be rooked or toasted to improve the quality of the mcaL Because of
its high quality protein soybean oil meal can substitute for a great amount,
or it can totally replace fish meal in the ration. Methionine is the only amino
acid that is low in properly processed soybean meal. Urease activity in
soybean is used as an index in detecting improperly processed soybean oal
mcaL
Spent Grains
Spent grains are by-products of brewery, beer production.
Tallow
Tallow is animal fat from beef cattle, carabao and sheep. It is recovered from
the fat-bearing tissue by rendering. Tallow requires heating before mixing it
with other feedstuff.
Wheat Grain
Wheat grain is the entire wheat kernel including the hull. At high inclusion
rates of this feedstuff, enzyme supplementation may be necessary.
Wheat Pollard

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Wheat pollard, also known as wheat brAn. refers to the coarse outer covering
of wheat kernel obtained in the usual process of commercial milling.

Feed Supplements Synthetic Amino Acids

These are synthetically produced supplements with chemical characteristics
similar to their natural counterparts. They arc commercially available in the
market and include L-Ivsinc. DL-niethioninc and its hydroxy Analogue <MHA).
L-threonine and tryptophan.
Mineral Supplements
Most of the essential minerals are present in ordinary feeds although the
amounts are not sufficient enough to meet the requirements of swine and
poultry. These requirements are for skeletal development of the animals,
eggshell formation in laying hens and other regulatory processes in the
body. The mineral elements most likely to be deficient in common rations arc
caldum. phosphorus, sodium, chloride, manganese and zinc.
Calcium phosphates. These are produced from calcining rock phosphates or
by addition of calcium compounds to phosphoric acid. Certain rock
phosphate deposits can be used for feeding purposes provided, these either
contain very little fluorine or that the fluorine has been removed by heating.
The maximum level of fluorine should be 0.2%. The different kinds of calcium
phosphates are:
 Dicalcium phosphate. Dicaphos is a calcium salt of phosphoric acid
and contains 24% calcium and 18% phosphorus. This is produced
by adding calcium compounds to phosphoric acid which lead to
precipitation of calcium phosphates.
 Monodicalcium phosphate. Monodical is processed like dicaphos
and contains 18% calcium and 20% phosphorus.
 Tricalcium phosphate. Tricaphos is a product of calcining rock
phosphate deposits and has two forms. TCP 18 and TCP 13. TCP 18
contains 25% calcium and 18% phosphorus, while TCP 13 has 28%
calcium and 11% phosphorus.
Limestone. Limestone, which may either be ground or granulated, is one of
the best sources of calcium for animals. To be suitable for feeding purposes,
limestone (calcium carbonate. CaCOj must contain 33-39% calcium and less
than 5% magnesium.
Oyster shell. Seashells are almost pure calcium carbonate (95-99%). They
are commonly used for topdressing or as a free choice source of calcium.

25
Sodium chloride. Common table salt or sodium chloride must be added in
poultry and livestock rations. The amount to be added varies from 0.20-
0.50% of the total diet depending on the salt contents of the other
ingredients. Common table salt should be pulverized, and if possible iodized,
when added to the mixed feed.
Steamed bone meal. Bone meal generally contains about 26% calcium and
12% phosphorus. It must be thoroughly cooked to prevent the spread of
disease- producing organisms.

Trace Mineral Supplements

Trace mineral supplements (iron, copper, zinc, manganese, selenium, iodine
and cobalt) must be applied in the finished feeds in the form of a mineral
premix. The trace minerals are added in the form of soluble salts (iron as
ferrous sulfate, manganese and zinc as sulfate or oxide, copper as sulfate,
selenium as sodium selenite, iodine as potassium iodide and cobalt as cobalt
carbonate) or as chelated trace minerals.
Vitamin Supplements
When feeds are deficient in vitamins, the needed vitamins must be added to
the diet as chemically synthesized vitamins, or as vitamins produced by
fermentation processes. Vitamins are commercially available as feed grade,
prepared in varying concentrations or potencies.
Fat soluble vitamins. The fat soluble vitamins include A, D. E. and K. and
these are required by all animals. The fat soluble vitamins are generally
stored in the body, hence there is no need to supply these vitamins daily.
 Vitamin A does not occur in plant products but rather as
carotenoids or pro vitamin A. Yellow com provides carotene which
can be converted by the body to Vitamin A.
 Vitamin D has two forms — ergocalciferol (vitamin 1) 2) from plants,
and cholecalciferol (vitamin D2) from animals. In other species,
both and are equally effective. Unless the animals are exposed to
the ultra-violet rays of the sun or provided with sun- cured forages,
the diet should be fortified with this vitamin.
 Vitamin E is abundant in whole cereal grains, particularly in the
germ, and byproducts containing the germ. These are alpha, beta
and gamma isomers of tocopherol. Alpha tocopherol, however, is
twice as active than the other two. Potency of vitamins A. D and E
is measured in IU (international Unit), ICU (International Chick
Unit), and USP (United States Pharmocophea).

26
  Vitamin K is the only fat-soluble vitamin synthesized by
microorganisms in the alimentary tract. This synthesis is a major
source of the vitamin for most species of higher animals. The
common synthetic materials with vitamin K activity for dietary use
are menadione sodium bisulfate, menadione sodium bisulfate
complex, and menadione dimethyl pyrimidol bisulfate. Synthetic
form of vitamin K is water soluble.
Water soluble vitamins. The water soluble vitamins that must be added in
poultry and swine feeds are thiamin (Bj). riboflavin (B 2). pantothenic acid
(B3). niacin or nicotinamide (B 4). pyridoxine (B6). folic acid (B8). biotin
(vitamin H). cyanocobalamine (B12). choline and ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
These vitamins are available commercially in synthetic forms. Their purities
are expressed in percent, while their concentrations in finished feeds are
expressed in ppm or mg/kg.

Feed Additives
Acidifiers or Acidulants
They are made of organic acid or mixture of organic acids. When
incorporated in the ration, they exert their effect on the gastrointestinal
environment by lowering the stomach pH. Low stomach pH prevents the
growth and proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms, thus, promoting
better feed efficiency. Examples are phosphoric acid, citric acid, lactic acid,
fumarie acid and acetic acid.
Antibiotics*
These are chemical products produced by microorganisms, which are added
in the mixed feed at subtherapcutic level. These materials may increase
growth rate and feed conversion in animals, but are potentially harmful when
improperly used. Kxamplcs of antibiotics are aureomycin. streptomycin,
erythromycin, neomycin, virgininmvcin. tvlosin and chkntctracyclme.
Anticaking Agents
These agents are used to improve the flowabilitv of grains and feeds by
preventing fecdstuffs from adhering to surfaces, on the inside walls of silos,
bins, conveying systems and mixers.
Anti-malarials
These are used in the prevention and treatment of malaria which include
phyrimethamine and chloroquin diphosphate.

27
Antimolds
These are chemical preservatives added to the feeds to protect them from
decomposition by microorganisms. The most common is propionic acid or its
salts, calcium and sodium propionate. Other organic acids that can inhibit
mold growth are formic acid, sortnc acid, fumanc acid and citric acid.
Antioxidants
These are used to prevent rancidity in feeds. Feeds containing 12% or more
moisture and feeds containing tat or oil should be added with antioxidant.
'Ihe commonly used antioxidants arc butylated hvdroxytoluene (BHT),
santoquin, butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), propyl gallate, ethoxyquin,
calcium carbonate, phosphoric acid and citric
Coccidiostats
These are administered to prevent and control coccidiosis. Examples of
coccidiostats are alkomide, amprolium, clopidol, robenedme, maduramyem,
narasin and salinomycin.
Dewormers
These are used against internal parasites of the animals. Examples of
dewormers are flubendazole. tetramizole. oxfendazole. thiabendazole,
mebendazole and piperazine.
Enzymes
These are protein molecules that have the ability to catalyze biochemical
reactions. Commercial feed enzymes are used to increase the digestibility of
some fccdstuffs under certain conditions. These feed additives may contain
one or more enzyme activities, with each activity maintaining substrate
specificity. For instance, a protease will act upon proteins and an amylase,
only on starch. Other examples of enzymes are phytase, mannanase, lipase
and xylanase.
Flavorings
Feed flavors induce feed intake particularly for piglets. Using feed flavors in
mixed feed may disguise the presence of unpalntublc ingredients.
Commercially available feed flavoring incorporates the aroma and taste of
milk, freshly ground corn, molasses, fresh forage, sweet whey, sugar and
apple.
Pellet Binders

28
These are agents added to improve the texture and firmness of pelleted
feeds. Examples are gelatin extract derivatives, calcium lignosulphonate and
galactomannan gum.
Pigmenters
These are chemical agents added to enhance coloration and pigmentation of
the skin or of the egg yolk in poultry. Kxamples of pigmenters are carophyll
yellow, carophyll red and carophyll orange. Carophyll yellow is used if the
diet of birds does not contain sources of carotene. Carophyll yellow produces
egg yolk in the shade of 6 in the standard yolk color fan. Carophyll red is
added to the diet if deeper color of the egg yolk is desired, i.e.. greater than
the shade 12 in the color fan. Carophyll orange produces egg yolk with shade
deeper than 6 but less than 12. Yolk color fan consists of a series of colored
tabs arranged as a fan corresponding to the range of yolk colors found in the
eggs.

Yolk Color Fan.

Probiotics
Also known as live microbial supplements, these are beneficial
microorganisms (mainly lactic acid producing bacteria and yeast
combinations) added to rations to improve the intestinal microbial balance of
the animal. Examples of microorganisms are the iMctobociUun sp. and Bifido
bacterium sp.
Repartitioning Agents

29
These are used to increase lean-muscle and reduce fat deposition in
carcasses when added in the diet during the finishing period. Examples are
chromium and hormones.
Surfactants
These are chemical agents that facilitate uniform dispersion of molecules in
feeds or feed mixtures.
Toxin Binders
These are used for detoxification of mycotoxin- contaminated feeds and raw
materials by either chelating the mycotoxin or by blocking the effect of
mycotoxin at the digestive tract of animals that ingested the contaminated
feeds. Polyvinylpyrrolidone and aluminum silicate are commonly used toxin
binders.
Let’s Do This…

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of the activity, the learner should be able to:

a. describe the six nutrients and its functions;
b. differentiate the characteristics of roughage, concentrates and
supplements; and
c. apply the principles of pasture establishment,

Materials:
 Samples of feedstuff and its nutrient composition
 Specimen of pasture or fodder species (grass or legumes)
 Pasture area for establishment and planting materials

Procedure:
1. Submit feed ingredients that are found locally. Place it in a container
and label with corresponding information, namely: common name,
scientific name and nutrient composition. Take note on the physical
characteristics of the different feed ingredients;
2. Identify and collect available pastures species (grass or legumes) in
the surroundings; (Minimum of 10)
3. Visit the library or internet cafe to acquire additional information to this
activity. Submit at least one latest journal or articles related to six
nutrients as well as feedstuff with 5 sentences critic or comments
each.

30
Question for Practical 3 Activity1:

1. Give the classification of carbohydrates, fat and protein as well as

amino acids.
2. How do plants and animals differ in their chemical composition?
3. How is a feedstuff evaluated?
4. Explain the factors affecting the values of the feedstuff?
5. Why are feeds processed and how are they processed?
6. What are the different methods of feeding?
7. What do you mean of anti- nutritional factor (ANF)? How can this be
reduced?
8. Give at least ten (10) feedstuffs with its corresponding toxic substance.

31