sustainability

Article
Relationship between Psychological Needs and Academic
Self-Concept in Physical Education Pre-Service Teachers:
A Mediation Analysis
Antonio Granero-Gallegos 1,2 , Ginés D. López-García 1, * , Antonio Baena-Extremera 3 and Raúl Baños 4,5, *

1 Department of Education, University of Almeria, 04120 Almeria, Spain

2 Health Research Centre, University of Almeria, 04120 Almeria, Spain
3 Department of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression, Faculty of Education Sciences,
University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
4 Department of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences,
University of Zaragoza, Campus de Teruel, 44003 Zaragoza, Spain
5 Faculty of Sport, Autonomous University of Baja California, Tijuana 22390, Mexico
* Correspondence: glg807@ual.es (G.D.L.-G.); banos@unizar.es (R.B.)

Abstract: Academic self-concept plays a determining role in the teacher education process. Although
research in education has focused on understanding the mechanisms that produce higher academic
effort and academic self-confidence, the role that satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological
needs and social support and resilience might play on academic self-concept is not known. The
aim of the present study was to analyse the mediating effect of social support and resilience in the
relationship between satisfaction/frustration of basic psychological needs and academic confidence
and academic effort. A non-experimental, cross-sectional, correlational-causal study was designed.
In total, 328 Physical Education pre-service teachers (131 women; 197 men) participated from eight
Andalusian public universities. The age ranged from 22 to 45 years (M = 24.83; SD = 3.57). The
following scales were used: Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction in Education, Basic Psychological
Citation: Granero-Gallegos, A.; Needs Frustration in Education, Resilience, Social Support, and Academic Self-concept. A structural
López-García, G.D.; Baena-Extremera, equations analysis with latent variables was carried out and the results obtained show that the
A.; Baños, R. Relationship between satisfaction of basic psychological needs predicts an improvement in academic confidence and
Psychological Needs and Academic academic effort. In addition, resilience and social support significantly mediated the relationship
Self-Concept in Physical Education between satisfaction of basic psychological needs and academic self-concept. This research also
Pre-Service Teachers: A Mediation highlights the importance, both for teachers and researchers, of creating a context for encouraging the
Analysis. Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052.
satisfaction of basic psychological needs, to promote academic self-concept in initial teacher training.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054052

Academic Editors: Alfonso Keywords: academic confidence; academic effort; basic psychological needs; Self-determination
Castillo-Rodríguez Theory; physical education pre-service teachers
and Wanesa Onetti-Onetti

Received: 24 January 2023

Revised: 14 February 2023
Accepted: 21 February 2023
1. Introduction
Published: 23 February 2023 Education must go beyond the teaching of theoretical content, acquiring skills, and
evaluating the knowledge acquired [1] because, if we focus solely on these aspects, we
would be treating students as if they were pieces on an assembly line [2,3]. Therefore,
in the field of initial university training, qualities, such as having confidence in oneself
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. and one’s abilities, resilience, and making the effort to be a better professional, should
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. be developed [4,5]. These qualities should be acquired by physical education teachers in
This article is an open access article
their initial training (i.e., physical education pre-service teachers) as they play an important
distributed under the terms and
role in the character development and education of those children who will be part of a
conditions of the Creative Commons
country’s future [6]. In this way, future physical education teachers would be provided
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
with tools that allow them to observe and reflect on educational situations in a professional
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
manner and acquire the necessary basic skills during their initial training [7–9].
4.0/).

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054052 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 2 of 13

Among these capacities and skills to develop in initial training, academic self-concept
(ASC) can be highlighted; this is understood as the perceptions a person has regarding their
own skills in the academic field [10]. ASC is considered one of the most important indicators
of educational quality, since the perceptions that students have regarding their academic
abilities help to internalise those abilities and condition certain attitudes [11]. In this regard,
the nature of the educational system itself is based on the premise of social comparison
between students, especially in terms of the marks obtained [12]. This system is endorsed
both by teachers and by the students’ own families who, in many cases, pressure them into
achieving success in school [13]. These comparisons between students can improve the
ASC of those who achieve better academic results to the detriment of those who obtain
worse scores [14] because, generally, students are forced to position themselves in relation
to their peers through forced comparisons [13].
The ASC has been conceptualized as a two-dimensional construct comprising aca-
demic confidence and academic effort [15], and it has been proven that these two factors
increase satisfaction and willingness to study among adolescent [11,16] and university
students [17,18]. Academic confidence refers to the student’s belief in the learning task
and in achieving the learning goal; developing this confidence motivates students to carry
out the learning tasks and achieve their goals [19]. However, university students with
low confidence may make limited learning progress, experience a decline in academic
performance, or even drop out [20]. Academic effort, on the other hand, is understood as
the strength of mind and body that students must constantly apply during the academic
year [21]; it is considered an important factor in the processes of adapting to university
studies, academic performance, and self-efficacy in gaining employment after the degree
course [22]. In contrast, students with low academic effort also present low expectations,
confidence, and academic performance [23]. Research on academic confidence and aca-
demic effort in physical education pre-service teachers is scarce. Nonetheless, these are
important skills to develop in teaching students as they will become the future trainers in a
country’s education system and, if they acquire these skills, they will be able to transmit
them to their future students [24].
Recently, the importance of satisfaction of basic psychological needs (BPN) to improve
ASC in primary school students has been demonstrated [13], although not with the afore-
mentioned ASC factors (i.e., academic confidence and academic effort). These authors
found that when students feel autonomous, competent, and connected to their teacher,
it increases their confidence in carrying out learning activities, in their own potential for
academic success, and in feeling a strong sense of personal value. Moreover, combining sup-
port practices for BPN satisfaction (SBPN) with meaningful, collaborative activities should
also help to promote student learning proactivity and positive peer relationships [25,26].
BPNs are a theoretical construct of Self-determination Theory (SDT; ref. [27]). According to
this theory, to achieve optimal functioning in school, the SBPN of the student’s autonomy,
competence and relatedness is necessary [27]. Conversely, the frustration of BPNs (FBPN)
is linked to exhaustion, demotivation, and low academic engagement in university stu-
dents [28,29]. It is worth mentioning that recent research has proposed novelty as another
BPN [30], understanding this as both a unique memorable experience and as an everyday
activity that serves to promote adaptive results [30]. However, the few studies that have
linked BPN to ASC (e.g., [13,31]) did not include the novelty dimension. The present
research does include it and proposes analysing the relationship between SBPN or FBPN
and academic confidence and academic effort.
Several studies have found that resilience and the social support received are factors
closely related to the SBPN or FBPN of university students [32–35]. Resilience, understood
as the ability to absorb stressful situations, is one of the strategies used to improve the
well-being of university students [35]. Promoting a culture of resilience in the learning en-
vironment and programmes aimed at fostering well-being and student care were initiatives
carried out with medical students to great effect [36,37]. In this respect, Neufeld et al. [35]
found that medical students who are resilient perceive SBPN, whereas those who have
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 3 of 13

not acquired a culture of resilience feel FBPN. The important role of resilience during
the COVID-19 pandemic should also be highlighted, as it has been a factor for avoiding
anxiety in stressful confinement situations [38–41]. However, few studies have analysed
the relationship between BPN and resilience in physical education pre-service teachers or
examined the mediating effect of resilience between BPN and academic confidence and
academic effort. Therefore, we consider it relevant to study these relationships, given that
physical education pre-service teachers need to develop high levels of confidence and effort
to become the trainers of future professionals across many fields.
In addition, the role of the social support perceived by students during their academic
life has also been shown to be important for achieving academic success [34]. Social support
refers to the care and support that people feel from others [42], another variable that is
closely related to BPN [34,43,44]; it has even been recognized as an important aspect of
teacher resilience [45]. Studies have shown that when physical education pre-service teach-
ers perceive social support from the family and/or their peers, they feel SBPN [34]. In this
regard, various works have highlighted the importance of social support in students perceiv-
ing themselves as competent, and as an indicator of emotional health, since this increases
occupational commitment, develops resistance in facing stressful situations, and encour-
ages a positive attitude towards life [46]. Recently, it has been shown that when students
perceive social support, their ASC increases [31], as does their academic confidence [47],
and they make more effort academically when they feel support from the family [48]. More-
over, to the best of our knowledge, the link between social support and academic effort
has only been studied in primary school students [48], and the research only analysed the
perceived social support from family and peers [34,47,48], rather than perceived support
from teachers. The present study analyses social support in terms of the support received
from teachers (teachers’ social support; see [49]). Therefore, we believe it is necessary to
analyse the mediating effect of social support between the satisfaction/frustration of BPN
and academic confidence and academic effort in pre-service teachers.
As one can see from the scientific literature mentioned above, there are few studies
that analyse the possible predictive variables of effort and confidence in the training of
physical education pre-service teachers. Prior research has analysed the relationship be-
tween SBPN and ASC [13], although in primary school students and without analysing
the two main factors of ASC (i.e., academic effort and academic confidence), nor did it
analyse how FBPN affects these variables. SBPN has also been linked to social support
and resilience [33,34] without considering FBPN or the mediating effect of resilience and
teacher social support between the satisfaction/frustration of BPN and academic effort and
confidence among physical education pre-service teachers. In contrast, the present study
does address these aspects. Therefore, we believe that our research provides evidence that
fills a gap in the scientific literature and thus represents an interesting contribution. Conse-
quently, the objective of this paper is to analyse the mediating effect of social support and
resilience between the satisfaction/frustration of BPN and academic confidence/academic
effort. A hypothesized model was created (see Figure 1) considering the postulates of the
different theoretical currents. The following hypotheses were established: First, SBPN
predicts academic confidence and academic effort (H1); second, FBPN negatively predicts
academic confidence and academic effort (H2); third, social support positively mediates
the relationship between SBPN and academic self-concept (H3); fourth, resilience posi-
tively mediates the relationship between SBPN and academic self-concept (H4); fifth, social
support negatively mediates the relationship between SBPN and academic self-concept
(H5); sixth, resilience negatively mediates the relationship between SBPN and academic
self-concept (H6) (Figure 1).
Sustainability 2023,Sustainability
15, 4052 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

Figure model
Figure 1. Hypothetical 1. Hypothetical model with
with the expected the expected
relationships. relationships.
Note: Note:
FBPN = Basic FBPN = Basic psycho
psychological
needs
needs frustration; frustration;
SBPN SBPN = Basic
= Basic psychological psychological
needs needs satisfaction.
satisfaction.

2. Materials and Methods and Methods

2. Materials
2.1. Design
2.1. Design
The research design was observational, descriptive, cross-sectional, and non-randomized.
The research design was observational, descriptive, cross-sectional, and no
Students from eight Andalusian public universities participated. The following inclusion
domized. Students from eight Andalusian public universities participated. The foll
criterion was established: (i) to be a student of the Master’s in Secondary Education Teaching
inclusion criterion was established: (i) to be a student of the Master’s in Secondary
in Physical Education at an Andalusian university. The exclusion criteria were: (i) failure to
cation Teaching in Physical Education at an Andalusian university. The exclusion c
consent to the use of data in the study; (ii) not completing the data collection form.
were: (i) failure to consent to the use of data in the study; (ii) not completing th
2.2. Instrumentscollection form.
2.2.1. Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction in Education (SBPN)
2.2. Instruments
We used the Spanish version adapted to the academic context [50] of the original
scale by Gillet2.2.1.
et al.Basic
[51]. Psychological Needs Satisfaction
The scale is composed of 15 items in Education (SBPN)
that are distributed over
three dimensions ofWe fiveused
items the Spanish
each: version
autonomy adapted
(e.g., “I feelto theinacademic
free giving mycontext [50] of the or
opinions”),
competence (e.g., scale
“I by Gillet
think et respond
I can al. [51]. The scale
to the is composed
demands of 15 items
of the subject that are distributed
programmes”), and over
dimensions of five items each: autonomy (e.g., “I feel
relatedness to others (e.g., “I feel comfortable around others”). The five novelty satisfactionfree in giving my opinions”)
petence (e.g.,
items (e.g., “I frequently “I think
feel there I can respond
are novelties for me”) to the
[30] demands of the into
were integrated subject
this programmes”
scale,
as suggested by relatedness
the authors tothemselves.
others (e.g.,A“ILikert
feel comfortable
scale between around others”).
1 (strongly The five
disagree) novelty sa
and
5 (strongly agree)tion was
itemsused(e.g.,to“Icollect the responses.
frequently feel there are SBPN was calculated
novelties for me”) [30] as were
the mean
integrated in
value of the average
scale, asscores of the factors
suggested that compose
by the authors themselves.it. A Likert scale between 1 (strongly dis
and 5 (strongly agree) was used to collect the responses. SBPN was calculated as the
2.2.2. Basic Psychological
value of theNeeds averageFrustration
scores of in theEducation
factors that (FBPN)
compose it.
The Spanish version adapted to education [52] of the Psychological Need Thwarting
Scale [53] was 2.2.2.
used.BasicThe scale comprises
Psychological 12 items
Needs that measure
Frustration the needs
in Education frustration of
(FBPN)
autonomy (four items, e.g., “I feel pushed to behave in certain ways”),
The Spanish version adapted to education [52] of the Psychological competence (four
Need Thw
items, e.g., “There are situations where I am made to feel incompetent”),
Scale [53] was used. The scale comprises 12 items that measure the needs frustrat and relatedness
(four items, e.g., “I feel that
autonomy other
(four people
items, dislike
e.g., me”).
“I feel pushed Theto five items in
behave of certain
noveltyways”),
frustration
competence
(e.g., “I feel I do novel things”) [30] were integrated into this scale,
items, e.g., “There are situations where I am made to feel incompetent”), as proposed by theand relate
authors. A Likert scale
(four between
items, e.g., “I1feel
(strongly disagree)
that other peopleand 5 (strongly
dislike me”). The agree) was used
five items to
of novelty frust
collect the responses. FBPN was calculated as the mean value of the average scores of the
(e.g., “I feel I do novel things”) [30] were integrated into this scale, as proposed
factors that compose it.
authors. A Likert scale between 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree) was u
2.2.3. Resilience collect the responses. FBPN was calculated as the mean value of the average scores
factors that compose it.
The reduced version by Notario-Pacheco et al. [54] was used after being adapted to the
Spanish university context. This scale comprises 10 items (e.g., “I can adapt to changes”)
2.2.3. Resilience
that are organised into a dimension that measures resilience in young adults. A Likert scale
The reduced version by Notario-Pacheco et al. [54] was used after being adap
the Spanish university context. This scale comprises 10 items (e.g., “I can ad
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 5 of 13

between 1 (never) and 5 (always) was used to collect the responses. High scores on the
scale indicate a high level of resilience.

2.2.4. Social Support

The students’ perceptions concerning the social support of their teachers were mea-
sured using three items (e.g., “I frequently feel there are novelties for me”); these were origi-
nally presented in the Social Support Questionnaire-6 [55], modified for use in education by
Milton et al. [49], and used in the Spanish university context by Granero-Gallegos et al. [56].
A Likert scale between 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree) was used to collect
the responses.

2.2.5. Academic Self-Concept

We used the Spanish version [17] of the Matovu scale [57]. The scale is composed
of six items that measure academic confidence (three items, e.g., “I can follow the classes
easily) and academic effort (three items, e.g., “I study hard for my tests”). A Likert scale
between 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree) was used to collect the responses.

2.3. Procedure
The academic heads of the Master’s Degree in Secondary Education Teaching at the
different Andalusian universities were contacted to inform them of the study objectives
and to ask for their collaboration. Authorisation was obtained from the eight universities
and a questionnaire was administered online during May 2021 and May 2022. In it, we
explained the importance of the research, the anonymity of the responses, the way to fill in
the scale, that participation in the study would not affect the students’ qualification in any
way, and that they could stop participating at any time. All participants gave prior consent
for their responses to be included in the study. The research protocol was approved by the
Bioethics Committee of the University of Almería (Ref:UALBIO2021/009).

2.4. Risk of Bias

Regarding the risk of bias, it should be noted that there was blinding between the
participants and the researchers who performed the data treatment and analysis. Regarding
selection bias, participation in the study was voluntary and communication with students
was carried out by email. There was no sample randomisation.

2.5. Sample Size

A structural equations model (SEM) with six latent variables and 27 observable vari-
ables was conducted using the Free Statistics Calculator v.4.0 software [58], along with an a
priori analysis of the sample size necessary to meet the study objective. It was calculated
that a minimum of 320 students was needed to detect the effect sizes f2 = 0.245, with a
statistical power level of 0.90, and a significance level of α = 0.05. A total of 328 students
participated in the research.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

SEM was performed to analyse how perceptions of basic psychological needs were
associated with physical education pre-service teachers’ resilience, social support, and aca-
demic self-concept. Following Wang et al. [59], the two-step method was used. The model
fit was calculated, based on the values for the chi-square and degrees of freedom (χ2 /df),
the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Squared Error of
Approximation (RMSEA) with its 90% confidence interval (CI), and the Standardised Root
Mean Squared Residual (SRMR). For the χ2 /df ratio, values < 5.0 are considered acceptable,
as are values > 0.90 for CFI and TLI, and values < 0.08 for RMSEA and SRMR [60,61].
Furthermore, values for the CFI of 0.90–0.94 and for the SRMR of less than 0.06 indicate
an excellent fit [62]. Given the lack of multivariate normality (Mardia’s coefficient = 15.57;
p < 0.001), the maximum likelihood method was used with the bootstrapping procedure for
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 6 of 13

5000 re-samplings [63]. The reliability of each scale was evaluated using different parame-
ters: composite reliability (CR), ω of McDonald, and AVE (Average Variance Extracted),
to measure the convergent validity. Reliability values > 0.70 and AVE values > 0.50 are
considered acceptable; however, according to Hair et al. [64], if all the factorial regression
weights are significant and greater than 0.50, then we can assume that the factors have
good convergent validity. In the present study, the regression weights for social support
were between 0.57 and 0.76.

3. Results
3.1. Participants
A total of 328 university students of Physical Education participated (131 women;
197 men) from the Master’s Degree in Secondary and Upper-Secondary Education Teaching,
Vocational Training, and Language Teaching from eight Andalusian public universities
(Spain) (University of Almeria, 20.4%, University of Cadiz, 8.8%, University of Cordoba,
2.4%, University of Granada, 34.1%, University of Huelva, 3%, University of Jaen, 1.5%,
University of Malaga, 11.6%, and the University of Seville, 18%). The age of the participants
was between 22 and 45 years (M = 24.83; SD = 3.57). There were no missing values in the
included sample data.

3.2. Preliminary Analysis

The descriptive statistics and the correlations between the different variables are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations between variables.

Variable Range M SD Q1 Q2 Ñ CR AVE 2 3 4 5 6

FBPN 1–5 2.16 0.78 0.65 −0.01 0.85 0.91 0.73 −0.58 ** −0.38 ** −0.34 ** −0.27 ** −0.48 **
SBPN 1–5 3.88 0.65 −0.22 0.10 0.84 0.86 0.61 - 0.53 ** 0.46 ** 0.45 ** 0.51 **
Resilience 1–5 4.24 0.60 −0.61 0.41 0.88 0.88 0.54 - 0.29 ** 0.32 ** 0.46 **
Social
1–5 3.62 0.86 −0.24 −0.42 0.71 0.71 0.47 - 0.28 ** 0.37 **
Support
Academic
1–7 5.36 1.29 −0.90 0.54 0.81 0.73 0.51 - 0.35 **
Effort
Academic
1–7 5.96 0.96 −1.43 1.25 0.72 0.82 0.61 -
Confidence
Note. ** The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; SBPN = Satisfaction
of Basic Psychological Needs; FBPN = Frustration of Basic Psychological Needs; Q1 = Skewness; Q2 = Kurtosis;
Ñ = Omega of McDonald; CR = Composite Reliability; AVE = Average Variance Extracted.

3.3. Main Analysis

In step 1, the SEM presented excellent goodness of fit indices: χ2 /df = 2.07, p = 0.066;
CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.057 (90%CI = 0.000; 0.107; pclose = 0.342), SRMR = 0.031.
In step 2, the hypothesised SEM presented a similar excellent fit: χ2 /df = 2.07, p = 0.066;
CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.057 (90%CI = 0.000; 0.107; pclose = 0.342); SRMR = 0.031.
The relationships between the satisfaction/frustration of the BPNs and the two aca-
demic self-concept factors (i.e., confidence and effort), as well as the relationships between
the BPN and the mediators (i.e., resilience and social support), and between the mediators
and academic confidence and academic effort, can be seen in Figure 2 and Table 2.
The model achieved an explained variance of 36% for confidence, 21% for effort,
28% for resilience, and 21% for social support (Figure 2). The model shows that the
FBPN does not have a statistically significant positive predictive relationship with any
of the variables studied; however, the direct effect on academic confidence was negative
and statistically significant (p = 0.019). In contrast, the SBPN presents a direct, positive
predictive relationship with social support (p = 0.005), resilience (p = 0.014), effort (p = 0.012),
and confidence (p = 0.040). Likewise, resilience has a positive direct effect on confidence
(p = 0.008), but has no direct relationship with effort. In contrast, social support directly
predicts both effort (p = 0.024) and confidence (p = 0.009). Regarding mediation, resilience
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 7 of 13

and social support act as a positive mediating variable between SBPN and confidence
(p = 0.007); although, the most important effect of these variables is that they increase the
total effect of SBPN on confidence (p = 0.004). On the other hand, social support acts as a
mediator between SBPN and effort (p = 0.007), though, in this case, it also plays a relevant
role in increasing the total effect of SPBN on effort (p = 0.021). In addition, Figure 27 shows
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 14
the CI (95%) of R2 , confirming that they can be taken as measures of ES (Domínguez-Lara,
2017) [65], and it should be noted that the ES in all the analysed relationships is large [66].

Predictive
Figure2.2.Predictive
Figure relationships
relationships ofofthe
thefrustration
frustrationand
andsatisfaction
satisfactionofofbasic
basicpsychological
psychologicalneeds
needs
withacademic
with academicconfidence
confidence and
and academic
academic effort
effort through
through themediating
the mediating roleofofresilience
role resilienceandandsocial
social
support.
support. Note: * p* <p 0.05.
Note: < 0.05. FBPN
FBPN = Basic
= Basic psychological
psychological needs
needs frustration;
frustration; SBPN
SBPN = Basic
= Basic psychological
psychological
needs satisfaction.R2R=2 Explained
needssatisfaction. = Explainedvariance;
variance; CICI==Confidence
Confidence interval. The
interval. Thedashed
dashed lines
linesrepresent
represent
non-significant
non-significantrelationships.
relationships.

Table
Table2.2.Estimation
Estimationofofsignificant
significantstandardised
standardisedparameters
parametersand
andstatistics
statisticsofofthe
themediation
mediationmodel.
model.
Dependent 95% CI
Independent Variable
Independent Dependent Mediator β SE 95% CI
Variable Mediator β SE Inf Sup
Variable Variable Inf Sup
Direct Effects
Direct Effects
FBPN Academic confidence −0.25 * 0.07 −0.36 −0.10
SBPNFBPN Academic confidence
Resilience −0.25 0.53
* * 0.070.04 −0.36
0.45 − 0.10
0.61
SBPNSBPN Resilience
Academic confidence 0.53 *0.19 * 0.040.09 0.450.02 0.61
0.39
SBPN Academic confidence 0.19 * 0.09 0.02 0.39
SBPNSBPN
Social support
Social support 0.46 *
0.46 * 0.06
0.06 0.39
0.39
0.54
0.54
SBPNSBPN Academic
Academic effort
effort 0.41 *0.41 * 0.090.09 0.290.29 0.51
0.51
Resilience
Resilience Academic
Academic confidence
confidence 0.23 *0.23 * 0.080.08 0.110.11 0.36
0.36
Social
Social support
support Academic
Academic confidence
confidence 0.13 *0.13 * 0.060.06 0.040.04 0.24
0.24
Social support Academic effort 0.15 * 0.08 0.02 0.27
Social support Academic effort 0.15 * 0.08 0.02 0.27
Indirect effects
Indirect effects
SBPN Academic confidence Resilience 0.13 * 0.06 0.10 0.27
SBPNSBPN Academic
Academic confidence
confidence Social Resilience
support 0.06 *0.13 * 0.050.06 0.10
0.02 0.27
0.23
SBPNSBPN Academicconfidence
Academic effort Social support
Social support 0.07 *0.06 * 0.060.05 0.03
0.02 0.25
0.23
Total Effects
SBPN Academic effort Social support 0.07 * 0.06 0.03 0.25
SBPN Academic confidence 0.37 * 0.06 0.24 0.54
Total Effects
SBPN Academic effort 0.45 * 0.05 0.31 0.54
SBPN Academic confidence 0.37 * 0.06 0.24
Note. β = Estimation of standardised parameters; SE = standard error; 95%CI = 95% confidence interval;
0.54
SBPN Academic
Inf = Lower effort
limit of 95% CI; Sup = Upper limit of 95% CI; * p < 0.05. 0.45 * 0.05 0.31 0.54
Note. β = Estimation of standardised parameters; SE = standard error; 95%CI = 95% confidence in-
terval; Inf = Lower limit of 95% CI; Sup = Upper limit of 95% CI; * p < 0.05.
4. Discussion
The objective of this research was to analyse the mediating effect of social support
andThe model between
resilience achievedsatisfaction/frustration
an explained variance of
of 36%
BPNfor
andconfidence, 21% for effort, 28%
academic confidence/academic
for
effort in physical education pre-service teachers. The main results show the
resilience, and 21% for social support (Figure 2). The model shows that thatFBPN
SBPNdoes
has a
not have a statistically significant positive predictive relationship with any of the variables
studied; however, the direct effect on academic confidence was negative and statistically
significant (p = 0.019). In contrast, the SBPN presents a direct, positive predictive relation-
ship with social support (p = 0.005), resilience (p = 0.014), effort (p = 0.012), and confidence
(p = 0.040). Likewise, resilience has a positive direct effect on confidence (p = 0.008), but
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 8 of 13

direct and positive effect on confidence and effort. The total effects on these two variables
are increased with the mediation of social support, while the mediation of resilience only
increases the total effect on confidence. FBPN is not significantly related to any of the
variables studied.
To the best of our knowledge, no research has previously linked BPN (satisfac-
tion/frustration) to academic confidence/academic effort in university students. The
present work shows that SBPN directly and positively predicts confidence in physical
education pre-service teachers. These results follow the trend of other research studies
in which SBPN improved variables, such as self-confidence in university students [67],
self-esteem in secondary school students, and self-concept in primary school students [13].
Thus, as indicated by Guay et al. [25], practices supporting SBPN that include meaningful
and collaborative activities should be implemented in the classroom to promote proactivity
towards learning and positive relationships with peers. In addition, this will augment
confidence and a healthy motivational orientation that results in student well-being, enjoy-
ment, persistence, and engagement [27]. Since the BPN theory is a construct that shapes
motivation [27], it is worth mentioning that there are significant mutual influences between
an individual’s learning achievements, motivation, and confidence [68]. On the other hand,
those students who do not have sufficient academic confidence lose belief in their ability
to solve tasks [69] and their interest in learning, increasing the possibility that they will
abandon their studies [70]. Therefore, it is important to develop academic confidence, as it
helps one to acquire learning strategies and skills effectively [71].
The results of this study also show that the total effects of SBPN on academic confi-
dence are increased by mediation, both by the perceived support of the teacher (i.e., social
support) and by resilience. We are not aware of any prior research that has linked these
variables. In the case of teacher support, we can say that our results align with the study
by Park and Hong [47], who analysed the effect of family social support on university
nursing students, indicating that this support positively predicted academic confidence. In
other contexts, teacher social support has been positively linked to SBPN and academic
satisfaction, and to ASC in secondary school students [31]. Social support from family and
friends has also been linked to improved ASC in first-year university students [72]. These
results may be because, when students feel supported by their teachers and perceive the
teachers showing concern for their learning, this can increase their expectation of success
and, according to Chemers et al. [73], this expectation of success is closely linked to aca-
demic confidence. These factors are important in physical education pre-service teachers
because they will form part of the future educational system of the country. Furthermore,
the application of knowledge depends on skills and competence and, in turn, applying
these requires confidence.
Regarding the mediating role of resilience, several studies have shown that SBPN
positively predicts resilience [32–35], and that resilience predicts confidence in university
nursing students [74]. This relationship might be because, when teachers promote SBPN
in students and educate them to manage the stressful situations they may face as future
teachers, they are providing them with psychological and affective skills that increase
their academic confidence. Therefore, it is important to promote a resilient culture within
the learning environment, along with programmes in which university students learn to
deal with stressful situations [37]. This is important because students who lose confidence
in their ability to succeed academically are more likely to fail, even if they have good
academic skills.
One of the striking results of this study is that resilience, which does predict confidence,
is not a predictor of academic effort. On the other hand, both SBPN and social support show
a predictive and positive relationship with effort. In this case, social support mediation
also increases the overall effects of SPBN on effort. No studies have been found that
analyse the relationship of the aforementioned variables; however, motivation is a construct
closely linked to BPN [27], and it has been shown that teachers have to previously motivate
students to increase their academic effort [75]. In addition, effort has been related to better
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 9 of 13

motivational regulation in secondary school students [76], with a higher level of interest
and learning awareness in university students [75], with greater use of ICTs in educational
innovation [77], and with increased chances of success in finding work following the
degree [22]. It would appear to be important that future teachers experience support from
their own teachers during initial training so that, later in their professional career, they can
offer support to all their own students, this being an engine of global change.
Regarding the direct effects of FBPN on confidence and effort, or the indirect effects
through resilience and social support, no statistically significant relationships were found in
this research. There are few studies that relate these variables and, moreover, our research
results do not follow the same line as previous works. Several studies negatively associated
FBPN with resilience [35] and with social support [78], although it should be noted that
these studies analysed the social support received from family and friends, not from
teachers. FBPN has also been linked to worsening self-esteem [79], with a lesser passion for
study that negatively influences study strategies [80], and with less positive psychological
adjustment in the first year of university [32]. The difference in results between this study
and the existing scientific literature may be due to the confinement and restrictions caused
by the COVID-19 pandemic [81]. Given that the data were collected a few months after
home confinement, but in the middle of the pandemic, it is possible that, when returning
to class in person, students were satisfied with their BPN (i.e., SBPN), due to the desire to
return to “normality”, and that less BPN frustration was perceived (i.e., FBPN). Because of
this question and the scarce scientific literature, we believe that caution should be exercised
when interpreting the results of this study and that further in-depth research should be
pursued along this line.

4.1. Limitations and Future Research

As its strengths, we can highlight the topic investigated, the sample size used (one
third of the total population), the level of confidence (95%) and the margin of error (2.23%).
The study contributes to the scientific literature in the field of physical education pre-service
teachers because, as far as we are aware, the relationships between some of these variables
(e.g., academic confidence and academic effort) have not been previously studied. Another
strength is the type of analysis undertaken, since an SEM has been carried out with latent
variables; however, the direction of causality cannot be determined, and reverse causality
is a possibility as cross-sectional studies cannot establish a causal relationship between
the predictor and outcome variables, making it difficult to determine the direction of
causality in a mediational relationship. At the same time, the study’s strength can become
other limitations. As we have indicated throughout, the scarcity of research relating the
analysed variables to confidence and effort makes it necessary to interpret the results with
caution. As well, the present research includes a cross-sectional design and the results and
measurements were obtained via questionnaires. Due to the above limitations, we consider
it necessary for future work to look at this line of research in more detail to see if the study
results are supported, establishing longitudinal and/or experimental designs, and adding
observational instruments that measure the influence of BPN on academic confidence and
academic effort in teacher training.

4.2. Practical Implications

These research results underline the importance of SBPN, resilience, and the social
support provided by university professors to physical education pre-service teachers in
order for them to have academic confidence and academic effort [82]. Therefore, it is
recommended that those professors in charge of training future teachers receive instruction
on how to teach educational strategies that promote novel and innovative learning envi-
ronments, achieve learning goals, and enhance communication and cooperation between
students so that they can make decisions autonomously and feel competent in this con-
text [83,84]. University professors not only have to create these learning environments, but
also make physical education pre-service teachers aware of the learning tools being used,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4052 10 of 13

how they can be applied with their future students, and provide individualised teaching
that is adapted to the needs of the students. In addition, as proposed by authors, such
as Neufeld et al. [35], students should be educated in resilience, that is, how to handle
stressful situations (e.g., to remain calm when conflicts arises in the classroom, seeking
different ways of resolving them) and, as proposed by authors, such as Schwabe et al. [31],
physical education pre-service teachers should be taught to support their future students
(e.g., to search for new learning strategies when a group of students is failing to achieve the
learning goal).

5. Conclusions
In summary, SBPN has been shown to improve academic confidence and academic
effort in physical education pre-service teachers. Furthermore, confidence is increased
when students are resilient and when they feel supported by the teacher (i.e., social support)
during the sessions; this teacher support is also important for students to try harder in
class. In this sense, the effort, as well as the academic confidence of pre-service PE teachers,
will be stimulated when in a teacher education context, when the psychological needs of
the students feel satisfied, and also when the pre-service teachers perceive social support
from the teacher educator and show a resilient attitude in the development of the sessions.
On the contrary, the perception of frustration in learners’ psychological needs will reduce
their confidence. Finally, teacher trainers should incorporate methodological strategies in
class based on novel tasks that develop their students’ perception of competence, increase
their feeling of autonomy in making decisions, promote affective bonds between them, and
focus on increasing their ability to deal with stressful situations, making them aware that
they have the support of the teachers.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, G.D.L.-G., A.G.-G. and R.B.; methodology, A.G.-G. and
A.B.-E.; formal analysis, A.G.-G. and A.B.-E.; investigation, G.D.L.-G., A.G.-G., R.B. and A.B.-E.; data
curation, A.G.-G. and R.B.; writing—original draft preparation, G.D.L.-G., A.G.-G., A.B.-E. and R.B.;
writing—review and editing, G.D.L.-G., A.G.-G., A.B.-E. and R.B.; project administration, A.G.-G. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was carried out thanks to the help received from the “I + D + i” research project
entitled: “Is the empowering-disempowering motivational climate that undergraduate students
perceive related to their intention to become teachers? A longitudinal study with teachers in training”
(Ref. P20_00148), funded by the Andalusian Plan for Research, Development, and Innovation (PAIDI,
2020) of the Junta de Andalucía and help to research projects from the Health Research Center of the
University of Almería. As well, this article was carried out during a research stay of Dr. Antonio
Granero-Gallegos at the University of Granada (from 14 October 2022, to 14 January 2023) with Dr.
Antonio Baena-Extremera.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki and approved by the Bioethics Committee of UNIVERSITY OF ALMERIA (protocol code
UALBIO2021/009, 17 February 2022).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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