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Biological Cosmology and the Origins of Life in the Universe

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Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol 5, 1040-1090.
Cosmology, January 30, 2010

Biological Cosmology and the Origins of Life in

the Universe
R. Gabriel Joseph, Ph.D.1, and Rudolf Schild, Ph.D.2,
1Neuroscience Research Laboratory, Northern California,
2Center for Astrophysics, Harvard-Smithsonian, Cambridge, MA

Abstract
Life in the Milky Way galaxy began between 13.6 billion to 10 billion years ago. All the constituent and
necessary elements for creating life are produced during supernova, and are dispersed to nebular clouds
which act as cradles of life. The molecules are incubated within nebular clouds, creating complex organic
molecules, left-handed amino acids, proteins, nucleotides, and DNA. These chemical compounds were
mixed together, provided protection, nutrients and energy, over billions of years of time, in over a trillion
different locations, such that by 10 billion years ago in this galaxy, carbon-DNA-based replicons had
been fashioned which evolved into proto-cells, then bacteria. Simultaneously, supernova ejected molten
iron and other metals into nebular clouds, thereby providing the iron cores for creating planets and stars.
Planets form and grow when debris sticks to hot molten irons and other metals. These nebular planets
also provided protection for those molecules which were evolving into living organisms. Stars begin as
super-hydrogen gas giants, and then ignite when additional hydrogen is produced by the actions of black
holes and quasars which direct streams of gas to specific targets within nebular clouds. Matter is
continually destroyed, recycled, and created by black holes ranging from those smaller than a Planck
length to the supermassive holes in the center of spiral galaxies, which produce hydrogen, which leads,
via stellar nucleosynthesis, to helium, oxygen, carbon and heavy metals which are ejected into nebular
clouds following supernova. Therefore, life, planets, and stars are created in nebular clouds. By contrast,
there is absolutely no evidence that life began on Earth. The problems with an Earth-centered abiogenesis
can be summed up as follows: A) Complex life was present on Earth almost from the beginning. B)
Statistically, there was not enough time to create a complex self-replicating organism. C) DNA and
complex organic molecules would have been destroyed by the environment of the early Earth. D) All the
essential ingredients for creating life were missing on the new Earth. E) There is no evidence that life has
been or can be produced from non-life on this planet. The belief that Earth is the center of the biological
universe and that life began on Earth, is based on religion and magical thinking. The confluence of
evidence from genetics, microbiology, astrobiology, and astrophysics indicates that life in the Milky Way
galaxy began over 10 billion years ago, in nebular clouds. Given the trillions upon trillions of galaxies
which exist in this Hubble length (observable) universe, and the trillions of trillions of supernovas which
must have taken place in these galaxies collectively, and thus the innumerable stellar and nebular clouds
filled with all the ingredients necessary for life, it can be deduced that life would have been created,
independently, perhaps in numerous galaxies, including the Milky Way long before our planet was
fashioned. The cosmos may be awash with every conceivable form of life. It can be predicted that every
planet orbiting a star in every galaxy in the cosmos might have been contaminated with life and that life
would flourish, diversify, and then evolve into increasingly complex, sentient and intelligent animals on
worlds which orbit within the habitable zone of their sun. This would mean that intelligent beings may
have evolved on billions of planets and may have reached our own level of neurological and cognitive
development billions of years before Earth became a twinkle in god's eye.

Keywords: Origin of life, Astrobiology, Extraterrestrial Life, Panspermia, Abiogenesis, Black Holes,
Galaxies, Nebula, Nebular Clouds, Supernova, Quasars

1. Life Did Not Begin on Earth: When Religion Masquerades as Science

Humans have long stared into the abyss and the abyss has stared back. For thousands of
years humans have gazed into the heavens pondering the nature of existence, and asking:
How did it all begin? Are we alone in the vastness of the cosmos? Are there people on
other planets? How did life begin?

Answers and explanations have incorporated the religious, magical, and supernatural, and
not uncommonly, religion dressed up in the language of science.

For almost two thousand years it has been the position of the Catholic church that the
universe was created, Earth is the center of the universe, and life on Earth came from the
earth following the commands of a creator god (Augustine, 1957) from which, according
to the Jewish-Christian Bible, all existence has its source:

"And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and
creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so" (Genesis, Chapter 1).
Thus, according to the early Church Fathers, a creator god must have given the Earth
special life giving powers: "The earth is said then to have produced grass and trees
causaly, that is, to have received the power of producing" (Augustine (1957).

According to the Catholic Church, "god" created the heavens, the universe, and Earth, and
"god" gave the earth the potential for spontaneously generating life from non-life and this
power has never been taken away. "There was already present ...a certain natural force, as
it were, preseminated, and as it were, the primordial beginnings of the future animals
which were to arise... through the infallible administration of the unchangeable Creator
who makes all things" (Augustine, 1957). "For if there are creatures which are
successively produced by their predecessors, there are others that even today we see born
from the earth itself" (St Basil, Archbishop of Ceaserea; Rousseau, 1994).

Charles Darwin originally underwent religious training to become a minister of religion

and a member of the Christian clergy (Barlow 1959), and in the last paragraph of his
"Origin of Species" attributed everything to "our creator." Darwin was well versed in the
Biblical account of life emerging from the earth. In 1887, Darwin wrote a letter to a friend
where he put these beliefs into scientific language, in a model of life's origins known as
the organic soup: "If (and oh what a big if) we could conceive in some warm little pond,
with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, light, heat, electricity, etc., present, that a
protein compound was chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex
changes...." These chemical compounds, Darwin (1887) proposed, would eventually
become a living entity and emerge from the earth--exactly as dictated by the Christian
religion.

In its latest incarnation the "Abiogenesis" hypothesis is still based on the belief that Earth
is special, unique, blessed with life generating powers, and is the center of the biological
universe. Therefore, life began on Earth, from non-life, from lightning bolts striking a
random mixture of chemicals in a supernatural organic soup (Haldane, 2009), or from the
random mixture of H2, CO2, N2, and H2S, with the energy provided by a deep sea thermal
vent; and then, voilà, a miracle, its alive (Lane, et al., 2010). These claims are so naive and
laden with magical thinking, they are the equivalent of discovering a computer on Mars,
and claiming it was randomly assembled in the Methane sea.

There is absolutely no evidence to support the belief that Earth is the center of the
biological universe or that life began on Earth. There is in fact considerable evidence
demonstrating life could never have begun on this planet. Belief in the absence of
evidence and in the face of contradictory evidence is not science, but faith which is the
domain of religion. The claim that life began on Earth, and the Earth is the center of the
biological universe, is religion masquerading as science.

2. Life Could Not Have Begun on Earth

Theories have been put forward to explain how life may have begun on Earth, and other
planets via abiogenesis and which avoid Earth-centered dogma (e.g, Goertzel and Combs,
2010; Istock, 2010; Naganuma and Sekine 2010; Rampelotto, 2010; Schulze-Makuch
2010). The detailed and impressive work of Russell and colleagues (Russell and Hall,
1999; Russell and Kanik, 2010) is particularly notable.

The problems with Earth-centered abiogenesis have been detailed by numerous scientists,
some of whom such as famed astronomer Fred Hoyle (1974,1982) and Nobel laureates
Svante Arrhenius (1908/2009) and Francis Crick (1981) have offered alternative
explanations for the origins of life on Earth; theories collectively referred to as
"panspermia" (Burchell, 2010; Joseph, 2000; Rampelotto, 2009; Wickramasinghe et al.,
2009)

The problems with an Earth-centered abiogenesis can be summed up as follows: A)

Complex life was present on Earth almost from the beginning. B) Stastically, there was
not enough time to create a complex self-replicating organism. C) DNA and complex
organic molecules would have been destroyed by the environment of the early Earth. D)
All the essential ingredients for creating life were missing on the new Earth. E) There is
no evidence that life has been or can be produced from non-life on this planet.

3. Statistics and Complexity: Not Enough Time For Life to Be Fashioned on Earth.

There is evidence of biological and microbial activity in the oldest rocks on Earth, dated to
over 4.2 billion years ago (Nemchin et al. 2008; O'Neil et al. 2008). Battistuzzi and
Hedges (2009), based on a genomic analysis concluded that both bacteria and archae were
present on this planet over 4 billion years ago. By 3.8 billion years ago (bya), life was
flourishing on this planet with evidence from a variety of locations not just of prokarotic
activity (Mojzsis, et al., 1996; Rosing, 1999, Rosing and Frei, 2004) but eukaryotic cell
structures (Pflug, 1978). Earth was already crawling with complex life during a period of
heavy bombardment by comets, asteroids and meteors when the planet was still forming.
This and related evidence has been interpreted to mean life on Earth must have been
contained in the debris which helped to form this planet (Joseph 2000, 2009a).

Could complex life have been formed within 300 million years while the planet was still
forming?

Single cellular microbes are comprised of more than 2,500 small molecules (e.g. including
amino acids consisting of 10 to 50 tightly packed atoms), as well as macro-molecules
(proteins and nucleic acids) and polymeric molecules (which are comprised of hundreds to
thousands of small molecules) all of which are precisely jigsawed together to form a
single celled organism (Cowan and Talaro, 2008; Joseph, 2000). The tiniest and most
primitive of single celled creatures contain a variety of micro- macro- and polymeric
molecules and over 700 proteins which fit and function together as a living mosaic of
tissues. Moreover, each of the many thousands of different molecules that make up a
single cellular creature perform an incredible variety of chemical reactions -often in
concert with that cell's other molecules and their protein (enzyme) products.

Life was present on this planet from the very beginning as indicated by biological
evidence in this planet's oldest rocks (Nemchin et al. 2008; O'Neil et al. 2008). How could
chance combinations have created such complexity, a living mosaic within 300 million
years after the Earth began to form? Nobel laureate Francis Crick (1981) believed that
even 10 billion years would not be enough time. Indeed, estimates of the time needed for
these chance combinations to have produced life have ranged from 100 billion to over 1
trillion years (Crick 1981; Horgan, 1991; Hoyle, 1974, 1982; Yockey) to completely
improbable (Dose, 1988; Kuppers, 1990).

4. Statistics and Complexity: Proto-Organisms Could Not Have Been Randomly

Created on Earth

Some organic soup acolytes argue that life on Earth began with a proto-organism, which
later evolved into a microbe. Oparin (2003) championed what he called a "protobiont,"
whereas Woese (1968, 1987; Woese and Fox 1977) imagines a "progenote" which
consisted of a few hundred proteins. These began to self-replicate and then evolved into
microbes. There is no evidence, however, that a proto-organism ever existed on this
planet; and it it had, it would never have been able to survive.

Even the simplest of single celled "organisms," Carsonella, requires 160,000 base-pairs of
DNA, and 182 separate genes, in order to live and function (Nakabachi et al., 2006).
However, Carsonella cannot live indendently, and is parasitic and depends on a living
host, a psyllid insect, to survive. By contrast, the genome of Mycoplasma genitalium
(Fraser, et al., 1995), the smallest free-living microbe, has over 580,000 base pairs and
over 213 genes, 182 of these coding for proteins.
Figure 1. Center: Psyllid insect. Left/Right: bacteriocytes (dark blue) within the body of
the psyllid, houses Carsonella ruddii (light blue) which cannot survive independently of
the host.
Carsonella may not even be a living entity, but rather an organelle that escaped from or
was inserted by a parasitic bacteria (Tamames, et al., 2007). However, if we classify
Carsonella as a proto-bacteria or proto-organism, and if it or something similar was
created on this planet, randomly by chance combinations abiogenetically in an organic
soup or deep sea thermal vent, then this soup had to randomly create, assemble, organize,
and then spew out over 182 genes, comprised of over 160,000 base pairs. This is the
equivalent of discovering over 180 computers on Mars and claiming they were magically
assembled in the Methane sea when elementary particles were randomly jumbled together.
However, even with 182 genes, the resulting creation could not have survived unless
provided with a living host.

The statistical probability of randomly fashioning one gene from random combinations of
all its constituent elements, is more than once chance in a hundred million trillion. Yes,
perhaps through random mixing, life could have been created on this planet within a
trillion years. Perhaps even within 100 billion. However, given that this planet began to
form 4.6 billion years ago, coupled with evidence of complex life in the oldest rocks on
Earth dated to 4.2 billion years ago, it is just impossible to conceive how randomg
mixtures could have resulted in a proto-organism which became a complex microbe in less
than 300 million years on this planet.

However, even if by miracles of chance a "protobiont," a "progenote" or any proto-

organism in any way similar to Carsonella had been generated on Earth via abiogenesis,
the question becomes: How did it metabolize energy or enage in membrane synthesis?
Since there is no evidence that a "protobiont" or a "progenote" has ever existed on Earth,
our best example of how a proto-organism might have functioned is the proto-organism
Carsonella: The Carsonella genome lacks the genes necessary for energy metabolism and
membrane synthesis (Nakabachi et al., 2006; Tamames, et al., 2007). It is unable to
synthesize proteins. It requires a eukaryotic host to survive. Therefore, if we wish to
believe that life on Earth evolved from a "protobiont," or "progenote," then random
chance events would also have had to create the necessary proteins (as well as a living
host) for these proto-organisms to survive.

Hoyle (1974) calculated the probability of forming just a single protein consisting of a
chain of 300 amino acids is (1/20)300 or 1 chance in 2.04 x 10390. Yockey (1977)
calculated that the probability of achieving the linear structure of creating, one protein,
104 amino acids long, by chance is 2 x 10-65. The odds of this happening on Earth within
three hundred millions years, or even within 10 billion years is completely improbable.

A living cell of course, contains more than a single protein.

Microbes range in size, but the smallest free ranging microbes consist of at least 700
proteins (Cowan and Talaro, 2008). However, even if we were to propose that only 240 to
250 proteins were necessary to create the first replicon, or proto-organism, the probability
of forming these proteins from left-handed amino acids would be between 1 in 10 29,345 to
1 in 1033,635. In other words, it would take trillions of chance combinations of all the
necessary ingredients. All the ingredients would have to be freely available and
concentrated in the same location where the mixing was taking place. However, the
constituent most crucial elements, such as oxygen, sugar, and phosphorus, were not freely
available on the new Earth (Russell and Arndt 2005; Sun, 1982; Sun and Nesbitt, 1977).

Even if the necessary chemicals were available, as a matter of basic statistics, the
probability that a single protein, or a single gene, or that life would randomly form on
Earth within 300 million or even a billion years, given these odds, is essentially zero.

Specifically, and in accordance with what is known as "Borel's Law" any odds beyond 1 in
1050 have a zero probability of ever happening. As summed up by the mathematician,
Emil Borel (1962) "phenomena with very small probabilities do not occur."

Hoyle (1974) estimates it would take a trillion years. However, even a hundred trillion
years would not be sufficient when the ingredients are missing.

Dr. Harold Klein, the chairman of a National Academy of Sciences committee which
reviewed all the evidence, concluded that the simplest bacterium is so complicated it is
impossible to imagine how it could have been created (Horgan 1991, p. 120). According
to Dose (1988, p. 355), "The difficulties that must be overcome are at present beyond our
imagination." Kuppers (1990, p. 60) sums it up this way: "The expectation probability for
the nucleotide sequence of a bacterium is thus so slight that not even the entire space of
the universe would be enough to make the random synthesis of a bacterial genome
probable."

Given the complexity of DNA, and even a single protein, the likelihood that life could
have arisen gradually and merely by chance, at least on Earth, is zero. The likelihood that
a proto-organism may have been randomly created on Earth is zero. Adding to the
completely improbability is the fact that all the essential ingredients for DNA or protein
construction were not available on this planet (Joseph 2000).

5. The Early Earth Was Missing All The Necessary Ingredients For Life

The young Earth was lacking all the necessary ingredients for fashioning DNA including
sugar, phosphorus and free oxygen (Joseph 2000, 2009b,c). The double helix of DNA
consists of two strands of nucleotides which are linked and held together by weak
electrostatic hydrogen bonds, thereby forming two complementary strands of "base
pairs" (e.g. C-G, T-A, G-C, A-T, etc.). These strands are laddered together via two sugar-
phosphate backbones thereby creating a long twisting spiral, the double helix.

Even if we accept the flawed premise of an RNA world (Gilbert, 1986), these hypothetical
RNA-replicons were still deprived of free oxygen, sugar, and phosphorus and therefore
could not have somehow manufactured or assembled DNA. Oxygen and phosphorus were
not available for DNA assembly on the young Earth, being locked up and tightly bound in
water-insoluble calcium apatite (calcium phosphate) and other minerals. It took over a
billion years for free oxygen and phosphorus to begin accumulating, and both were
produced or liberated biologically (Joseph, 2009b,c).

Moreover, even assuming the existence of an RNA world (Gilbert, 1986), or RNA-based
life, it not only had to have acquired catalytic abilities, but had to couple the nucleotides it
created with sugars and sugar-phosphates so as to fashion a stable RNA-molecule. As
there were apparently no free-phosphates or sugars available, this RNA-based life had to
either create sugars and phosphates where there was none, or extract or synthesize it from
minerals. How could this have been accomplished on this planet?

Lastly, and most fatal to the "RNA world" is the simple fact that viruses, even with their
complex RNA genome, require the DNA of a living host to replicate.

DNA comes first, not RNA. An Earthly "RNA World" exists only in the imagination.

6. Complex Organic Molecules Would Have Been Destroyed on the Early Earth.

The early Earth was continually bombarded by meteors, asteroids, comets, and moon-
sized and planet sized debris for over 700,000 years (Belbruno and Gott, 2005; Jacobsen,
2005; Poitrasson et al. 2004, Rankenburg et al. 2006; Schoenberg et al. 2002). Complex
life was contained in that debris, which included planetary material ejected from the
"parent star" system a prior to supernova (Joseph 2009a). Microfossils of complex micro-
organisms have in fact been found in 15 meteors (Claus and Nagy 1961; Folk and Lynch
1997; Hoover 1997, 1998, 2006; Hoover and Rozanov, 2003; Pflug 1984; Nagy et al.
1961,1963a,b; Zhmur and Gerasimenko 1999; Zhmur et al. (1997), almost all of which
predate the creation of Earth. These include fossilized colonies resembling cyanobacteria
(blue-green algae) discovered in the Orgeuil, Murchison (Hoover 1984, 1997) and
Efremovka meteorite (Zhmur and Gerasimenko 1999); cyanobacteria (Zhmur et al., 1997),
virus particles and clusters of an extensive array of microfossils similar to methanogens
and other archae in the Murchison (Pflug 1984); and organized elements and cell
structures that resemble fossilized algae and microscopic fungi within the Orgeuil (Claus
& Nagy 1961; Nagy et al. 1962; Nagy et al. 1963a,b,c).

Figure 2. Cyanobacteria.
Figure 3. Microfossils discovered in the Murchison meteorite which resemble
cyanobacteria
As is now well established, trace chemicals associated with life have been found in
carbonaceous chondrites, including N-heterocycles, amino acids and pre-sugars. However,
these are most likely the residue of life (Joseph 2009a), and contaminants from nebular
clouds where all the necessary chemicals, acids and proteins are available, and where life
most likely originated over 10 billion years ago (Joseph 2010).

The fact that chemicals from space fell to Earth, does not mean these chemicals achieved
life in 300 million years. In fact, the volatile conditions which characterized this planet for
the first 800 million years would have actively prevented these chemicals from even
forming "pre-biotic" compounds (Crick 1981; Ehrenfreund and Sephton 2006).

For almost 800 million years Earth was continually pounded by mountain-size, moon-size,
and even planet-sized debris (Belbruno and Gott, 2005; Jacobsen, 2005; Poitrasson et al.
2004, Rankenburg et al. 2006; Schoenberg et al. 2002). The violent, volatile, shattering,
shocking, turbulent, hyperthermal conditions on the early Earth, coupled with the lack of a
significant atmosphere, extreme temperatures, insufficient water, and continual bathing in
gamma, cosmic, and UV rays, would have destroyed all complex organic carbon based
molecules and would have made the assembly of even the most rudimentary life-
associated elements an impossibility (Crick 1981; Ehrenfreund and Sephton 2006).

The chemical compositiion of the new born Earth and its thin atmosphere, was not
condusive to the formation of an organic soup or complex molecules that could be
remotely construed as "pre-biotic" (Crick 1981; Ehrenfreund and Menten, 2002;
Ehrenfreund and Sephton 2006; Joseph, 2000). Even if all the elements necessary for
creating DNA were present, naked DNA and all other so called "pre-biotic" molecules
would have also been instantly destroyed by the UV rays which enveloped the unprotected
planet.

The early Earth was much colder as the sun was 40% less luminous than today (Sackmann
et al., 1993). However, when the Earth was forming the sun may have been emmiting UV
radiation at an intensity 10,000 times greater than today and 4 times greater at 3.5 billion
years (Sackmann et al., 1993)--thus destroying all prebiotic molecules.

It was not until between 3.5 and 2.2 billion years ago that an organic haze had
accumulated to a sufficient degree to protect against UV radiation (Joseph 2009; Pavlov et
al., 2000), well after extraterrestrial life had colonized this planet. After 2.2 bya, oxygen
level increased markedly (Farquhar et al., 2000) and this oxygen was produced by
biological activity (Joseph 2009b,c), with the first evidence of life appearing 4.2 BP, two
billion years before the abiogenic creation of the necessary "pre-biotic" molecules
required to create life was even possible.

The basic organic chemistry which provides the foundations of life are extremely unstable
and breaks down over time and in response to even the normal range of temperatures that
characterized this planet today (Crick, 1981). Not only did the early planet lack a
protective atmosphere, but for 700 million years the Earth was constantly bombarded by
debris which generated incredible temperatures and induced destructive levels of geo-
thermal motion. These conditions are not conducive to the creation of life or organic
chemistry, and would disrupt the strong chemical bonds which hold an organic molecule
firmly together (Crick, 1981; Ehrenfreund and Sephton 2006). This bombardment did not
cease until 3.8 BP (Schoenberg, et al., 2002) when life had already become established on
Earth.

7. Complex Life Was Present on Earth From the Beginning.

There is evidence of microbial activity dated from 3.8 to 4.2 bya, in Earth's oldest rocks
(Mojzsis, et al., 1996; Nemchin et al. 2008; O'Neil et al. 2008; Pflug 1978; Rosing, 1999,
Rosing and Frei, 2004). These include the discovery of very high concentrations of carbon
12, or “light carbon” within metasediments formed 4.2 bya in Western Australia
(Nemchin et al. 2008). High concentrations of carbon 12, or “light carbon” is typically
associated with microbial life. Evidence of biological activity from 4.2 bya is also
indicated by the banded iron formations in northern Quebec, Canada, consisting of
alternating magnetite and quartz (O'Neil et al. 2008).

Presumably, the biological fingerprints from 4.2 bya were left by single celled microbes
who were already fractionating and secreting carbon and magnetite. By this date, Earth
was still forming and only approximately 300 million years old.

In addition, microfosils resembling yeast cells and fungi, was discovered in 3.8 billion
year old quartz, recovered from Isua, S. W. Greenland (Pflug 1978). Therefore, not just
prokaryotes but eukaryotes were already flourishing within 600 million years and while
Earth was still undergoing bombardment from space. This is not surprising, as archae and
microbes (known as extremophiles) can survive and even flourish under the most extreme
life-neutralizing conditions; and when they face death, they form spores and then survive
for another 250 million (Vreeland et al. 2000) to 600 million years (Dombrowski 1963).

Further evidence of biological including photosynthesizing activity in these ancient rock

formations is indicated by the high carbon contents of the protolith shale, and the ratio of
carbon isotopes in graphite from metamorphosed sediments dating to to 3.8 bya (Rosing,
1999, Rosing and Frei, 2004). Additional evidence of biological activity from a separate
location is dated to 3.8 bya (Mojzsis, et al., 1996), and include tiny grains of a phosphate
mineral, apatite which contains calcium, as well as the residue of photosynthesis, oxygen
secretion, and thus biological activity: high level of organic carbon.

Therefore, complex life was already flourishing on this planet although all the necessary
ingredients for the manufacture of life did not exist on the young planet. Complex
prokaryotes and eukaryotes were thriving although the conditions of the planet at this time
made it impossible to form or maintain the molecules essential for the abiogenic creation
of life. Despite the fact that there was insufficient time for chance combinations to have
created even proto-life, complex prokaryotes and eukaryotes had already colonized this
planet. Moreover, these microbes were liberating and secreting free oxygen, carbon,
calcium, and other essential ingredients which made it possible for multi-cellular
eukaryotic life to evolve (Joseph, 2000, 2009b,c); and these microbes were already
engaged in these activities during a time period and under conditions which made the
random creation of life an impossibility.

8. Earth, Mars, Moon: Life in this Solar System Came From Other Planets

Although many in the scientific community religiously adhere to the belief that Earth is
the center of the Biological universe and that life originated on this planet, there is simply
no evidence to support this view which is mired in religious, supernatural and magical
thinking and which ignores the simple facts of biology. There was not enough time, all the
necessary ingredients were missing, the conditions of this planet made the creation of life
impossible, and life was present from the very beginning as indicated by evidence
preserved in this planet's oldest rocks.

"If Life were to suddenly appear on a desert island we wouldn't claim it was randomly
assembled in an organic soup or created by the hand of god; we'd conclude it washed to
shore or fell from the sky. The Earth too, is an island, orbiting in a sea of space, and living
creatures and their DNA have been washing to shore and falling from the sky since our
planets creation" (Joseph, 2000).
Figures 4-6: Mirofossils of Martian bacteria discovered in Martian Meteorite ALH 84001
The evidence for extra-terrestrial life is not limited to carbonaceous chondrites which
predate the origin of this solar system, but includes microfossils discovered in Martian
meteorite ALH84001 (McKay et al 1996; Thomas-Keprta et al., 2009), variably dated
from 4.5 BY (Jagoutz, 1994; Nyquist et al., 1995) to 4.0 BY (Ash et al. 1996) to 3.8 BY
(Wadhwa and Lugmair 1996). This is a time period when both Earth and Mars were still
forming and suffering heavy bombardment (Ash et al., 1996; Schoenberg et al. 2002).
Further, there is evidence of extant life on Mars as detected by the 1976 Viking Mission
Labeled Release experiment, which exploited the sensitivity of 14C respirometry and
obtained positive responses at Viking 1 and 2 sites on Mars, indicating the possibility of
living microorganisms on the red planet (Levin 2010).

Moreover, what appears to be microfossils were also discovered in lunar meteorites (Sears
and Kral, 1998).

Figure 7. Left. Ovoid bacteria? Found inside lunar meteorite QUE93069. Right. Elongated
bacteria? Found on lunar meteorite QUE 94281 (From Sears and Kral 1998).
In 1970 lunar soil samples were returned to Earth by the Luna 16 spacecraft in a
hermetically sealed container and photographed (Rode et al., 1979). The photographs were
later examined by Drs. Stanislav Zhmur, and Lyudmila M. Gerasimenko, who identified
what they believed to be microfossils of coccoidal bacteria which resembled Siderococcus
or Sulfolobus (Klyce, 2000; Zhmur and Gerasimenko, 1999).

Figures 8-9. Lunar mirofossils resembling Siderococcus or Sulfolobus. Credit: Rode et al.,
1979.
A third fossilized impression from the lunar surface resembles a spiral filamentous micro-
Ediacaran, a species which became extinct over 500,000 years ago. In 2009, Dr. Rhawn
Joseph showed this photograph to five world-renowned experts in Cambrian and Pre-
Cambrian fauna, and four of the 5 identified it as a microfossil, but too small to be an
Ediacaran.

Figures 10-11. Left. Lunar mirofossil resembling a micro-Ediacaran. Credit: Rode et al.,
1979. Right. Ediacaran.
In 1971, a TV camera from the lunar Surveyor Space Craft was retrieved by Apollo 12
astronauts, after sitting 3 years on the moon, and a single bacterium (Streptococcus mitis)
was found within (Mitchell & Ellis, 1971). In addition, the lunar camera was discovered to
be covered with a film of "organic material of unknown origin" (Flory and Simoneit,
1972; Simoneit and Burlingame, 1971). The possibility of contamination prior to sending
the camera to the moon, or after it was returned, was ruled out by the scientists who made
this discovery. Unfortunately, a Mr. Jaffe, who was not present when the discovery was
made and who was not in any way associated with the analysis, has attempted to discredit
this discovery by making false statements that have no basis in reality; i.e. that a dirty
work bench was responsible. The hoax perpetrated by Jaffe is easily disproved. A dirty
work bench would have contained millions of diverse bacteria. Nor could the microbe be
the result of some other form of contamination, such as a sneeze or cough. Since a droplet
of saliva contains an average of 750 million organisms, if contamination of the lunar TV
camera was due to a scientist's inadvertent cough or sneeze, a multitude of related
bacteria, and a "representation of the entire microbial population would be expected,"
rather than a single species and a single organism (Mitchell & Ellis, 1971). Moreover, this
Streptococcus mitis was dormant, but came back to life. Streptococcus mitis prefers moist
environments, and as has now been established, there is water on the moon (Clark, 2009;
Green, 2010; Pieters, et al., 2009; Sunshine, et al., 2009).
Figure 12. Luna TV camera retrieved by Apollo 12 Astronauts. A single dormant mirobe,
Streptococcus mitis, was later discovered inside the camera.
The lunar Streptococcus mitis lived on the moon exposed to all the conditions and hazards
of space including extreme cold and heat. Yet it survived, and once on Earth, came back to
life. Microbes are in fact, preadapted to surviving in space (Burchell et al. 2004; Burchella
et al. 2001; Horneck et al. 2001a.b, Horneck et al. 1994; Mastrapaa et al. 2001; Nicholson
et al. 2000) and it is this adaptation which made them the perfect vehicle for spreading the
genetic seeds of life throughout the cosmos.

Thus, there is a confluence of evidence from a variety of scientists and extra-terrestrial

sources demonstrating life is not confined to Earth, and that life was present on Earth and
Mars from the very beginning. As to the purported Moon microfossils and the moon
microbe, we can only speculate as to their origins, e.g. perhaps they were deposited on the
lunar surface following bolide impact to the Earth, or via the same mechanisms of
panspermia which brought life to this solar system.

Life in this solar system has a genetic ancestry which predate the origin of this solar
system (Anisimov 2010; Jose et al., 2010; Joseph 2000, 2009b,c; Sharov 2009, 2010), and
these ancient extra-terrestrial ancestors can be traced to living cells which were first
incubated in the womb of nebular clouds, over 10 billion years ago.

9. Life in this Galaxy Began Over 10 Billion Years Ago

Life on Earth came from other planets and nebular clouds, encased in meteors, asteroids,
comets, and planetary and moon sized debris (Joseph, 2000, 2009a, 2010). There is no
other logical, scientific, or factual, explanation for the origin of Earthly life.

However, to merely state that life originated somewhere other than Earth, as advocated by
Arrhenius (1908/2009), Burchell (2010); Crick, (1981), Hoyle (Hoyle and
Wickramasinghe, 2000) Joseph (2000, 2009a), Sharov (2009, 2010), Wickramasinghe et
al (2009) and others, does not explain how life began.

Despite their Nobel prizes, neither Crick (1981) or Arrhenius (1908/2009), could come up
with a solution. Arrhenius (1908/2009) raised the possibility that life may have had no
beginning.

Although there was not enough time, insufficient ingredients, and other conditions which
made it impossible for life to form and originate on Earth, this does not rule out the
possibility of abiogenesis in a stellar environment where there was sufficient time, the
right conditions and the proper ingredients (Joseph 2000, 2009a, 2010). In fact, based on
evidence derived from genetics, microbiology, astrobiology, astrophysics and quantum
physics, it has been proposed that the first steps toward carbon-based, DNA-based life,
began in various extra-terrestrial environments billions of years before the Earth was
formed (Anisimov 2010; Goertzel and Combs, 2010; González-Díaz, 2010; Jose et al.,
2010; Joseph 2000, 2009, 2010; Line 2010; Poccia et al., 2010; Sharov 2009, 2010).

Anisimov (2010), basing his conclusions on genetics, points out that analysis of molecular
clocks indicates Eubacteria and Archaebacteria were present on this planet over 4 billion
years ago (Battistuzzi and Hedges, 2009). He notes further that based on genetics, the so
called "last universal common ancestor" (LUCA) for archae and bacteria, was a complex
cellular life form (Baymann et al., 2003) which required billions of years to evolve from
the first organic molecules and several more billions years to evolve into archae and
bacteria. Hence, LUCA had already evolved by 6 billion years ago, and its own ancestry
extends further back in time by billions of more years (Anisimov 2010). If correct: this
could mean that 6 bya LUCA began to evolve into archae and bacteria (becoming archae-
bacteria over 4 bya), that 8 bya proto-cells began to evolve into LUCA (becoming LUCA
over 6 bya), and that ancestral proto-cells began to evolve 10 bya (becoming proto-cells
before 8 bya).

Bianconi and colleagues (Poccia et al., 2010) argue that the first forms of life were
fashioned during the so called "Dark Energy Era" which presumably dominated following
the hypothetical "Big Bang" over 10 billion years ago. The dark energy era, coupled with
the period of rapid star formation followed by supernova, presumably resulted in the
synthesis and dispersal of the energy and elements necessary for life. Poccia et al., (2010)
propose that these "associations raise the possibility that the increase of dark energy,
coupled with the stellar synthesis of the elements necessary for life, could be related to the
emergence of life in the universe."

Based on genetics and the evolution of the genome, Sharov (2009, 2010) arrives at a
birthdate of 10 billion years ago, and Anisimov (2010) notes this agrees with his data.
Related to Sharov's analysis, Jose et al., (2010) describe how a primitive genetic code may
have first been established in an extraterrestrial environment long before the creation of
Earth. This extraterrestrial replicon began to replicate, made variable copies of itself and
became more complex, giving rise to primitive riboorganisms. Through mechanisms of
panspermia (Joseph 2009a), the descendants of these riboorganisms were eventually
deposited on Earth.

Joseph (2000, 2009b,c) also developed a complex genetic model of life's origins, based on
a detailed analysis of considerable genetic evidence, which he believes explains not just
the origin but the evolution of life on Earth; what he calls "evolutionary metamorphosis."
According to Joseph (2000, 2009a,b,c) life on Earth did not begin with proto-cells, but
with complex microbes who were deposited on this planet within planetary debris and
within "rogue planets" expelled from the dying star system which gave birth to our own.
Since all modern life, and their universal genetic code, can be traced backwards in time to
the first Earthlings which were not created on this planet, then this genetic ancestry can be
traced to extraterrestrial life forms whose own ancestors descended from a common
ancestor billions of years before Earth was created.

Therefore, based on genetics, Joseph (2000, 2009a,b,c) proposes that not only did life
began before Earth was created, but life forms were repeatedly dispersed onto other
worlds where they exchanged DNA via horizontal gene transfer. The first Earthlings
arrived on this planet with fully formed genomes which were inherited from life forms
that evolved on other planets.

Based on the analysis of Anisimov (2010), Jose et al., (2010), Joseph (2000, 2009a,b,c),
Poccia et al., (2010), and Sharov (2009, 2010), it could be argued that very simple proto-
cells, equipped with perhaps a few base pairs of DNA were fashioned around 10 billion to
13 billion years ago, in this galaxy (Joseph and Schild 2010). These proto-cells continued
to evolve and were then dispersed from planet to planet and from nebular cloud to nebular
cloud, according to the models of panspermia developed by Joseph (2000, 2009a, 2010)
until becoming proto-organisms or achieving the status of complex microbes which were
then deposited on this planet. And this is how life on Earth began.

10. Infinity: The Statical Odds of Life Forming in a Trillion Galaxies

If we accept the Big Bang hypothesis, in which the consensus of opinion is the universe
was created around 13.8 billion years ago (Benett et al. 2003), then it could be argued that
the statistical probability of life beginning even as proto-life, within 4 billion years of the
"creation", i.e. 10 billion years ago, is zero. Estimates are that it would take from 100
billion to over 1 trillion years for chance combination to result in the creation of anything
remotely capable of being called "life" (Crick 1981; Horgan, 1991; Hoyle, 1974; Yockey
1977).

The Big Bang birth date of the universe has been pushed steadily back from it initial
estimate of 2 billion years to its current estimate of 13.75 billion years in age (Benett et al.
2003). However, the age of the Milky Way is believed to be 13.6 billion years in age
(Pasquini et al., 2005). Moreover, fully formed galaxies have been discovered at a distance
of over 13.1 billion light years from Earth (American Astronomical Society 2010), and
which must have already been billions of years in age, over 13 billion years ago (Joseph
2010). There are globular clusters which appear to be over 16 billion years old (Van
Flandern 2002). Then there are the vast voids and galactic "Superclusters" and "Great
Walls" of galaxies (Geller and Hurcha, 1990; Tully 1986), such as the "Sloan Great
Wall" (Gott et al. 2005). These great walls and super clusters of galaxies could have taken
from 80 billion (Tully 1986) to 100 billion (Van Flandern 2002), to 150 billion years
(Lerner 1990) to form.

The 13.7 billion year Big Bang birth date is an estimate, and it can be assumed that as
technology improves and more powerful telescope are developed, ever more distant
galaxies will be discovered, thus increasingly pushing back the age of the universe, such
that even 150 billion years may turn out to be a gross underestimate. As such, life could
have begun in a Big Bang universe, over 100 billion years ago.

Joseph (2000, 2010), argues there was no Big Bang, no creation event, and no creator god,
and provides considerable evidence which he believes demonstrates the universe is infinite
and eternal; and this would give infinite time for life to arise by chance. Joseph (2010)
sums it up as follows: "... in an infinite universe, over infinite time, and given infinite
chance combinations, it can be predicted that the constituent elements necessary for
fashioning and combining together energy-extracting, self-replicating molecules may have
been jumbled together an infinite number of times, such that a variety of life may have
arisen in an infinite number of locations. Given infinite chance combinations over infinite
time, it can also be deduced that not all life forms in the universe are like those of Earth.
Life on this planet is just a sample of life's possibilities."

In an infinite, eternal universe with no beginning and no end, the odds are that life would
arise not just once, but an infinite number of times, even if it would take a trillion years.
However, as pointed out by Joseph (2010), life did not need an infinite amount of time, or
even a trillion years to emerge. Rather, if provided a trillion locations with all the
necessary ingredients, life could become established within a few billion years in at least a
few of the infinite number of locations available.

The statistical model which has been used to rule out the possibility of life emerging on
Earth, is based on the concept of a series of chance events, one happening after the other
in the same location where all the ingredients are available; like one person flipping the
same coin. Although it is impossible for life to have begun on Earth, the odds improve
markedly when these chance combinations are taking place in trillions of locations
throughout the cosmos where all the essential elements for life may be present in
abundance, i.e. nebular clouds (Joseph 2010).

The number of stars in the known, Hubble length universe, is frankly unknowable. A
single galaxy, such as Andromeda, may contain over a trillion stars (Mould, et al., 2008).
The number of galaxies, however, is also unknowable, though if we were to venture a
guess, it might be a trillion sextillion. Each of these galaxies contain hundreds of billions
to trillions of stars, each of which was presumably fashioned in a nebular cloud (Hartmann
et al., 2009; Huff and Stahler, 2006; Muench, et al., 2008; O'Dell et al., 2008).

Our Milky Way galaxy, and numerous other galaxies are over 13 billion years old (Pace
and Pasquini, 2004; Pasquini et al., 2005). Hence, it could even be argued that these
chance events began in this galaxy at least 13 billion years ago with the establishment of
these galaxies whose stars were created in nebular clouds; clouds which contain all the
necessary chemicals and agents for the creation of life (Belloche, 2009; Fraser, 2002; Jura,
2005; Osterbrock and Ferland 2005; Williams, 1998; Zelic, 2002).

Therefore, given a trillion sextillion galaxies with stars which are even more numerous,
then the chance combinations in each of these environments could, over billions of years
of time, repeatedly result in a self-replicating molecule. Given the odds of 1 in a trillion, it
can be predicted that life independently arose in numerous galaxies after billions of years
of chance combinations. In fact, life could have been created at least once, in each and
every galaxy; i.e. in the womb of nebular clouds.

Even if we restrict our analysis to the Milky Way galaxy, with its 500 billion stars and its
trillions of (likely) planets, then a trillion chance combinations may have occurred billions
if not trillions of times, until finally a self-replicating combination of molecules were
fashioned (Joseph and Schild 2010). We can predict that life could have begun by 10
billion years ago, in this galaxy, within 3 billion years after this galaxy formed 13.6 billion
years ago.

Therefore, if we combine the theorizing and evidence marshaled by Jose et al., (2010),
Joseph (2000, 2009a,b,c, 2010), Poccia et al., (2010), and Sharov (2009, 2010), it could be
argued that the ancestry of carbon-based, DNA-based life, in this galaxy (as represented
by life on Earth) extends backwards in time to at least 10 billion or more years, during a
period and in locations when the chemistry and physics were ripe for triggering those self-
replicating molecules whose descendants would eventually fall to Earth.

Hence, instead of the completely improbable 300 millions years for complex life to form
on Earth, the 10 billion year birth date beginning with the first replicon, in this galaxy,
provides an additional 6 billion years for complex life to be established before falling to
Earth.

As the Milky Way is 13.6 billion years in age (Pasquini et al., 2005) it could be argued
that over 13 billion years ago, 9 billion years before the Earth became a twinkle in god's
eye, that the first steps toward life had already been taken and this is how life, in this
galaxy, began.

It must be stressed, however, that in an infinite universe, or even a Big Bang universe (the
birthdate of which is continually pushed backwards in time), life could have arisen
hundreds of billions of years ago, and then hitchhiked from galaxy to galaxy, when
galaxies collide (Joseph and Schild 2010).

11. Black Holes, Hydrogen, and the Chemicals of Life

Life on Earth is likely just a sample of life's possibilities. Life need not be carbon based,
need not contain genes, and may instead be based on silica, sulphur, ammonia, or a
combination of other substances (Goertzel and Combs, 2010; Istock. 2010; Naganuma and
Sekine 2010; Rampelotto 2010; Schulze-Makuch 2010; Schulze-Makuch et al., 2004,
2006). If such life forms exist in the vastness of the cosmos, or in our own galaxy, they
may have served as precursors, that is stepping stones leading to Carbon-DNA-based life.

All the examples we have of extra-terrestrial life, i.e. microfossils (Claus and Nagy 1961;
Folk and Lynch 1997; Hoover 1997, 1998, 2006; Hoover and Rozanov, 2003; McKay, et
al., 1996; Pflug 1984; Mitchell and Ellis, 1971; Nagy et al. 1961,1963a,b; Zhmur and
Gerasimenko 1999; Zhmur et al. 1997) resemble those of Earth. There is no evidence that
non-carbon, non-DNA life may have served as "stepping stones" or even that they exist.
Therefore, we need only focus on the origin of those carbon-DNA-based life forms whose
descendants eventually fell to Earth.

Life, as we know it, became life when the necessary, initial ingredients, were somehow
mixed together, to generate an energy extracting, information sharing, replicating entity.
These ingredients originated in stars and accumulated and mixed together within nebular
clouds (Joseph 2010).

Galaxies, stars, planets, moons, molecules, atoms, and so on, are continually created and
destroyed, and matter and energy, including hydrogen atoms, are continually recycled and
recreated via activities associated with "black holes" also known as gravity holes, "Planck
Particles" and "Gravitons" depending on their size and mass (Joseph 2010).
These holes capture light expelling the wave and collapsing the photon or particle which is
stripped down to gravity. The energies these holes deflect, radiate and expell, then bind
with elementary particles to create new matter, i.e. hydrogen atoms (Joseph 2010).
Figure 13. Stars orbiting a black hole
 Figure 14. Stars orbiting a black hole
Holes in space time are associated with gravity, the breakdown and compression of
photons and mass, the liberation/ radiation of electromagnetic energy (Giddings, 1995;
Hawking, 1990, 2005; Preskill 1994; Russell and Fender, 2010; Thorn 1994) the liberation
and then binding together of elementary particles, and the creation of matter--tying
together quarks and leptons to form protons and electrons, all of which leads to the
simplest and lightest of all atoms, hydrogen (containing only a single proton and no
neutrons or electrons), i.e. proton H+ (Joseph 2010). Hydrogen is the lightest and most
abundant element in the known universe. Approximately 90% of all atoms are hydrogen
atoms (Gilli and Gilli, 2009; Rigden, 2003).

Once created, proton H+ immediately attracts other electrons (as well as other atoms and
molecules which contain electrons). Once the proton H+ captures an electron, it becomes a
hydrogen atom. From there greater structures and compounds can be assembled (Gilli and
Gilli, 2009; Rigden, 2003), such as liquid water, cellulose, microfibrils, polypeptides,
DNA, and the stars which shine in the darkness of night.

Hydrogen is vital to life and is essential for the creation of stars

Hydrogen functions as an energy carrier (Gilli and Gilli, 2009; Rigden, 2003). Hydrogen
(with a single proton and electron) is believed to constitute approximately 75% of the
observable mass of the universe, and along with helium (the second lightest and simplest
element) is the major component of main sequence stars (Clayton, 1984; Hansen et al.,
2004). Stars emit photons which are stripped and then captured by black holes in the
fabric of space time.

As photons (particle-waves) journey across pace, they are whittled down by gravity-holes
smaller than a Planck length (Joseph 2010). As their energy is expelled, photons become
smaller in size until they collapse and their remaining gravity/mass becomes one with the
singularity of the black hole (Joseph 2010). However, as photons, electrons, protons, etc.,
collapse, not just their energy is liberated but the elementary particles they were
comprised of.

Light and matter is not just broken down but is recycled. The liberated energy binds
together elementary particles thereby creating hydrogen atoms and the entire cycles
repeats itself, with hydrogen forming stars, stars releasing photons, and so on (Joseph,
2010).

The creation of hydrogen, in turns leads to the creation of carbon. It is the production of
carbon which makes life, as we know it, possible.

12. Black Holes, Quasars, Hydrogen and Star Creation

It is generally believed that when stars greater than 4 solar masses collapse, they form
black holes in the fabric of space time (Melia 2003b; Oppenheimer and Volkoff 1939;
Thorn 1994; Wald, 1992). Every spiral galaxy is believed to have a supermassive black
hole at its center (Blandford, 1999; Jones et al., 2004; Melia, 2003a,b). Near the center of
the galaxy millions of stars closely orbit the supermassive black hole (Geiss et al., 2010),
many of which become embraced by the gravitational grip of the hole and are destroyed
and their energy liberated (Giess, et al., 2010; Melia, 2003; Merloni and Heinz, 2008;
Thorne, 1994). These holes capture light, mass, matter, and radiate energy (Hawking,
1990, 2005; Preskill, 1994; Russell and Fender 2010 ), also known as Hawking's radiation.
Figure 15. M87. Black Hole radiating gas.
 Figure 16. Black Hole. Ngc1365. Credit: NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory.

In newly forming galaxies, black holes direct this radiated energy to quasars, which may
surround the hole (Dietrich, et al., 2009; Mateo et al., 2005; Vestergaard, 2010). Quasars
are also sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves, visible light and
elementary particles such as electrons, protons, and and positrons (Elvis, et al., 1994; Silk
2005; Willott et al., 2007). The intergalactic medium, including hydrogen gases
surrounding Quasars are ionized (Willott et al., 2007), such that presumably, these
hydrogen atoms are either stripped of their electrons and become plasma hydrogen, or
conversely, an electron is captured and proton H+ is transformed into a Hydrogen atom. In
fact, both processes may be at work, such that this liberated energy combines with
elementary particles to create proton H+, and the ionization attracting an electron, thereby
producing a hydrogen atom, and then, with continued ionization, the electron is
dissociated from the proton and plasma hydrogen is created, becoming the fuel for the
creation of a new star.
Figure 17-18. HE0450-2958. HE0450-2958. Left: optical wavelengths (HST/ACS, I-
band), Right: near-infrared (HST/NICMOS, H-band). Top row panels (a)+(c) show the
full HST images, while in panels (b)+(d) the quasar emission is removed. The VISIR
image only shows a single point source, the quasar, plus a very faint signature of the
companion galaxy. From Jahnke, Elbaz et al. 2009.
This energy is then selectively amplified and directed toward specific regions of space
(Elbaz et al., Feain et al., 2007; 2009; Klamer et al. 2004; Silk et al., 2009). Hence, energy
liberated and expelled from mass falling into a black hole is recombined to produce
hydrogen atoms which are expelled from the Quasar as hydrogen gas and which may
contain plasma hydrogen which is highly luminous, and which will become a major
constituent of a new star.

Quasars are highly luminous and emit oppositely oriented streams of gas deep into space
at distances of over 1 million light years (Elbaz et al., 2009; Elvis, et al., 1994; McCarthy
et al., 1987). These streams of hydrogen and helium gas do not rotate but are stable and
appear to target nebular and interstellar clouds where they stimulate star production (Elbaz
et al., 2009; Natarajan et al., 1998; Ooosterlooet et. al., 2005; Rejkuba et al., 2002). Black
holes and quasars, therefore, are directly implicated in the creation not just of stars, but
galaxies and the regulation of their growth.

Nebular clouds, like the the cosmos itself, are comprised of hydrogen (and other elements
and gasses). Because quasars funnel and increase the amount of hydrogen gas within
specific targeted areas, objects of sufficient mass and gravity within these targeted zones
attract this additional hydrogen which forms an increasingly dense hydrogen atmosphere,
thereby becoming a super-massive gas giant. Once the pressures and density of this
accumulating hydrogen reaches a crucial threshold, a nuclear reaction ensues and that
stellar object ignites, becoming a star (Joseph 2010).

Hence, quasars are fueled by black holes (Elbaz et al., 2009; Neilsen and Lee 2009), and
these black holes are simultaneously destroying stars thereby liberating the energy and
then the hydrogen gasses necessary for star production. Quasar HE0450-2958, for
example, generates approximately 350 Suns per year (Elbaz et al., 2009), and is provided
the energy by a black hole at its center which is simultaneously destroying older stars to
create new ones. Therefore, stars are recycled to create new stars via the production of
hydrogen.

13. Stars, Supernova and Carbon

Hydrogen would not have been produced directly in the big bang as the resulting heat and
subsequent nucleosynthesis would have instead turned all elements into iron, thereby
creating a universe made out of metal. However, according to Big Bang theory, hydrogen
appeared out of a sea of protons and electrons as a neutral gas when the young universe
expanded and cooled below a few thousand degrees Kelvin. Because the gas would have
had a lower viscosity than the primordial proton soup, it dominated the early structure
formation scene that produced the earliest planets and larger structures that quickly
became galaxies (Gibson and Schild, 2009).

In the local universe, hydrogen is produced through the activities of black holes in space-
time, be they super-massive holes in the center or spiral galaxies, or those resulting from
terminal star burnout and collapse (Joseph 2010). Initially these newly generated hydrogen
atoms do not contain an electron and are referred to as proton H+. However, it can become
hydrogen plasma once it attracts an electron. In its plasma state, its electrons and protons
are not bound together (Gilli and Gilli, 2009). This results in extremely high electrical
conductivity and the emission of light.

Stars are comprised, initially almost entirely of hydrogen (Clayton, 1984), though a
supermassive 12 million degree central core which gravitationally grips the hydrogen and
other gasses thereby preventing them from leaking into space.

Once a star ignites, hydrogen burns at greater temperatures at the core than at the surface
due to the greater pressures and densities (Clayton, 1984). As the hydrogen is burned it is
slowly converted to helium through nuclear fusion. Once the helium begins to be burned,
it is turned to carbon (Clayton, 1984; Hansen et al., 2004; Mezzacappa and Fuller, 2006).

Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe (preceded by oxygen, helium,
and hydrogen). Carbon is found in comets, asteroids, meteors, planets, stars and nebular
clouds, and is essential for life. Because of its complex outer electron structure, carbon has
an unusual polymer-forming ability, is the major chemical constituent of most organic
matter, creates millions of organic compounds, and is found in complex molecules and
macro-molecules such as DNA and RNA. Carbon provides the chemical basis for all
known forms of life.
When main sequence stars have consumed most of their hydrogen and begin to die and
become a red giant, the helium core of the star begins to burn and collapse (Arnett, 1996;
Clayton, 1984; Hansen et al., 2004; Mezzacappa and Fuller, 2006). The density and
pressures cause helium alpha particles to be released. When these alpha particle collide
they create carbon and the carbon atomic nucleus (Mezzacappa and Fuller, 2006).
Specifically, the creation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a triple collision of alpha
particles (helium nuclei) and this occurs in the core of a red giant. Thus hydrogen is
converted to helium and it takes three helium nuclei to create one carbon nuclei.

When the all the helium has been burned or turned into carbon, the remaining carbon core
contracts and reaches temperature high enough to begin burning carbon into oxygen, neon,
silicon, sulfur and a variety of other substances, including, last of all, iron (Clayton, 1984;
Hansen et al., 2004; Mezzacappa and Fuller, 2006)

Figure 19. Red Giant followed by Supernova. Credit: Rhawn Joseph, Ph.D.

As the star implodes and undergoes supernova, carbon and a variety of other substances
including molten iron are released during the explosion and ejected into surrounding space
(Mezzacappa and Fuller, 2006). Nebular clouds, which are formed initially by the dying
star's solar winds (Osterbrock and Ferland 2005), are seeded with carbon, oxygen,
phosphorus and so on when the red giant supernovas (Marcaide and Weiler 2005;
Mezzacappa and Fuller, 2006; Osterbrock and Ferland 2005). The nebular cloud may be
seeded by yet other supernova, and may be targeted by quasars.
It is from these nebular clouds that new stars and planets are born. Given that carbon and
all the constituent elements necessary for life are generated in stars and then deposited in
nebular clouds, it can be assume that life was born in a nebular cloud. Nebular clouds may
be cradles of life.

Figures 20-21. A black hole, with the mass of 17 billion suns, at the heart of quasar ,
OJ287, emitting radiation and hydrogen gas. The larger black hole at the center is orbited
by a smaller black hole with the mass of 100 million suns
14. Life Began in a Nebular Cloud

Stars produce the most important ingredients for the creation and maintenance of life as
we know it. When these stars become red giants and then supernova, these seeds of life
are dispersed into space where they coalsce in an expanding nebular cloud.

Stellar debris, nebulae, and interstellar clouds contain hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulfur,
nitrogen, phosphorus, water vapour, methanol, ethanol, cyanide, ammonia, formaldehyde,
and complex organic molecules (Belloche 2009; Fraser 2002; Jura 2005; Osterbrock and
Ferland 2005; Williams, 1998; Zelic, 2002). For example, a spectral line survey of Orion
nebular clouds (Koning et al., 2008) has identified 40 different molecular species,
including several organic compounds such as CH3CN, (methyl cyanide),
CH3OH, 13CH3OH) (methanol), and CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether). An examination of a
nebular cloud within 3 astronomical units of AA Tauri revealed the presence of an
abundance of simple organic molecules (HCN, C2H2, and CO2), water vapor, and OH.
Water was particularly abundant throughout the inner disk which is a further indication of
active organic chemistry (Carr and Najita 2008).

Further, there is an abundance of organic molecules, water, and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons within interstellar clouds (Carr and Najita, 2008; Cerrigone et al., 2009;
Osterbrock and Ferland 2005; Werner e al., 2009), which indicates either the presence of
life, and which also serve as important ingredients for creating life.
 Figure 22. Orion Nebula
As based on results from the European Space Agency's infrared space observatory, the
Spitzer and other space telescopes, the chemical synthesis of complex organic molecules
also occurs rather rapidly in different stellar environments. A comparative analysis of
infrared spectra, indicates that small organic molecules can evolve into complex organic
molecules. This includes inducing chiral asymmetry in interstellar organic molecules
leading, possibly to an excess of L-amino acids (Bailey, et al., 1998; Fukue et al. 2010).
Amino acids appear to be generated and synthesized in these stellar environments. Sixty
amino acids have been detected (Sidharth, 2009; Wirström et al., 2007) including eight of
the twenty amino acids necessary for life. In fact, the UV irradiation of interstellar ice
analogs is known to lead to the formation and synthesis of organic compounds (Troop and
Baily 2009) such as amino acids and what may be nucleobases. A wide-field and deep
near-infrared study of the Orion nebula, revealed a high circular polarization region is
patially extended around the massive star-forming region, the BN/KL nebula, and which is
being irradiated by polarized radiation inducing a asymmetric photochemistry and thus
what appears to be homochirality, i.e. the production of left handed amino acids (Fukue et
al. 2010). Amino acids lead to proteins and DNA.

These discoveries have also been replicated in laboratory settings. For example,
Kobayashi et al., (2008) irradiated a frozen mixture of methanol, ammonia and water with
high-energy heavy ions to simulate the action of cosmic rays in dense nebular clouds.
Complex amino acid precursors with large molecular weights were produced. In addition,
amino acids were detected after hydrolysis of the irradiation products. Therefore, it
appears that amino acids can be easily formed in interstellar space (Kobayashi et al.,
2008).
 Figure 23. The Bubble Nebula
Interstellar molecular clouds appear to serve as stellar nurseries for building complex
molecules, producing sugars, alcohols, ethers and quinons which also absorb UV and
other types of radiation which would be destructive to amino acids. However, at the same
time, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus are continually irradiated
by ions (Osterbrock and Ferland 2005), and which could generate complex organic
molecules, carbon grains, oxides, and even proteins

Therefore, within a nebular cloud, complex organic molecules can be provided all the
ingredients necessary for building more complex molecular structures, including amino
acids and proteins which can be combined to create additional life-related structures,
including DNA. Even energy is supplied. Therefore, initially this molecular-protein
complex need not do any work.

The combination of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, cyanide and several other
elements, could possibly create adenine, which is a DNA base, whereas oxygen and
phosphorus could ladder DNA base pairs together. Therefore, the building blocks for
DNA may have also been generated within interstellar clouds.

Thus, DNA would become part of this molecular-protein-amino acid complex.

Further, these combinations would be buffeted by cosmic shock waves from additional
supernova which in turn could provide these coalescing organic molecules and strands of
DNA with heat and additional sources of energy. This energize DNA-molecular-protein
complex could then begin to function as a proto-organism with all its needs provided by
the nebular environment. The next step would be: microbial life.

Therefore, interstellar environments may have served as nuclear wombs of life (Joseph
and Schild 2010). Thus, after several billion years within nebular environments which are
constantly being resupplied with energy and all the necessary ingredients for life, self-
replicating proto-cellular organisms, equipped with DNA, would likely be fashioned,
giving rise to life. Therefore, it can be predicted that the generation of life may be an
ongoing phenomenon in the oldest of nebular clouds.

However, only one replicon had to be jumbled together and energized. Once it became
functional it would have immediately began replicating and creating variable copies of
itself and its DNA.

At some point in the history of life, these replicons and their genomes became increasingly
complex and they evolved into single celled organisms; and this evolutionary step may
have also taken place in space. In fact it has been repeatedly demonstrated that microbes
can survive conditions in space, including ejection from and the crash landing onto a
planet, the frigid temperatures and vacuum of an interstellar environment, and the UV
rays, cosmic rays, gamma rays, and ionizing radiation they would encounter (Burchell et
al. 2004; Burchella et al. 2001; Horneck et al. 2001a.b, Horneck et al. 1994; Mastrapaa et
al. 2001; Nicholson et al. 2000).

Microbes born on this planet are already pre-adapted for journeying through space, living
in space, and not just surviving but flourishing in radioactive environments where they are
continually exposed to radiation by ions similar to what might be encountered in a nebular
cloud.

In 1958, physicists discovered clouds of bacteria, ranging from two million bacteria per
cm3 and over 1 billion per quart, thriving in pools of radioactive waste directly exposed to
ionizing radiation and radiation levels millions of times greater than could have ever
before been experienced on this planet (Nasim and James, 1978). The world's first
artificial nuclear reactor was not even built until 1942. Prior to the 1945, poisonous pools
of radioactive waste did not even exist on Earth. And yet, over a dozen different species of
microbe have inherited the genes which enable them to survive conditions which for the
previous 4.5 billion years could have only been experienced in space. These radiation-
loving microbes include Deinococcus radiodurans, D. proteolyticus, D. radiopugnans, D.
radiophilus, D. grandis, D. indicus, D. frigens, D. saxicola, D. marmola, D. geothermalis,
D. murrayi.

Figure 24. Deinococcus radiodurans.

Microbes from Earth are preadapted to surviving conditions which they have not
encountered on this planet. Therefore, they must have inherited the genes which made
survival in space possible; and this means these genes were acquired from microbes which
had lived in space (Joseph 2009a). It is this adaptation which made them the perfect
vehicle for spreading the genetic seeds of life throughout the cosmos.

Thus it appear that proto-life and then microbial life was jig sawed together in a nebular
cloud. However, given the turbulent nature of these nebular clouds it might seem that life
would be instantly destroyed unless provided some protection against the life-neutralizing
hazards that would be encountered in a free-floating environment constantly exposed to
conditions deadly to life. This protection would in fact be provided by the same stellar
mechanisms which dispersed those elements necessary for the establishment of life. Not
just the seeds of life, but the material for the creation of new stars and planets are
dispersed by these powerful supernovas (Joseph, 2010).

15. Expelled Planets and Planet Creation in a Nebular Cloud

Over 400 planets have been discovered orbiting in distant solar systems, including super-
Jupiters and super-Earths (Bakos et al. 2007; Baraffe et al., 2008; Caballero, et al., 2007;
Charbonneau, et al., 2009); planets several times the size and mass of our own Earth and
the planet Jupiter. Therefore, it can be safely assumed that all stars are orbited by planets.

Although the accretion model of planet creation is the most widely accepted by consensus,
how these planets are formed is still unknown. In the unlikely accretion scenario, dust
particles and rocky debris swirling randomly in a proto-planetary cloud of dust bump into
each other and instead of breaking apart into smaller fragments and scattering as they
bounce off each other, they instead defy the laws of physics and stick together.

Planets cannot form secondary to the accretion of smaller particles which form larger
objects. It defies classical physics, has never been observed, never replicated in a lab,
simulations look bizarre, and is just not possible.

And yet, every student today is taught that when interstellar rocks collide in the pre-solar
accretion disc, they stick together with high probability. The properties of solar system
dust collected by the STARDUST sample return mission looked nothing like the grains
expected to result from collisional accretion (Couvalt, 2006). Instead the particles were
found to have a melted globule appearance and must have formed in a very high
temperature medium. Suggesting that the particles originated in another solar system, and
many dust grains exhibited tendrils suggestive of an explosive meteoritic origin.

Schild and Gibson (2009) adopt instead a more complex picture of planet formation in
which two steps were involved, beginning with events soon after a "Big Bang" origin of
the universe. At the time of plasma-to-gas transition in the early universe, when
temperatures dropped below 5000 degrees Kelvin, an enormous viscosity change freed all
of the atomic matter in the universe to collapse into planetary mass condensations of
almost pure hydrogen. These would have aggregated together to form stars in some cases,
but the process was inefficient and trillions of planetary cores were left behind (Gibson
and Schild, 2009). Direct simulations with fine scale show the formation of these earth-
mass bodies as the first structures to form in the young expanding universe (Diemand,
Moore, and Stadel, 2005).

These big puffy planetary mass bodies would have floated around in the discs and halos of
galaxies, and swept up interstellar dust and supernova ejecta (Schild , 2007). As these
meteored in, the lighter grains would have vaporized and sunk to the center. Heavier rocks
would have melted and fused with other rocky material. Because the planetary mass free
roaming bodies would have had high temperature cores, the heavy core material would
have become stratified by density and collected at the centers. Models of the physical
structures of such brown dwarf objects have been given by Burrows et al. (1997).

An important chemical change would also have occurred at this time. Presently observed
interstellar dust is observed in its oxide form (Brownlee, 2008), but any hot and vaporized
oxides in a hydrogen atmosphere would have reduced the metals and created the rocky
cores below oceans of water observed today. In the standard pre-stellar accretion disc
theory model taught today, the existence of solar system planets like Earth, Mercury, and
Mars with metallic iron cores are a mystery.

Thus, according to Schild and Gibson (2009; Schild, 2007; Gibson and Schild 2008) the
formation of planets in our solar system and presumably elsewhere was a two-step
process. An important new aspect of the scenario was demonstrated in a recent Hubble
Space Telescope observation wherein 90 orbits of survey data were carefully analyzed to
test the picture that many faint Kuiper Belt Objects (KBO's) would be found as the left-
over rocks that would have collected to make planets by collisional accretion. Whereas 90
smaller KBO's were expected, only 3 were found (Bernstein, 2004), causing NASA
scientists to conclude that the planet formation event appeared to have more the character
of collisional fragmentation than collisional accumulation. This obviously requires the
pre-solar cores to have come from some earlier process in the universe. Planet mass
objects not related to any nearby sun are now being routinely found in infrared surveys
(Cruz et al, 2009).

A further property of solid sub-planet bodies in the outer solar system also seems to
require a formation process unrelated to the collisional accumulation scenario.
Observations of these KBO's show a significant excess of binary objects (Stephens and
Noll 2006). Only single objects would be expected from the collisional accretion process,
whereas strong binarity would be expected from the early universe fragmentation process.
A further surprising result of direct Hubble Space Telescope imaging is that in their
densities, they are dust-like, not rock-like, with an apparent pulverized internal structure
(Trilling and Bernstein, 2006).

The only other way two colliding rocks are going to stick together is if either or both are
very hot, soft, and sticky; in which case neither could really be considered a "rock" but a
hot molten mush. Where would this hot mush come from? Certainly not from a proto-star.
The new sun, in this solar system, was 40% cooler than the modern sun (Sackman et al.
1993). The new solar system was not hot, it was cold.

Consider the scenario for the creation of the Moon. It has been estimated that during the
accretion period, within 30 million years after the formation of the solar system, Earth was
struck by a Mars-sized planet (Jacobsen, 2005). These two planets did not stick together
and did not form a larger planet. Others believe around 4 billion years ago, a Mars-sized
planet hit Earth with so much force that the ejected mass became the Moon (Belbruno and
Gott III 2005; Poitrasson et al. 2004, Rankenburg et al. 2006). Therefore, not only did
these colliding planets not grow by accretion, but Earth became smaller when a mass that
became the Moon was ripped away.

And yet, be it 4.6 billion years ago or 4 billion years ago, Earth and this Mars sized object
had to be fairly hot due to the heat generated by the constant bombard by comets and
asteroids. Obviously they were not hot and soft enough. But where would they get the
necessary heat? Certainly not from the new born sun. The only source for the extreme heat
necessary to make these planets sufficiently hot and sticky would be a supernova.

When a star becomes a red giant, it loses between 40% to 80% of its mass (Kalirai et al.
2007; Liebert et al. 2005a,b; Wachter et al. 2008), thereby reducing the gravitational hold
on its planets some of which will then be expelled from the dying solar system perhaps
hundreds of thousands or hundreds of millions of years before supernova (Joseph 2009a).
Presumably, these expelled planets wonder the galaxy or become a member of the
growing nebular cloud on the outskirts of the dying solar system. If so, even if these
expelled planets still harbored microbial life beneath their surface, they would likely be
exposed to additional life forms within these nebular clouds. As is the case of microbes on
Earth, they would also likely horizontally transfer DNA (Joseph 2000, 2009b,c).

When a star explodes in a supernova, ejected planets, dust, and rocky debris within the
growing nebular cloud, would be heated by the blast. The surface of small and large
planets might melt. Some of those hot melting planets might collide or be whirled
together, along with other very hot debris, forming a larger mass (cf. Baraffe et al., 2008).
Only in this way, following exposure to a supernova (at just the right distance) could
expelled debris, moons, or broken planets become sufficiently hot so as to merge together
and/or grow by accretion.

The above model applies to moons and planets which have been expelled from a dying
solar system prior to supernova. That is, even if shattered, some of these expelled planets
could grow by accretion. On the other hand, if these planets were already formed, then the
hot and sticky accretion model does not explain planet formation, but only accounts for
why a planet might grow larger in size.

Every time a star becomes a red giant many of its planets may be expelled (Joseph 2009a).
However, when a star supernovas, it may then create new planets, from scratch, beginning
with a molten iron core.

Stars that die eject carbon, hydrocarbon, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, chlorine, argon, sodium,
potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, manganese, cobalt, nickel and molten iron into
the interstellar medium (Burbidge, et al. 1957; Clayton, 2003; Gehrz, 1988). Massive
amounts of molten iron would also be hurled into these nebular clouds. Everything which
comes into contact with that hot molten iron would be expected to stick. This molten iron
would then form the core of a newly forming planet which grows by accretion. Therefore,
planets formed in this fashion would be expected to have an iron core--as is the case with
Earth and the other planets of this solar system (Baraffe et al., 2008; Gonzalez et al., 2001;
Saumon et al., 2004).

In fact, not only the planets of this solar system, but exo-planets the size of Neptune,
Saturn, Jupiter, and those several times the size of Jupiter, all appear to have a core made
up of heavy metals (Baraffe et al., 2008; Sato, et al. 2005). These metals could have only
been produced by a supernova and its collapse (Muno, et al., 2005), and these metals must
have been blistering hot and molten, thereby allowing other material to stick instead of
bouncing off and shattering into dust.

It is believed that supernova were more common in the early stages of galaxy formation of
the Milky Way (Gonzalez et al., 2001). Hundreds of millions of black holes may orbit
within this galaxy (McClintock, 2004; Schödel, et al., 2006); the collapsed remnants of
hundreds of millions of supernova. Therefore, it can be assumed that the first planets and
billions of subsequent planets were formed after the death of these first stars which
comprised the newly forming Milky Way. As such, nebular clouds, and the wilds of space,
may be home to trillions of orphan planets. In fact "super-Jupiters," over 5 times the mass
of Jupiter, have been discovered in the Orion cloud (Bihain, et al., 2009).

There is every reason to suspect that the first nebular clouds created during the early stages
of galaxy formation contained not just the seeds of carbon based life, but hot molten
metals and irons, as well as dust and other materials. Therefore, the first planets must have
been formed in these first nebular clouds, such that a variety of stellar objects including
proto-planets and super planets developed by accretion as this dust and material stuck to
the hot molten iron produced by supernova. As these planets were formed, they were
exposed to the seeds of life.

To use a metaphor, these planets could be likened to ovum in a nebular womb. These
planets became fertilized with these seeds of life, and provided the protection for life to
flourish, diversify, and evolve from proto-life, to complex microbial life--and this is how
life, in this galaxy began.

The story does not end there. Nebular clouds give birth to stars.

16. A Star is Born in the Nebular Womb of Life

Many of the exo-planets so far discovered are super-Jupiters (Bakos et al. 2007; Baraffe et
al., 2008; Caballero, et al., 2007). If super-super Jupiters also formed within nebular cloud
(or if they were ejected into the cloud prior to supernova), their tremendous gravity would
attract gasses within the cloud including and especially hydrogen, thereby becoming
super-hydrogen-gas giants. In fact, exoplanets the size of Neptune, Saturn, Jupiter, and
those several times the size of Jupiter, have been determined to consist predominantly of
hydrogen and helium (Bakos et al., 2007; Baraffe et al., 2008); gasses which were
captured by the gravity of their heavy metal cores.
Figures 25-26. Helix Nebula: "Cometary knots." These "knots" consist of nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Each of these gaseous knots, are several billion miles across and
have comet-like tails which form a radial pattern. Credit: Hubble's Wide Field Planetary
Camera 2. NASA, Robert O'Dell, Kerry P. Handron, Rice University, Houston, Texas.
.
By contrast, much smaller Super-Earth sized planets, like Earth, consist predominantly of
rock-metal with the heavier metals concentrated in the core (Baraffe et al., 2008; Burrows
et al., 2007). However, as determined in one recent discovery, Super Earths may have a
watery surface enshrouded in a very thin hydrogen-helium envelope which is less than
0.05% of the mass of the planet (Charbonneau, et al., 2009).

Where would these Super-Earth obtain their water? In the Big Bang model, most of it
appeared when interstellar dust was collected by the primordial object when the metallic
oxides were reduced in the hydrogen atmosphere to metallic cores covered by oceans of
water. Those free-floating in a nebular cloud would obtain it from water, ice, and liquid
vapor within the cloud. If the ice were solid, then in response to the heat generated by
supernova, that ice-water would melt, some of which would seep beneath the planet
surface where it would remain liquid (cf Schwegler et al., 2001). And where there is
water, there is life.

By contrast, Earth-like and even Super-Earths would have insufficient gravity to trap
significant amounts of hydrogen and helium. This would not be the case with Super
Jupiters which are mostly hydrogen and helium (Baraffe et al., 2008; Rafikov, 2006).

If the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of these super-hydrogen giants
became great enough and temperatures hot enough a thermonuclear reaction would be
triggered, and it would ignite, with the exploding, expanding thermal energy countering
the gravitational forces of contraction thereby creating equilibrium and a full blown star.
In fact, super-Jupiters the size of low mass stars have been detected (Caballero et al.,
2007). These super-jupiters are massive enough to trigger and ignite deuterium-fusion
(Saumon et al., 1996) leading to a thermo-nuclear reaction and thus a full blown sun. Five
billion years ago, this is how our own story and our own solar system begins (Joseph
2009a).

Therefore, while residing within these nebula, and following the targeting by quasars
shooting streams of hydrogen into these clouds, these super-hydrogen gas giants might
acquire more hydrogen, becoming denser, and then ignite, becoming proto-stars, and this
is how new stars, such as our sun, are formed.

Indeed, a single star which undergoes supernova may produced a nebular cloud in which
dozens, hundreds, even thousands of protostars, which, like our own sun, come to be
ringed with planets. However, these planets may have been ejected from the parent star or
they were fashioned within a nebular cloud following supernova.
 Figures 27-28. Orion Nebula. Orion star forming regions
17. The Evolution of Intelligent Life in the Cosmos.
It can be predicted that every planet orbiting a star in every galaxy in the cosmos might
have been contaminated with life (Joseph and Schild 2010). However, it can also be
assumed that not every planet would be hospitable or remain hospitable to life, and that
many of these life forms might die.

By contrast, on worlds with a more hospitable environment, and which come to orbit
within the habitable zone of their sun, it can be predicted that life would flourish,
diversify, and then evolve into increasingly complex, sentient and intelligent animals. This
would mean that intelligent beings may have evolved on billions of planets and may have
reached our own level of neurological and cognitive development billions of years before
Earth became a twinkle in god's eye (Joseph 2000; Joseph and Schild 2010).

18. Conclusions: Life in the Milky Way Began 10-Billion to 13- Billion Years Ago.
Life gives rise to life and stars give rise to stars, its an endless cycle which has been on
going for all eternity. In an infinite universe life has had infinite time to become
established an infinite number of times (Joseph 2010). Hoyle's (1974) estimates of a
trillion years, is meaningless given infinite time and infinite combinations.

And yet, an infinite amount of time was not necessary. Given the trillions upon trillions of
galaxies which exist in this Hubble length (observable) universe, and the trillions of
trillions of supernovas which must have taken place in these galaxies collectively, and
thus the innumerable stellar and nebular clouds which may be filled with all the
ingredients necessary for life, it can be deduced that life would have been created
independently in other galaxies, including the Milky Way long before our planet was
fashioned. The cosmos may be awash with every conceivable form of life, even if life, by
a miracle of chance, began only once.

At present, three domains of life are recognized: archae, bacteria, and eukaryotes. There is
considerable debate about the nature of nanobacteria (Ciftcioglu et al., 2006; Martel and
Young 2008) and controversy over evidence suggestive of a DNA genome (Miller et al.,
2004). However, if alive, nonobacteria would expand the domains to four. Viruses are not
considered to be alive, but if they were, their inclusion could expand the domains of life to
five or more, i.e. viruses with RNA genomes, viruses with DNA genomes, endogenous
retroviruses. What other domains of life are yet to be discovered?

That the three branches of life all possess a DNA-based genome, and the fact that viruses
have an RNA or DNA genome, coupled with evidence suggestive of nanobacteria DNA,
could be considered evidence for common origins from a single source. On the other hand,
the universality of the DNA-genome and the genetic code, may indicate that DNA is a
"cosmic imperative" and a requirement for life. If the latter proposition is true, then the
different domains of life and of quasi-life, could have arisen in completely different
environments and localized conditions, e.g. nebular clouds, the interior of comets, or in
the case of viruses within RNA-worlds.

There is every reason to suspect that nebular clouds contain not just the seeds of carbon
based life, but a variety of stellar objects including proto-planets and super planets
fashioned via accretion around molten metals and iron produced by supernova and its
collapse (Joseph, 2010; Muno, et al., 2005). These planets could be likened to ovum in a
nebular womb already swarming with the seeds of life. Therefore, be they ejected planets,
or those which were formed following supernova, each of these planets could have been
fertilized with these seeds of life, and could have provided the protection for life to
flourish, diversify, and evolve from proto-life, to complex microbial life--and this is how
life in this galaxy began.

Assuming life in this galaxy began in this galaxy (and not transferred from another
galaxy) it can be concluded that the first proto-organisms were fashioned in nebular clouds
and perhaps within or on the planets circulating within these clouds. The first self-
replicating proto-organism need have been fashioned only once to begin making variable
copies of itself. Likewise, the first microbes likely evolved in these clouds and on these
nebular planets.

Furthermore, be it within a nebular cloud, or a planet with a unique environment, life had
to arise only once, in this galaxy, or in some other galaxy, to be dispersed within this
galaxy. Again, given the unknown age of the universe, and the fact that since it was first
conceived the birth date of the Big Bang continues to be pushed backwards in time, and
will likely continue to be pushed back as ever more distant galaxies are detected, life,
therefore, could have begun hundreds of billions of years ago, even in a Big Bang
Universe.

Be it proto-organism or microbe, the descendants of these life forms, would likely

contaminate every planet formed within the nebula-proto-planetary disc and infect those
planets which were ejected prior to supernova and which came to dwell within these
clouds.

Even if we accept the standard accretion model, where a proto-star ignites and where
planets begin to form via accretion in the proto-planetary disc, the debris which becomes
part of these growing planets would also be expected to harbor life (Joseph 2009a); all the
constituent ingredients for creating a planet or a proto-planetary disc had to originate in a
nebular cloud which in turn was likely already swarming with life.

Again, only one microbe need to have been fashioned as it could rapidly multiply,
diversify and create a trillion copies of itself within a matter of days. And once these life
forms proliferate, they could and can easily spread to other planets and accumulate in
nebular clouds. Through powerful solar winds which can blow airborne microbes into
space and into a nebular cloud (Joseph 2009a), via comets passing through these clouds,
and following bolide impact with life-containing ejecta landing on other worlds or coming
to be flung completely outside the solar system (Burchell 2010; Joseph, 2000;
Wickramasinghe et al., 2009) life would easily spread from planet to planet and solar
system to solar system, such that within 10 billions years the entire galaxy would be
contaminated with life.

Any planet with oceans, atmosphere, and surface dwelling organisms will inevitably seed
surrounding moons and planets with microbes and possibly eukaryotic life. Microbial
organisms from a single source may even come to be distributed on a galaxy-wide scale.
Because dispersal and contamination is ongoing, eventually the descendants of these
original sojourners from the stars would be hurled back and forth between planets and
solar systems and come into contact and exchange DNA with their microbial "cousins" via
horizontal gene transfer (Joseph 2000, 2009b,c). When the descendants of some of these
microbes fell to Earth, they possessed the genetic libraries and the genetic information for
replicating life forms which long ago evolved on other worlds (Joseph, 2000, 2009b,c).

Therefore, even if just a single living entity first formed over 10 billion years ago, then it
can be predicted that the descendants of this life form were deposited on innumerable
planets long before the creation of our solar system. However, based on statistics we can
predict that life was not fashioned just once, but probably in numerous galaxies, and not
just in this galaxy alone.

Our galaxy is home to an estimated 400 billion stars. The Andromeda Galaxy is even
larger, with an estimated trillion stars (Mould et al., 2008). Each of these stars may have
been produced in a nebular cloud upon being targeted by a quasar. There are trillions upon
trillions of galaxies, and there have been trillions of nebular clouds, each providing all the
ingredients necessary for chance combinations to create life.

Our Milky Way galaxy is 13.6 billion years old (Pasquini et al., 2005) and supernova were
more numerous and more common when this galaxy began to form. Many other nearby
galaxies have also been determined to be over 13 billion years in age ( Pace and Pasquini,
2004). Therefore, it can be deduced that beginning over 13 billion years ago in this galaxy,
the first steps toward creating life and the planets to harbor life, began in this galaxy
almost 9 billion years before Earth was formed.

Therefore, we conclude: Life on Earth came from nebular clouds, and from other planets,
and most likely, from other galaxies. Our galaxy, and the cosmos is likely swarming with
life. The seeds of life swarm throughout the cosmos.

Our ancient ancestors, journeyed here, from the stars.

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