SKN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE :JOBNER

(SKN AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY:JOBNER)

INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY

(HORTI- 121) (1+1)

Name : ……………………………………………………..
Class : B.s.c(hons.)Agriculture Part I Sem. I
Batch : …………………………………..

College : skn college of agriculture :jobner

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S.N. Name of Topic Cr
Hrs

1 Introduction – definitions of basic terms related to forestry, objectives of 2

silviculture , forest classification, salient features of Indian Forest Policies.

2 Forest regeneration, Natural regeneration - natural regeneration from seed and 2

vegetative parts, coppicing, pollarding, root suckers;

3 Artificial regeneration – objectives, choice between natural and artificial 2

regeneration, essential preliminary considerations.

4 Crown classification. 1

5 Tending operations – weeding, cleaning, thinning – mechanical, ordinary, crown 2

and advance thinning.

6 Forest mensuration – objectives, diameter measurement, instruments used in 3

diameter measurement; Non instrumental methods of height measurement -
shadow and single pole method; Instrumental methods of height measurement -
geometric and trigonometric principles, instruments used in height measurement;
tree stem form, form factor, form quotient, measurement of volume of felled and
standing trees, age determination of trees.

7 Agroforestry – definitions, importance, 1

8 Criteria of selection of trees in agroforestry, 1

9 Different agroforestry systems prevalent in the country, shifting cultivation, 1

taungya, alley cropping, wind breaks and shelter belts, home gardens.

10 Cultivation practices of two important fast growing tree species of the region. 1

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 INTRODUCTION

 Total geographical area of India is 32, 80,500 sq. km (328.8M ha)

 Total forest area 7, 50,500.00 sq. km (75.06 M ha)
 Agricultural area is about 46.4%

Definition of Forest and Forest :

The word forest is derived from Latin word ‘Foris’ means outside. Therefore forests are
areas covering practically all uncultivated and untended lands fairly extensive stretch of land
covered with rather tall and dense tree growth.

Forests are also defined as an area set aside for the production of timber and other forest
produce and is under woody vegetation for certain benefits which it provides.

General definition- Forest is defined as ‘an area set aside for the production of timber and other
forest produce or maintained under woody vegetation for certain indirect benefits which it
provides e.g., climatic or protective.’

In ecology point of view, it is defined as a plant community predominantly of trees and other
woody vegetation usually with closed canopy.

In legal terminology forest is defined as an area of land proclaimed to be forest under a forest law.

Forestry :
Forestry stands for the theory and practice of constitution and management of forests and
utilization of their products. It also stands for scientific management of forests for the
continuous production of goods and services.

Branches of Forestry ;
1. Silviculture : Refers to certain aspects of theory and practice of raising forest crops
method of raising tree crops, their growth and aftercare upto the time of final
harvesting.

2. . Forestry soils : Refers to the composition, physical and chemical characters and
behavior of the soil upon which forest is to be established.

3. Dendrology : Refers to description, classification and recognition of tree species.

4. Forest menstruation : Deals with the measurement of forest produce.

5. Forest Management : Is the practical application of science, technique and

economics to a forest estate for the production of certain desired results.

6. Forest utilization : Branch of forestry dealing with the harvesting, marketing,

conversion and putting the forest produce for a variety of uses like timber, fuel, pulp
wood etc.

7. Wood technology : Deals with the structure, physical, mechanical properties and
behaviour of wood under varying conditions.

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 8. Forest policy and Administration : Deals with the rules, regulations, laws and
procedures that helps to conserve forests.

 Forests protection : Knowledge of the behaviour of the forest enemies viz., Fire,
Insects, Diseases, Wind, Animal and protection from them.

 10. Agroforestry : Deals with the integration of crops, forest plants or livestock
simultaneously or sequentially on the same piece of land for sustainable land
management.

SOCIAL FORESTRY:
Social forestry is the practice of forestry on lands outside the conventional forest area
for the benefit of the rural and urban communities.
The term was coined by J.C. Westoby. It was first recognized as an important
component of forestry for meeting rural needs in the interim report of the National
Commission on Agriculture (NCA), 1976.
The objectives of social forestry adopted by the NCA were to fulfill the basic and
economic needs of the community.
The scope of social forestry defined by the NCA included farm forestry, community
woodlots and reforestation in degraded lands. By mid-1980, the concept of social forestry
was firmly established as forestry „for the people, with the people and by the people‟ or
forestry of the people, by the people and for the people.

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Definations and Terms used in Forestry
1. Forestry: Forestry has been defined as ‘the theory and practice of all that constitutes
the creation, conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of
their resources.

2. . Silviculture: The terms silviculture, commonly refers only to certain aspects of

theory and practice of raising forests crops. OR Silviculture pertains to the
establishment, development, are and reproduction of forests crops.

3. Pollarding: This is a process in which the branch of a plant is cut off in order to
produce a flush of new shoots. Pollarding is carried out at a height which is above the
reach of browsing animals. It has been widely adopted on salix trees in Kashmir
Valley. (Willow), Hard-wickia binata in A.P. (Anjan), Grewia oppositifolia in U.P.
Hills (Silver oak type)

4. Lopping: It pertains to the cutting of branches or even young stems. This leads to the
development of new shoots. It is carried out on Diospyros (Temburni) for bidi
industry, also in number of broad leaved species for fuel and fodder and as Quercus
incana (Indiana oak), morus etc, for rearing silkworm.

5. Pruning: Means the cutting of branches from the bole in order to maintain the
quality of timber.

6. Taungya system: It was first evolved in Burma in 1850 as a mode of replanting vast
teak areas. Taungya is a Burmas word. (Toung hill, ya -has permission to raise crop
on the land, but, with this, they are responsible for planting, of the forest species, also
for protection and well being of the plantation. After about five years or so, they are
required to move to another patch of land.

7. Coppice: When certain plants or seedling are cut from near ground level, they
produce a flush of fresh shoots. This is known as coppicing

8. Seed orchards: are plantations which may raised exclusively with the aim of
producing seed.

9.Pricking out: When the seedlings have to be kept in the nursery for more than a year,
it must be transferred to beds, other than the seedling beds. This is known as pricking out
or to transplant small seedlings individually in to nursery beds or boxes.

9. Wind breaks: Is a protective plantation in a certain area, against strong winds. It is

usually comprised of a few rows of trees (or shrubs) spaces at 0.5 to 2.5 m apart.)

10. . Shelter belts: is a wide zone of trees, shrubs and grasses, planted in rows, usually at
right angles to the direction of the prevailing winds. Its aims are:
a. To deflect the air current.
b. To reduce the velocity of prevailing winds
c. To provide general protection

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 d. To protect the leeward area from the desiccating effects of hot winds
11. Tending: Tending is a board terms given to operation which are carried out for the
well being of forest crops, at any stage of it life, involving operation both on the crop
itself and on its competing vegetation e.g. weeding, cleaning, thinning, improvement
feeling etc. However, tending does not include operation concerning, regeneration
such as regeneration feeling, soil working, control burning etc.

12. Felling: Felling comprise of removal of trees either singly or in small groups scattered
all over the forest.

13. Afforestation: Establishing a forest by artificial means on an area on which not forest
vegetation has existed for a long time in the past.

14. Reforestation: Re-establishing a forest, by artificial means on an area which

previously bore forest vegetation, and which may have been felled or otherwise
cleared in the recent past.
16. Age crop: The age of a regular crop corresponding to its crop diameters.
17. Age classification: The division of a crop according to difference in age OR the
allotment of woods to age classes.
18. Alpine: Zone of vegetation where winter is server, slow fall heavy, the mean annual
temperature is 450F and the mean January temperature below 300F. In India Himalayan
at the altitude above 10,000 ft.
19. Basal area: The area of the cross section of a stem at breast height, when applied to a
crop, the sum of basal areas of all the stems or the total basal areas per unit area.

20. Bole: The main stem of a tree.

21. Breast height: Almost universally adopted as the standard height for measuring the girth,
diameter and a basal areas of standing trees. India 4’6” (1.37m). In U.K. and most
commonwealth countries 4’.3” (1.30m)

22. Coupe: A felling area, usually one of an annual series unless otherwise stated. Preferable
numbered with Roman numbers as, I, II, III etc.

23. Crown: The upper branchy part of the tree above the bole.
24. Dendrology: The identification and systematic classification of trees.
25. Reserved forests: an area so constituted under the Indian Forest Act or other Forests law.
26. Protected forests: A legal terms for an area subjected to limited degrees of protection
under the provision of Chapter IV of the Indian Forest Act.
27. Unclassed forest: Forest land owned by Government but not constituted in to a reserved,
village or protected forest.

28. Log: The stem of a tree or a length of stem or branch after felling and trimming.
29. Logging: Operation comprising felling of trees, limbing, bucking and transportation of
the resulting product out of the forest timber harvesting (Bucking-Act of being)

30. Pole: A young tree from the time when the lower branches begin to fall off to the time
when rate of height growth begins to slow down and crown expansion becomes marked.

31. Raft: An assemblage of logs, timbers or bamboos tied together or enclosed within a
boom for transport by floating.

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32. Scrub: Inferior growth consisting chiefly of small or stunted trees and shrubs.
33. Stand: An aggregation of trees or other growth possessing sufficient uniformity in
composition, constitution, age arrangement or condition, to be distinguished from adjacent
crops and forming a silvicultural unit.

34. Succession: The gradual replacement of one community by another in the

development of vegetation towards a climax.

Siliviculture definations

Advance Regeneration (Reproduction) S:eedlings or saplings that develop or are present in the
understorey of the vegetation.

Afforestation :Establishment of a forest or forest stand in an area not recently forested.

Age Class :A distinct aggregation of trees or a grouping of trees, e.g., 10-year age class, as used
in inventory or management.

Artificial Regeneration (Reproduction) :An age class created by direct seeding or by planting
seedlings or cuttings.

Basal Area :The area of the cross section of a tree stem, including the bark, generally at breast
height (1,3 m above the ground).

Breast Height: A standard height 1,3 m above the average ground level for recording diameter,
girth, or basal area of a tree.

Burning, Prescribed :The application of fire, usually under existing stands and under specified
conditions of weather and moisture, in order to attain silviculture or other managementobjectives.

Canopy :The foliar /needle cover in a forest stand.

Cleaning: A release treatment made in an age class not past the sapling stage in order to free the
favored trees from less desirable individuals of the same age class that overtop them or are likely
to do so (see Improvement Cutting, Liberating, Weeding).

Composition, Stand The proportion of each tree species in a stand expressed as a percentage of
either the total number, basal area, or volume of the important tree species in the stand.

Crop Tree Any tree that is selected to become a component of a future commercial harvest.

Crown The part of a tree bearing live branches and foliage.

Crown Class A class of trees based on crown position relative to the crowns of adjacent trees.
Emergent Trees with crowns completely above the general level of the main canopy receiving
full light from above and from the sides.
Dominant Trees with crowns extending above the general level of the main canopy of even-aged
stands or, in uneven-aged stands, above the crowns of the tree's immediate neighbors, and
receiving full light from above and partly from the sides.

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Codominant Trees with crowns forming the general level of the main canopy in even-aged stands
or, in uneven-aged stands, the main canopy of the tree's immediate neighbors, receiving full light
from above and comparatively little from the sides
Intermediate Trees with crowns extending into the lower portion of the main canopy of even-
aged stands or, in uneven-aged stands, into the lower portion of the canopy formed by the tree's
immediate neighbors, but shorter in height than the codominants. They receive little direct light
from above and none from the sides.
Suppressed Trees of varying levels of vigor that have their crowns completely covered by the
crowns of one or more neighboring trees.

Crown Cover The ground area covered by the crowns of trees or woody vegetation as delimited
by the vertical projection of crown perimeters and commonly expressed as a percent of total
ground area (syn. Canopy Cover).
Crown Density The amount and compactness of foliage of the crowns of trees and/or shrubs as
seen vertically from above.

Cutting Cycle The planned interval between partial harvests in an uneven-aged stand

Even-aged Stand A stand of trees containing a single age class in which the range of tree ages is
usually less than 20 percent of the rotation age

Even-aged System A planned sequence of treatments designed to maintain and regenerate a

stand with one age class. The range of tree ages is usually less than 20 percent of the rotation.

Forest Fertilization The addition of nutrient elements for increased growth rate.

Genotype The genetic constitution of an organism in terms of its hereditary characteristics as

distinguished from its physical appearance or phenotype

Habitat The place where an animal or plant naturally or normally lives and develops

Harvesting Method A cutting by which a stand is logged. Emphasis is on meeting logging and
economic requirements while concurrently attaining silvicultural objectives.

Improvement Cutting A cutting made in a stand pole-sized or larger primarily to improve

composition and quality by removing less desirable trees of any species.

Ingrowth Trees that during a specified period have grown past an arbitrary lower limit of
(usually) diameter or height.

Intermediate Treatments (Tending) A collective term for any treatment designed to enhance
growth, quality, vigor, and composition of the stand after establishment or regeneration and prior
to final harvest.

Mycorrhizae The symbiotic association between certain fungi and plant roots which enhances
the uptake of water and nutrients.

Natural Regeneration An age class of trees created from natural seeding, sprouting, suckering,
or layering.

Phenotype The observed, visible trait of an individual tree as the interaction of the individual's
genotype and its environment.

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Precommercial Thinning A thinning that does not yield trees of commercial value, usually
designed to reduce stocking in order to concentrate growth on the more desirable trees.

Pruning. The removal of the live branches up to 4 -5 meters on a tree in order to improve high
quality stems for a specific final use.

Reforestation The natural or artificial restocking or reproduction of an area with trees.

Regeneration Seedlings or saplings existing in a stand; or the act of establishing young trees
naturally or artificially.

Regeneration Method A cutting method by which a new generation of trees is created. The
major methods are Clearcutting, Seed Tree, Shelterwood, Selection, and Coppice.

Coppice A method of regenerating a stand in which all trees in the previous stand are cut and the
majority of regeneration is from sprouts or root suckers.

Coppice with Reserves A coppice method in which reserve trees are retained to attain goals
other than regeneration. The method normally creates a two-aged stand.

Even-aged Methods Methods to regenerate a stand with a single age class.

Clearcutting A method of regenerating an even-aged stand in which a new age class develops in
a fully exposed microclimate after removal, in a single cubing, of all commercial trees in the
previous stand. Regeneration is from natural seeding, direct seeding, planted seedlings, and/or
advance reproduction..

Seed Tree The small number of trees left to provide seed. Seed trees are removed after
regeneration is established.

Shelterwood The residual trees left after the removal of most of an even-aged stand in which a
new age class develops beneath these trees. This shelterwood is removed when the regeneration is
well established.
.

Group Selection A method of regenerating uneven-aged stands in which trees are removed, and
new age classes are established, in small groups.

Regeneration Period The time between the initial regeneration cutting and the successful
reestablishment of a new age class by natural means, planting, or direct seeding.

Regular Uneven-aged Stand A stand in which different age classes occupy approximately equal
areas and provide a balanced distribution of diameter classes.

Release (Release Operation) A treatment designed to free young trees from undesirable,
competing vegetation. Treatments include cleaning, liberating, and weeding.

Reserve Trees (Green Tree Retention) Trees, pole-sized or larger, retained after the
regeneration period under the Clearcutting, Seed Tree, Shelterwood, or Coppice Methods

Root Pruning The root pruning of seedlings in a nursery bed to limit the extension of roots in
depth or laterally.

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Sanitation Cutting The removal of trees to improve stand health by stopping or reducing actual
or anticipated spread of insects and disease.

Sapling A young tree that is larger than a seedling but smaller than a pole

Scarification Mechanical removal of competing vegetation and/or interfering debris, or

disturbance of the soil surface, designed to enhance reforestation.

Silviculture The science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and
quality of forests and woodlands to meet the diverse needs and values of landowners and society
on a sustainable basis.

Silvicultural System A planned process whereby a stand is tended, harvested, and reestablished.
The system name is based on the number of age classes.

Stand A contiguous group of trees sufficiently uniform in age class distribution, composition,
and structure, and growing on a site of sufficiently uniform quality, to be a distinguishable unit.

Thinning A cultural treatment made to reduce stand density of trees primarily to improve growth
and quality, enhance forest health, or to recover potential mortality.

Crown Thinning (High Thinning) The removal of trees from the dominant and codominant
crown classes in order to favor the best trees of those same crown classes.

Free Thinning. The removal of trees to control stand spacing and favor desired trees using a
combination of thinning criteria without regard to crown position.

Low Thinning (Thinning from Below) The removal of trees from the lower crown classes to
favor those in the upper crown classes.

Mechanical Thinning (Geometric Thinning) The thinning of trees in either even- or uneven-aged
stands involving removal of trees in rows, strips, or by using fixed spacing intervals to favour
simple and economical sound harvesting methods.

Selection Thinning (Dominant Thinning) The removal of trees in the dominant crown class in
order to favor the lower crown classes.

Thinning Interval The period between successive thinning operations during the life span of the
stand.

Weeding A release treatment in stands not past the sapling stage that eliminates or suppresses
undesirable vegetation regardless of crown position.

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 Silviculture
Silviculture :Silviculture pertains to the raising, development, care, reproduction and overall
management of forest crops.

Definition: If has been defined variously as follows:

 It is the science that deals with the establishment, development, care and reproduction
of stands of trees. Its aim is the continuous production of wood.

 It is under silviculture that we learn the growth habit of trees and techniques to raise
them naturally and artificially.

 By Toumey and Korstain: Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with
the establishment, development, care and reproduction of stands of timber.

 By Champion and Seth: :The terms silviculture, in English refers only to certain
aspects of the theory and practices of raising of forests crops.

 By Iffprt (IFR Dehradun): The art and science of cultivated forests crops. On the
other hands, silvics is the study of trees and forests and biological entities, the laws of
their growth and development, and impact of environment on them. Thus, silviculture
can be described to include all practical and theoretical aspects of silvics.

Objects of Silviculture:/ Principles of General Silviculture

Study of silviculture helps to attain the following object:

1. To derive environmental benefits: Soil and water conservation, control of air and noise
pollution, wild life conservation, regulation of climatic condition, regulation of water cycle.

2. Raising species of more economic value: Industrial and economic growth through.

3. Production of high-quality timer: Silviculture techniques help of avoid the problem of

crooked, malformed, disease or defective timber and thus help to produce goods quality
timber.

4. Production of more volume per unit area: Unmanaged forests may be too dense or too
open, less production, premature death of trees silviculture helps to solve these problems.

5. Reduction of rotation period: In Unmanaged forests the rotation tends to be longer.

6. Afforestation of blank areas: Waste lands can be used for forests

7. Creation of plantation: Man made forests or plantations may be created in placed of

natural forests.

8. Introduction of exotics: Successful introduction of exotic species is possible.

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9. Employment potential: In any plantation operation, the labour component account for 60
to 70% of the total financial input.

10. Increase in the production of fuel and fodder: In development countries like India it is
important aspect.

11. Forest Industries: Resin for resin and turpentine industry, pulp wood for paper industry,
industrial wood for match and timber industry, railway, etc, minor forests product based
industries.

Classification of Forests
Forests can be classified on the basis of:
1. Age,
2. Method of regeneration,
3. Composition,
4. Ownership,
5. Object of Management,
6. Growing Stock.

1 . Classification of Forest On the Basis of Age: Forest is classified into:

A) Even Aged Forest: Even-aged forests, also called regular forests are those consisting
of even – aged woods. Even - aged wood means trees of approximately the same age.
True even - aged forests can be only man - made forests. In case of forests, which
regenerate naturally, some age difference is often allowed. Differences up to 25% of
the rotation are usually allowed in cases where forest is not harvested for 100 years or
more.
B) Un-Even Aged Forests: A forest is called uneven - aged or irregular when trees vary
widely in age.

2. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Regeneration: Forests are identified into

A. High Forest: When regeneration is obtained from seed

B. Coppice Forest: When regeneration is through coppice or some vegetative part of
the tree.
1. Natural Forest: When the regeneration is obtained naturally, the forests are
called natural forests
2.Man Made Forest: When it is obtained artificially, the forests are called
Manmade forests or Plantations.

3. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Composition: Forests are classified into

A. Pure Forests: Pure forests are composed almost entirely ofo ne species, usually to the
extent of not less than 50 pe cent.

B. . Mixed Forests: Mixed forests are defined as forest composed of trees of two or
more species intermingled in the same canopy.

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4 . Classification of Forest On the Basis of Management: Forests are classified into

A. Protection Forests: Protection forests are those which are managed primarily for
ameliorating climate, checking soil erosion and floods, conserving soil and water,
regulating stream flow and increasing water yields and exerting other beneficial
influences.
B. Production Forests: Production forests are those which are managed primarily for
their produce.
C. Social Forests: Social forests where the produce is utilised by neighbouringsociety.
D. Farm forest: Forest raised on farms and its adjoining area either as individual scattered
trees or a collection of trees to meet the requirement of fuel and fodder of the farmers and
to have a beneficial influence on agriculture.
E. Fuel forest: Forest raised on village waste land to supply fuel, small timber, fodder, etc.,
to the village communities living far away from Government forest.
F. Recreational forest: Forest which is managed only to meet the recreational needs of the
urban and rural population.

5. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Ownership: Forests can be classified as

A. Government Forests: On the basis of Legal status, Government forests are further
classified into:

a. Reserved Forests: A Reserved forest is an area with complete protection,

constituted according to chapter II of the Indian Forests Act. 1927.

b. Protected Forests: A Protected forest is an area subject to limited degree of

protection constituted under the provisions of chapter IV of the Indian Forest
Act.,1927.

c. Village Forests: A Village forest is a state forest assigned to a village community

under the provisions of chapter III of Indian Forest Act.
B. Private Forests
C. Forests owned by Corporations, Panchayats, Societies and other Agencies.
.
Communal forest: Forest owned and generally managed by a community such as a
village, town, tribal authority or local government, the members of which share the
produce’.

Panchayat forest: Any forest where management is vested in a village panchayat (i.e.,a
body of men elected by the villagers from among themselves for specific
administrative or other purposes pertaining to the village)’.

6. Classification of Forest On the Basis of Growing Stock: A forest can be classified into
A. Normal Forest: A Normal forest is an ideal forest with regard to growing stock,
age class distribution and increment and from which the annual or periodic removal of
produce equals to the increment and can be continued indefinitely without
endangering future yields.
B. Abnormal Forest: Abnormal forest is one which is not normal, i.e. growing
stock, age, class, distribution of stems, increment, etc. are either in excess or more
usually in dificit than the normal forest.
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 FOREST POLICIES:
Although the forest management in India has been on a sound footing since 1864, the
condition of the forests continued to deteriorate through over exploitation. Efforts were made
to conserve the forest resources. The first effort in this direction was made by enunciating the
first forest policy of India on 19th October 1894.

The important features of this policy were:

1. The state forests are to be administered for the benefit of the public.
2. Forests on hill slopes may be protected.
3. The requirements of people may be met from second class state forest.
4. Whenever an effective demand for cultivable land exists, the needed land can only be
supplied from the forest area without habitation.
5. Royalty for the government must be collected for various facilities enjoyed by people.

The main aim of the forest policy of 1894 was to collect revenue from the forests and please
the local population by granting them rights and concessions. There was no intention to
improve the forestry management in general. After independence the Government of India,
Ministry of Agriculture enunciated the second National Forest Policy on 12th May 1952. It
has been formulated on the basis of 6 paramount needs of the country.

1. The need of evolving a balanced and complimentary land use so that each land allotted
should produce most and deteriorate least.

2. The need for checking :- a) Denudation in mountain regions on which depends the
perennial water supply of the river system. b) The erosion progressing place along the
treeless bank areas of rivers and on vast stretches of undulating wastelands leading to ravine
formations. C) Invasions of seasand on coastal tracts and shifting sand dunes.

3. The need for establishing tree lands wherever possible for the amelioration of physical and
climatic conditions promoting the general well being of the people.

4. The need for insuring progressively increasing supplies of grazing small wood for
agriculture implements and in particulars of fire wood to release the cow dung as a manure.

5. The need for sustained supply of timber and other forest produce required for defense,
industry etc.

6. The need for the realization of the maximum annual revenue in perpetuity consistent with
the fulfillment of the enumerated above.

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This forest policy recommends that India should aim at maintaining the 1/3 rd of its
land area under forest. But this policy mainly aims at conservation forestry and there is no
emphasis on production forestry. Therefore to make the existing forest with their low
productivity should be converted into plantation forestry of high productivity which is
possible only through enunciation of new forest policy of 1988, which has been announced in
the parliament by the Minister of Environment, Government of India on 7 th December 1988.

The main objectives of New National Forest Policy are:

1. The national goal should be to have 1/3 rd of the total land area of the country under forest
to save fragile ecosystems.

2. The forest should not be looked upon as a source of revenue. Forests that clothe steep
slopes, catchments of rivers, lakes, reservoirs should be protected and checking extension of
sand dunes.

3. Massive need based and time bound programme of afforestation and tree planting with a
particular emphasis on fuel wood and fodder development on all degraded lands in the
country are to be promoted whether forests or non-forests as a national imperative.

4. The policy emphatically says that construction of dams, reservoirs, mining and expansion
of agriculture should be consistent with the needs for conservation of trees and forests. The
policy categorically states that no mining lease should be granted to any party (Private or
public).

5. The policy specifies that land laws should be modified wherever necessary as to facilitate
or motivate individuals and institutions to undertake tree farming or grow fodder trees,
grasses and legumes on their own land.

6. The policy favours the restrictions on grazing, browsing in forest areas by levying grazing
fee to discourage people in forests area from raising large heards of essential livestock.

7. The policy envisages to put an end to removal of timber by contractors by replacing bodies
like tribal and labour cooperatives and Governments corporations.

8. The new forest policy also invites a special care for the needs of wild life conservation.

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Botanical Name, Common Name and Uses of important Forest Plants

Sr. Common
Botanical Name Use or Utilities
No Name
1 Acacia catechu Khair Fodder, fuel, poles, soil conservation and katha
Fodder, soil conservation; agricultural
2 Acacia nilotica Babhul implements, bark as medicine, tannin products
and fule
Planks, tooth brush and medicine (Bark, leaves
3 ALadirachta indica Neem
gum)
Bombax ceiba, Simal (Kate Match Stiks, packing cases, play wood, soil
4
BombaxMalbaricam sawar) conservation, roots used as medicines
5 Delbergia sissoo Sissoo Fodder, Timber, fuel, soil conservation
6 Delbergia latifolia Rose Wood Fodder, Timber, fuel
Bakan/
7 Melia aadirachta Avenue tree, fodder, timber
Limbara
Structures and industrial timber, furniture, fuel,
sag / Teak
8 Tectona grandis tannin, ornamental and medicinal use, KING OF
Wood
TIMBEER
Industrial timber, tannin, gum, medicinal,
9 Terrninalia tomentosa Asan / Ain
tassar
Industrial timber, small poles, fodder, timber,
10 Terminalia arjuna Arjun
ornamental, tassar
Australin
11 Acacia auriculiformis Denuded places, tannin, fuel
Babhul
12 Acacia chundra Lal khair Timber, pole, fuel, tannin and soil conservation
13 Aegle marmelos Bel Tooth brush, fruits, medicine (Bark, gum)
14 Albizia chinesis Kala sires Timber, pole, fuel, tannin and soil conservation
15 Albizia procera Safed Siris Timber, medicine, fuel
16 Arto carpusus Jack Fruit Fruit and timber
Anthoeephalus
17 Kadamb Fodder, fiiel, pulp wood, ornamental
chinensis
18 Emblica officinalis Amla Fruit, fuel, ornamental, medicinal
19 Madhuka latifolia Mahua Liquor oil seed, timber, edible flower
20 mangifera Indica Mango Fruit, timber, medicine.
Fruit, fuel, medicinal, timber, leaves, flowers,
21 Tamarindus indica Imli
fodder, poles
22 Ziziphus jujuba Ber Fruit, fodder, poles, lac
Fruit, fodder, poles, timber, fuel,medicinal
23 Syzygium cumini Jamun
(flowers fruits)
24 Moringa oleifera Drumstick Fruit, fodder, hand paper
25 Sesbania grandiflora Hadga Flowers, fence poles, tannin fodder, fuel, pulp
26 Saraca indica Ashok Ornamental, medicinal
27 Santalum album Sandal Industrial timber, oil, ornamental, medicinal
28 Mores albs Mulberry Fodder, fruit, sport goods, silk industries
Leaves used for green manuring branches used
29 Pongamia pinnata Karanji
as tooth brush seeds for oil, used for soil

16
 conservation.
Fodder, food, timber, leaves and flowers are
30 Bauhinia variegata Kanchan
used as vegetables, medicine
31 Bathinia racemosa Jhangora Medicinal plant, ornamental
32 Barchinia chinensis Kanchan Medicinal and fuel, ornamental
Pole, industrial timber, fuel, ornamental, soil
33 Michelia chamapaca Chaffa conservation, medicinal flowers are more
valuable for perfume
Pulp wood, fodder, packing cases,soil
34 Populus deltoids Poplar
conservation, fuel match box and splints
Vilayati
35 Pitheocolobtum dulcis Fuel, hedge, soil conservation
Chinch
36 Prosopis chinensis Kabuli kikar Fodder, fuel. soil conservation
Khadsarni or Fuel, timber, good for plantation in coastal
37 Casuarina equisetifolia
suru area, charco
Industrial timber, poles, soil conservation
38 Cupressus cashmiriana Cypress
sandy area
Eucalyptus Gum, oil,tannin, soil conservation, industrial
39 Eucalyptus
camatndulensis timber, paper, pulp
40 Eucalyptus globules Blue Gum Pulp wood, fuel, timber
41 Eucalyptus teriticornis Mysore Gum Fuel and pulp wood
42 Ficus religiosa Pipal Avenue trees, fuel, fodder
Avenue trees, fodder, fuel, fruits, soil
43 Ficus bengalensis Wad
conservation, timber for packing cases
Gular /
44 Ficus glornerata Avenue trees, fodder, fuel
Umbar
45 Delonix regia Gulmobar Ornamental, avenue trees
46 Laucaena leucocephala Subabul Timber, fodder, poles, fuel, soil conservation
47 Salix spp. Willow Timber, basket making
Ritha or
48 Sapindus mukorosis Soapnut Fuel, soap nut for washing cloth
Tree
Poles, gum, tannin, industrial timber,
49 Swietania mahgoni Mahogoni
ornamental and soil conservation.
Solid Fodder, poles, industrial use, paper, soil
50 Dendrocalmus strictus
bamboo conservation
Hallow Fodder, paper, poles, industrial use, soil
51 Bambusa arundinicae
bamboo conservation
52 Acacia conciana Shikekai Medicinal, fuel, timber, soap
Vilayati
53 Prosopis guliflora Medicinal, fuel, timber, fencing
Babhul
54 Prosopis cinerarie Khejadi Fodder, fuel, timber, fencing
55 Terminalia chibula Hirda Timber, dye, fuel, medicinal
56 Terminalia paniculata Kingal Timber, fuel
57 Terminalia belirica Behda Medicinal, timber, fuel
Drooping
58 Potyalthia longifolia Ornamental, road avenue
Ashok

17
 Semicarpus
59 Biba Medicinal, fuel
anacardiuin

60 Cassia renigera Pink cassia Ornamental

Bahaya /
61 Cassia. fistula Ornamental, medicinal
Amaltas

62 Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu Beedi leaves

63 Plantanus orientalis Chinar Timber, fuel

64 Diosypros tomentosa Temburni Ornamental, medicinal, fruits

65 Kigelia pinata Monkey Plant Ornamental

66 Shorea robusta Sal Timber, fuel

67 Ailanthus excelsa Maharukh Fodder, match industries

68 Quercus spp. Indian oak Fodder, fuel, sericulture

Lagerstroemia Sidha Fodder, fuel, gum, tannin, pole, timber,

69
parviflora benteak ornamental

70 Hardwickia binata Anjan Fodder, fuel, agricultural implements

71 Erythrina indica Pangara Fuel and soil conservation

72 Grewia spp. Dhaman Fibre

73 Pinus roxburghii Chir-pine Rasin, gum, tannin, oil, pole, soil conservation

Jacaranda
74 Neel-mohar Ornamental and soil conservation
mimosaefolia

75 Grevillea rohusta Silver oak Ornamental, avenue tree

76 Pithecolobium saman Rain tree Ornamental, shade tree, fuel

Fountain
77 Spathodia campanulata Ornamental. shade tree, fuel
Tree

Indian cork
78 Millingtoniahortansis Ornamental, cork industry
tree

Shade tree, scented flower, rootstock for

79 Mimusops elengi Bakul
sapota, avenue

80 Feronia elephanta Wood apple Fruits, medicine, timber

81 Anonas uatimosa Sitaphal Fruits, fuel

18
 82 Cedrus deodara Debdar Timber, fiuniture, flanks

83 Glyricidia maculata Giripushpa Fodder, leaf manures

84 Butea monosperma Palas Ornamental, Cottage industry, lack industry

85 Thespetia papulnea Ran Bhendi Timber, fuel, rural ornamental

86 Garcinia indica Kokam Fruit, oil industry, squish, oil seed, medicine

87 Tarminalia catappa Wild Almond Ornamental, oil seed

88 Manilkaria hexandra Khirani Fruits, fuel, root stock for sapota

89 Adina cordiolia Haldu Timber, fuel

90 Gmnelia arborea Shivan Timber, fuel

91 Lagesrromea lanciolata Nana Timber

92 Callistemon lanceolate Bottle Brush Ornamental road avenue, parks

Agave /'
93 Agave american Live fencing, rope making
Ghaipath

Peltophorum Pelto
94 Ornamental road avenue tree, parks
ferroginum phoorum

95 Anona reticulata Ramphal Fruits, soil reclamanation

96 Buchanamia latifolia Charoli Fruits, soil conservation

Anacardium
97 Cashewnut Cashewnut Fruits, soil conservation
occidentale

***
Botanical Name : Anacardium occidentale printed name

19
Timber Species Recommended for Sports Goods

Sr. No. Name of the Articles Timber Species Recommended

1 Cricket bats Salix spp.

2 Hockey sticks Morus albs, Celtis australis, Fraxinus spp.

Tennis and badminton
3
rackets
Betula. spp., Swietenia spp., Fraxinus spp., Aar spp.,
Bents
Juglans regia, Celtis australis, Tovna ciliata
Melia axadarach, Michelia clwmpaea, Gmelina arborea,
Handle Sunietenia spp., Populus spp., Abics pirdrow, Toone cliata,
Salix spp.
Fraxinus spp., Grewia tiliaefolia, Swietenia app., Morus.
Wedge spp., Populus spp., Dalbergia -w w, Toccoa ciliata, Juglans
regis, Salix spp.
4 Squash racket frame
Bents Betula utilis, Juglans regia, Aar spp.
Handle Populus spp., Salix spp., Toone dliata
Wedge Fraxinus spp.
Carrom board frame
Tectona grandis, Gnwlu' s arborea, Pterocarpus
5 and
marsupiumDalbergia sissoo, Dysoxylum malabaricum
reinforcement
Fraaxinus app., Adina owdifdia, Baxus spp., Dalbergia
Carron draughts
latifol3t, Juglans negiq, Bbdwfw jaoanica
Anogeissus ktifolda, Amda ta1otica, lagerstraen
6 Clubs kfancedaM, Pteroearpus maraupuan, Grew hliaefolia,
Dalbergia sfsson, D. lafifalia
Fraxinus Epp, Ligershnnaia lanatrlata, Grewia tilii #W etc.
7 Balancing bench
Fraxinus spp.,
Cricket stumps and Quercus spp., Dysaxylum malalaricum, Mores spp.,
8
bails Gneww tiliaefolia, Celtfs australis, Adina aordrfdia
Fraxinus app., Lagershvemin lanceolate. Morns laevigaM,
9 Javelins
Grewia tillaefol&s Mores elbr
Largeratroemia lancedata, Artoaarpus chaplasha, Cedrus
10 Hurdles deadara, Crawls fdme-fdia, Pinus wallichiana, Daibergia
sissoo
Anogsissus latifdie, Ligershnemia lancaulata, Pfenaaarpus
Jumpin ngg and
11 mmsupium, Quay cue app., Dalbergia sissavDiospynas
vaulting Standards
bmenkwa
Fraxinus spp., Anogeissus latifolia, Acacia nilotica,
12 Wall bars Ptarocrarpus rims of, Grew tiiaefolii, Ougeinia oajeinensis,
Dalbergia siesao, D. latifoiia

20
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTES WORKING IN THE AREAS OF FOREST CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH

1) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) : The headquarters is in Rome (Italy)

2) The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR): Rome (Italy).
 It is an international scientific centre of the Consultative Group on International Agriculture
Research (CGIAR).
3) International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF)
 Established in 1977. Its headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.
4) International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)
 Its headquarters is in Yokohama, Japan.
5) International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
 Its headquarters is in Gland, Switzerland.
6) International Union of Forestry Research Organization (IUFRO)
 Its headquarters is situated in Vienna, Austria.
7) United Nations Environment Programme
 Its headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.
8) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
 Its headquarters is in Paris, France
9) Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research (CGIAR).
 Its secretariat is located in Washington DC, USA.

NATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS

1.Central America and Mexico Coniferous Research Cooperative (CAMCORE)

2) Centre Agronomics Tropical De Investigation Ensenanza (CATIE)

 The member countries are Central American and Latin American ones like Costa Rica,
Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama.
3) Canadian International Development Agency and International Development Research
Centre
 Headquarters in Canada.
4) Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (CTFT)
 It is a department of French foreign assistance agency
5) Commonwealth Scientific and Industries Research Organization (CSIRO)
 Headquarters in Canberra, Australia.
6) Danish Forest Seed Centre (DFSC)
 Headquarters in Humleback, Denmark
7) Oxford Forestry Institute (OFI)
 Based in United Kingdom
 Formerly it was known as ‘Commonwealth Forestry Institute’.
9) NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRE FOR AGROFORESTRY (NRCAF)
 Its head quarter is in Jhansi, UP, India

10) INDIAN GRASSLAND AND FODDER RESEARCH INSTITUTE (IGFRI)

 Based in Jhansi, UP, India

21
Lecture:2 Forest regeneration, Natural regeneration - natural regeneration from seed and
vegetative parts, coppicing, pollarding, root suckers;

Regeneration of Forest:
The renewal of a forest by some means (e.g. natural or artificial) is known as regenerations.
The regeneration has been defined in a number of ways by several workers.

1) "The renewal of a forest crops by natural or artificial means; also the new crop so obtained".
2) Regeneration as, "The renewal by self-sown seed or by vegetative means." It is of two
types viz., Natural regeneration and Artificial regeneration.

Methods of Regeneration:
There are following methods of regeneration of forest:
A) Natural Regeneration,
B) Artificial regeneration and
C) Natural regeneration supplemented by Planting.
However, first two methods are most important in regeneration of forests.

A) Natural Regeneration:
The renewal of a forest crop, by self-sown seed, or by coppice or root-suckers, also the crop
so obtained or also it can be defined as Reforestation of a stand by natural seeding.

B) Artificial Regeneration:
It is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting, or other artificial methods;
also the crop so obtained or the renewal of a tree crop by direct seeding, or planting.

Natural Regeneration of Forest

Regeneration from seed or vegetative parts may observe in Natural Regeneration.
Reforestation of a stand by Natural seedlings

1 ) Natural Regeneration from Seed: Successful natural regeneration from seed depends
upon Seed production, Seed dissemination, Seed germination, Establishment and seedlings.

a) Seed Production: Seeds are cultured ovules, which contain the embryo. An embryo
is a miniature plant consisting of seed leaves (cotyledons) attached to rudimentary
stem (hypocotyl) with a growing tip (Plumule) and a root tip (radicle) at the other end.
Seed production depends upon various factors such a species, age of and diseases and
birds.
b) Seed Dissemination: For the continued existence of a species, it is necessary that
seeds are carried away from the parent plant, because seeds germinating immediately
below the parent tree commonly do not get established. Seed dissemination gives
young seedlings a better chance of survival for they are saved to a large extend from
competition with the parent plant. The means of dispersal adopted by the seeds of
different species vary widely. The four important agencies by which seed dispersal is
secured are i) Wind, ii) Water, iii) Animals, iv) Explosive mechanism or ejection
mechanism in fruit itself.

22
 c) Seed Germination: Germination of seed depends upon several internal and external
factors such as Permeability of seed coat, Availability of moisture in seed, Oxygen,
Nature of embryo (dormancy), Temperature, Moisture in soil, Oxygen and light.
Besides this some factors,
1) Age of Tree,
2) Flowering Phase,
3) Sound or health of seed condition,
4) Coppice origin trees,
5) Size of seed,
6) Plant per cent,
7) Type of dissemination,
8) Soil type / nutrition,
9) Pest and disease,
10) Non insect pests.
d)Seedlings Establishment: Successful establishment of newly germinated seedlings in
sufficient number as a member of forest crop is undoubtedly, the weakest link in the whole
chain of process (a to c) which make up the regeneration of forest crops.

The Factors Responsible, for Seedlings Establishment are as:

1)Climate: Light / moisture rainfall / temperature / frost
2) Edaphic - Soil / nutrient / aeration / texture / structure.

2.) Natural Regeneration by Coppice and Root Suckers:

Coppice : Stool shoots generally arise from the adventitious buds formed between the wood
and the bark of the stump and are comparatively short lived than those produced by dormant
buds. These shoots are called coppice shoots.

Classification of Coppice Regeneration:

1) Seedlings Coppice
2) Stool Coppice and
3) Root collar Shoots
4) Pollard Shoots

Natural Regeneration by Root Suckers: Shoots arises from the roots, may occur naturally
or artificially.

3.Artificial Regeneration by Vegetative Method:

Planting material besides seeds for e.g. Bare root seedlings, containerized seedlings, cuttings,
layering, rhizomes, suckers, offsets, bulbs, corms are also used for vegetative propagation
material.

Propagation by Cuttings: Cuttings are of two types, 1. Stem cutting 2. Root cutting

1. Stem Cutting: Very few species response well for this method. The species, which easy to
root are suitable for this method of planting. Particularly species of dicotyledons group
having active cambium layer e.g. Shisam, Nimbara Drumstick, Mulberry Inga dulsis,
Dhaman, Pangara, Pimpal, and Banyan Tree etc.

23
Depending upon the maturity of stem cutting are grouped into:
i) Hard Wood Cutting: Mature woody branches are used.
ii) Soft Wood Cutting: Recently mature branches are used e.g. mulberry-Inga dulsis.
iii) Root-cutting: Roots are used for preparation of cutting e.g. Sandalwood, Pangara.

2. Stumps: In few species, stumps are used for planting e.g. Teak, Shivan, Shisam, Cassia spp. Stums
are easy to transport, require less space and can be transported to long distance. These are prepared at
the time of planting operation or just before planting operation. Fresh uprooted seedlings are used to
transplant easily. 20% stem portion and 80% taproot is kept while preparing the stump. Fine edge
knife or implement is to be used so as to avoid the damage, stem portion is cut 5 to 6 cm above the
collar region is kept intact and remaining portion or roots are cut to prepare stump.

The stumps are then packed in bundles, keeping stem portion on one side and roots on another side,
the stumps should be transported immediately.
For transportation stumps are covered with moist gunny bag cloth to avoid desiccation. They can be
transported within 2-3 days without much loss. These stumps are planted on start of monsoon after 3-
4 rain showers when soil becomes sufficiently moist and soil temperatures are warm. Stumps are
planted by preparing small holes in slating portion with the help of crowbar so that new shoot will rise
straight. Then the stumps are inserted inside and soil is pressed firmly so as to avid water stagnation in
the hole. The cooler region is kept just near to the soil surface.

3. Root Suckers: Root suckers can also be used for planting purpose e.g. Pomegranate, Kokum,
Salaim Anjan, Shisam, Nimbara, Pangara, Erythrona etc. The layers, grafted plants, budded plants can
be used to prepare planting material. These all are only used in forestry for conservation of superior
genotype. It is used for commercial plantation as they are short lived, spreading and not develop long
straight (trunk), particularly suitable for timber purpose.
Planting by root cuttings in sandal wood, pangara. Planting by root suckers e.g. Pala, Anjan,
Pomegranate, Kokum, Salai, Shisam, Nimbara, Erythrina Supersa.

Pollarding: Pollarding consists of cutting a pole tree at some height above the ground level so
that it produces new shoots from below the cut. Pollarding is done at a height of 2- 2.5 m above
ground level; e.g. in Salix spp., Hardwickia binata, Grewia optiva, Morus alba, etc.

Coppicing: Cutting or heading back of main stem at 30 cm from the ground level. Strong
coppicers: Acacia catechu, Albizia lebbek, Anogeissus latifolia, etc.; Good coppicers: Aesculus
indica, Chloroxylon swietinia, Hardwickia binata, etc.; Bad coppicers: Adina cordifolia,
Bambax ceiba, etc.; and Non coppicers: All conifers.

24
Lecture:3 Artificial regeneration – objectives, choice between natural and artificial
regeneration, essential preliminary considerations.

25
LECT 5. Tending Operations in Silviculture

For establishment of the regeneration and subsequent development of the forest

crop up to harvesting, several operations are carried out. These operations are
carried out in the forest crop at different stages of growth in order to provide a
healthy environment for their development. These operations are called tending
operations includes:
i) Weeding
ii) Cleaning
iii) Thinning,
iv) Improvement Felling,
v) Pruning
vi) Climber Cutting

i) Weeding:

Weeds may be controlled by following methods:

a) Mechanical Methods
b) Biological Methods
c) Chemical Methods

ii) Cleaning:

Cleaning is carried out in a crop which has not crossed the sapling stage and is
defined as the cutting made in order to face the best individuals from undesirable
one of the same age which interfere or are likely to interfere with the growth of the
desired individuals. The greatest advantage offered by cleaning is the-proper
regulation of the composition of the crop, particularly in mixed crops.

Methods of cleaning may be mechanical, biological and chemical as described under

weeding.

iii) Thinning:

Thinning is defined as a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of

improving the growth and form of the trees that remain, without permanently
breaking the canopy. Thinning is a tending operation carried out in a crop beyond
the sapling stage and up to the beginning of regeneration period. Thinning principles
are so formulated that these are applicable only to pure even aged or relatively
even, aged crop or even aged groups of the trees in a crop.

Thinning principles have been developed on the basis of natural development of the
stand. Thus, thinning, takes place naturally in a density stocked forest under the law
of Survival of the fittest.

26
 Objectives of Tending Operation - Thinning

1) To Improve the Hygiene of the Crop:

By removing dead, dying and diseased trees, hygiene or health of tree can be
maintained well.

2) Salvage of Anticipated Losses of the Merchantable Volume:

A large number of trees die of suppression. This amount contributes of about 20 per
cent of the merchantable volume. Thinning contributes a substantial amount in the
total yield of crop. Thinning helps in shortening of the rotation. Reduction in number
of trees in thinning increases the diameter of the remaining trees.

3) To assure the Best Physical Conditions of Growth:

The objective of the thinning is to keep growing stock somewhere within the range.
The effect of extreme competition is reflecting by decline in the rate of growth with
increasing density in crops which are very dense. Thinning increase the diameter of
the crops. Thus thinning may be essential tool for shortening the rotation of a crop.

4) To Obtain Desired Crop:

Thinning helps to improve the stand structure. It ensures a uniform and proper
distribution of trees all over the area. This enables the trees to tap water and
nutrients from a larger area. The composition of the crop can also be improved. The
less valuable species may be removed in thinning and the important and valuable
species may be retained for future.

5) Improvement of Stand Composition, Regeneration and Protection:

If an undesirable species is not eliminated during regeneration stage it can be done
during thinning to a certain extent. Thinning helps in obtaining suitable seed bearers
for obtaining successful regeneration. The dead, drying and diseased trees are
removed to afford protection from insect pest, disease and fire because these trees
may serve as a source of infection.

6) Improvement in Wood Quality:

Thinning may also improve the quality of wood because trees with higher diameter
are likely to be of better quality than smaller ones.

7) To Increase Net Yield and Financial out turn from a Stand:

Thinning help to obtain returns early. The sale of thinning material helps to reduce
investment burden because of early returns from thinning and shortening of
rotation.

8) To Help Decomposition of Raw Humus:

In temperate forests, thinning increases light and temperature on the forest floor
and causes mechanical disturbance which help the decomposition of raw humus and
release of nutrients, etc.

27
 Method of Tending Operation - Thinning

Following Methods of Thinning can be Adopted:

1) Mechanical Thinning,
2) Ordinary Thinning,
3) Crown Thinning,
4) Free Thinning,
5) Crab’s Advance Thinning,
6) Numerical Thinning

1) Mechanical Thinning:

This type of thinning is usually applied in young crops or young plantations before
the crown differentiation has taken place. In teak plantations of Kerala, first and
second thinning carried out at the age of 4 and 8 years are usually mechanical
thinning and consists of the removal of alternate diagonal lines or rows of trees
reducing the stocking from 2,500 trees per ha to 1250 trees per ha after the first
mechanical thinning and then to 625 trees per hectare after second thinning with
spacing 2 in x 2 in to about 2.85 in x 2.85 in and then ultimately to 4 in x 4 in after
second thinning.

2) Ordinary Thinning:

This is called as "Low Thinning". In ordinary thinning, the trees are removed from
lower crown classes. Ordinary thinning has been devised to follow the nature i.e.
those trees, which have been unsuccessful in the struggle of existence, are removed
first. Ordinary thinning is the most commonly used thinning practice in forestry. It is
most for light demander species. This method of thinning is useful and may be
economically applied in species and areas where small size timber has a market.

The method is simple in execution. Removal of lower crown classes suitable for area
where there is no danger of soil deterioration. Forests infested with climbers and
where there is risk of crown fire. Ordinary thinning has several commands.

Grades of Ordinary Thinning:

i) Light Thinning (A Grade): This is limited to the removal of dead, dying,

diseased and suppressed trees.

ii) Moderate Thinning (B Grade): This consists in the further removal of defective
eliminated stems and whips.

iii) Heavy Thinning (C Grade): This consists in the further removal of the
remaining dominated stems and such of the defective co-dominants as can be
removed without making lasting gaps in the canopy.

iv) Very Heavy Thinning (D Grade): The distinguishing features of this grade is
that, it also takes some of the dominate, subject to the some condition of not
making any lasting break in the canopy.

28
v) Extremely Heavy Thinning (E Grade): This is the heaviest thinning that can
do in a crop without making permanent gaps in the canopy. More of the dominant
stems even of class (a) are removed.

3) Crown Thinning:

The less promising one being removed in the interest of the best individuals; the
dominated and suppressed stems are retained unless they are dead, drying or
diseased. Aims at removing the inferior trees from among the dominant class.

Advantages of Crown Thinning:

Crown thinning offers several advantages over other methods of thinning:

i) Crown thinning provides better environment for growth and development of

retained dominant trees.
ii) The trees of lower crown classes are not removed.
iii) The pressure of trees of lower crown classes results better pruning of side
branches.
iv) It helps in protection of the site and reduces the damages due to frost, snow,
wind etc.

Disadvantages of Crown Thinning:

The main disadvantages of crown thinning are

i) There is higher root competition for moisture and nutrients.

ii) Abstraction in felling, logging and extraction of tinned material.
iii) Crown thinning is more flexible method than ordinary thinning. It requires
greater skill in execution.
iv) Closer look on suppressed and dominated trees would be necessary.

Factors Affecting Tending Operation Thinning Practices

The following factors are important for deciding the adoption of thinning practice.

i) Nature of Species:

Light demanders are less tolerant of crowding than shade bearers and therefore,
frequent thinning is required to remove competition in light demander species.

ii) Age:

In young age, when the crown formation has not completed, mechanical thinning or
stick thinning by some numerical formula is carried out with success.

29
iii) Site Quality:

On poor sites, heavy thinning is not recommended because the rate of growth on
such sites is poor and the heavy openings may not be occupied.

iv) Improvements in Felling:

Improvement felling has been defined as per removal of less valuable trees in a
crop with the interest of better growth of the more valuable individuals, usually
applied to a mixed, uneven aged forest. It may include thinning of closely stoked
groups along with clearing and general assistance to young growth of valuable
species.

v) Pruning:

Pruning is defined as the elimination of branches in order to obtain trees with clean
bole. The elimination of branches by physical and biotic agencies of the environment
is called Natural pruning. Removal of branches from the selected portions of the tree
by mechanical means is referred as artificial pruning. Pruning occurs naturally when
the crop is dense enough particularly in younger stage. The process of natural
pruning completes in three stages namely:

i) Killing of branches,
ii) Shedding of dead branches and
iii) Halting over of the entire branch stub

vi) Climber Cutting:

Climber cutting should be done along with the tending operations as well as while
carrying out markings for felling in the forest. Climbers are particularly harmful
when the trees are young. In older trees, they constrict the stem and deteriorate the
value of wood.

The climber cutting should be done at the base and one meter above and the piece
should be removed in order to ensure that climber has been cut. A more effective
method for the control of climber is to dig up tubers during the rains. The climbers
should be cut preferably during monsoon.

LECT 4. Crown Classes

Crown class is a term used to describe the position of an individual tree in

the forest canopy. In the definitions below, “general layer of the canopy”
refers to the bulk of the tree crowns in the size class or cohort being
examined. Crown classes are most easily determined in evenaged stands, as
depicted in Figure 5.5. In an unevenaged stand, a tree’s crown would be

30
compared to other trees in the same layer. Kraft’s Crown Classes are defined
as follows (Smith et al. 1997 and Helms 1998 modified for clarity):

 Dominant trees These crowns extend above the general level of the
canopy. They receive full light from above and some light from the
sides. Generally, they have the largest, fullest crowns in the stand
(Figure 5.5).
 Codominant trees These crowns make up the general level of the
canopy. They receive direct light from above, but little or no light
from the sides. Generally they are shorter than the dominant trees.
 Intermediate trees These crowns occupy a subordinate position in
the canopy. They receive some direct light from above, but no direct
light from the sides. Crowns are generally narrow and/or one-sided,
and shorter than the dominant and codominant trees.
 Suppressed trees (Overtopped trees) These crowns are below the
general level of the canopy. They receive no direct light. Crowns are
generally short, sparse, and narrow.

31
 Lecture:7 Agroforestry – definitions, importance,
AGROFORESTRY DEFINITIONS: -

 Bene et al. (1977) defined agroforestry as a sustainable management system for land that
increases overall production, combines agriculture crops, forest plants and tree crop
and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially and applies management practices that are
compatible with the cultural patterns of a local population.

 King and Chandler (1978): “Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system

which increases the overall yield of the land, combines the production of crops (including
tree crops) and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially, on the same
unit of land and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural
practices of the local population.

 Nair (1979) defines agroforestry as a land use system that integrates trees, crops and
animals in a way that is scientifically sound, ecologically desirable, practically feasible
and socially acceptable to the farmers.

 According to Lundgren and Raintree (1982), agroforestry is a collective name for land
use systems and technologies, where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palm bamboos,
etc.) are deliberately used in the same piece of land management units as agriculture
crops and/or animals in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In
agroforestry systems, there are both ecological and economical interactions between the
different components.

OBJECTIVES OF AGROFORESTRY
In all agroforestry land management there are two essential and related aims such as
 The AFS should conserve and improve the site
 Optimize the combine production of tress, agricultural crops and animals

ATTRIBUTES OF AGROFORESTRY
There are three attributes which, theoretically, all agroforestry system possess, these are:

Productivity: Most, if not all, agroforestry systems aim to maintain or increase production
(of preferred commodities as well as productivity (of the land). Agroforestry can improve
productivity in many different ways. These include: increased output of tree products,
improved yields of associated crops, reduction of cropping system inputs, and increased
labour efficiency.
Sustainability:By conserving the production potential of the resource base, mainly through
the beneficial effects of woody perennials on soils, agroforestry can achieve and indefinitely
maintain conservation and fertility goals

Adoptability:The word “adopt” here means “accept” and it may be distinguished from
anothercommonly used word adapt, which implies “modify” or “change.” The fact that
agroforestry is a relatively new word for an old set of practices means that, in some cases,
agroforestry already been accepted by the farming community. However, the implication
here is that improved or new agroforestry technologies that are introduced into new areas
should also conform to local farming practices.

32
IMPORTANCE OF AGROFORESTRY:
The different aspects in which agroforestry can help in enhancing the productivity of our lands to
meet the demand of ever- growing human and livestock population. are as follows:

1.Meeting the demand of food & fodder

 Enhanced food production from crops associated with trees through nitrogen fixation,
better access to soil nutrients brought to surface from deep tree roots, improved
availability of nutrients due to high cation-exchange capacity of the soil and its organic
matter and mycorrhizal associations
 Food for man from trees as fruits, nuts and cereal substitutes
 Fodder for meeting rural needs
2.Water conservation
 Improvement of soil-moisture retention in rainfed croplands and pastures through
improved soil structure and micro-climate effect of trees
 Regulation of stream flow, reducing flood hazards and a more even supply of water
through reduction of run-off and improvement of interception and storage in infiltration
galleries.
 Improvement in drainage from waterlogged or saline soils by trees with high water
requirements.
3.Fuelwood and energy
 Fuel-wood for direct combustion
 Pyrolytic conversion products such as charcoal. oil and gas
 Ethanol produced from fermentation of high-carbohydrate fruits
 Oils, latex and other combustible saps and resins
4.Shelter from trees
 Building materials for shelter construction
 Shade trees for people, livestock and shade-loving crops
 Wind-breaks and shelter-belts for protection of settlements, crop lands, pastures and
roadways
 Fencing: live fences and fence posts
5.Raw material for industries
 Raw material for pulp and paper industry
 Tannins. essential oils and medicinal ingredients
 Wood for agricultural implements and various crafts
 Fibre for weaving
6.Cash benefits
 Direct cash benefits from sale of tree products
 Indirect cash benefits from increased productivity
7.Increased yield and maximized production:
Combining agriculture crops with trees helps in increasing the productivity of the land by:
 Utilizing available solar radiations throughout the year and thus enhancing total
productivity
 Many leguminous tree species fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and return much more
inleaf fall than they take from soil.
Leaves of tree species could be used as green manure and help the farmer to increase soil
productivity at optimum levels over a long period of time.
8.Diversified products:
Several trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers yield a substantial quantity of food materials
which are used by rural poor and particularly by tribal.

33
  About 213 species of large and small trees, 17 species of palm, 128 species of shrubs,
116species of herbs, 4 species of fern and 15 species of fungi are known to yield
edible/food material.
 Thus, by adopting agroforestry one can get diversified products viz. fuel, fodder, fruits,
fibre, timber, etc.
 Agroforestry aims to maximize production of biomass of trees and agricultural crops.
 Tree and agriculture crop production system is more productive and is capable of meeting
almost all the demands of timber, fodder, fruits, fiber and firewood.
9.Utilization of wasteland and degraded land:
 In India approx 100 million ha area is under different kinds of waste land.
 These lands can be gainfully utilized for the cultivation of trees.
 Once the area is vegetated, ecological restoration process starts by means of leaf litter
decomposition etc., which leads to improvement in soil condition.
 Once the soil is improved, this land can be utilized for agricultural production.
10.Provides employment opportunities:
 Unemployment is the country‟s main problem.
 Agroforestry systems increase the employment opportunities.
 Plantation, including seed collection and nursery raising generate employment of about
200-500 man days/yr.
 Wood based industries such as saw milling, furniture, sports goods, pulp and paper,
Match splints, bamboo and cane furniture, etc. are the important sectors where rural youth
get employment.

11.Increased farm income:

 Agroforestry provides the farmers with large number of alternatives of agricultural,
forestry and horticultural crops and thus gives more income to the farmers per unit of land
than monoculture.

12.Carbon sequestration services and its influence on climate change.

 One of the most important contributions of agroforestry in general is to respond to
climate change through sequestration of carbon in above ground plant biomass and below
ground biomass in the soils.

13Potential reduction in the rate of deforestation

 Agroforestry reduced the annual rate of deforestation to a great extent.
 The ready availability of fuel wood in own farm reduces the burden on the natural
forests.
 The time that household/family members especially women would have spent walking
long distances in search of fuelwood in forests can be saved.

14.Improvement in soil health and insurance against climatic hazards

 Trees and shrubs improve the physical properties of soils.
 In particular aggregation is higher in fields where trees are being grown, and this
enhances water infiltration and water holding capacity of soils thereby reducing surface
run-off and soil erosion.
 As a result, trees /shrubs have the potential to reduce the impact of droughts, a common
seasonal phenomenon in most of the developing countries where agriculture is mainly
rainfed.
 The repeated application of tree biomass increases the soil organic matter that leads to
important increase in soil water retention capacity.

34
lecture:8 criteria of selection of trees in agroforestry,

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS FOR AGROFORESTRY

While selecting tree species for agroforestry systems, the following desirable characteristics
should be taken into consideration. Though all desirable characters are not found in a single
species, but their multiple uses are taken care of.

Tree species selected should not interfere with soil moisture

Tree species selected for agroforestry should have very less water requirement
Should not compete with main agricultural crops for water.
Tree species should be deep tap rooted so that they can draw water from deep strata
of the soil.
Tree species should not compete for plant nutrients
Tree species should not utilize more plant nutrients
They should help in building soil fertility,
Leguminous tree species which fix atmospheric nitrogen in their roots should be prfer.
The root system and root growth characteristics should ideally result in to exploration
of soil layers that are different to those being trapped by agricultural crops.

Tree species should not compete for sunlight

Tree species should not interrupt sunlight falling on the crops.

Tree species should be light branching in their habit.
Trees permit the penetration of light into the ground and promote better crop, pasture
growth and yield.

Tree species can withstand pruning operation if it posses dense canopy.

Tree species should have high survival rate and easy establishment
Trees species should have high survival percentage,
Leave little or no gaps after transplanting.
Hardy tree species are easy to establish.
They have less mortality percentage because they can tolerate transplanting shocks easily.
Trees should have the ability to regenerate lateral roots within a short period of time after
transplanting.

Tree species should have fast growing habit and easy management
Tree species for agroforestry system should be essentially fast growing,
Rapid growth, especially in the early years,
Tree should have short rotation (the period between planting and final harvesting)
Fast growing species such as Poplar, Casuriana, Leucaena leucocephala etc. are
important species which provide lot of opportunities to be planted in AFS.

Tree species should have wider adaptability

A tree species selected for agroforestry combinations must have a wider adaptability.







35
Tree species should have high palatability as a fodder
Most of the Indian farmers rear livestock separately and cut and carry method of
fodder production is quite prevalent.

Therefore, in agroforestry, farmer must select those tree species which are palatable
to livestock and had a high digestibility.

Tree species should have shelter conferring and soil stabilization attributes
Some tree species, because of their inherent growth habit and adaptability, are
especially helpful in providing protection for soils, crops and livestock. Poplars (Populus
spp.), Willows (Salix spp.), Casurina equisetifolia, etc. for example, have been
extensively used in soil erosion control because of their extensive root system and ability
to grow in waterlogged soils.

Tree species should have capability to withstand management practices

Many agroforestry systems demand extensive pruning and lopping of the trees in
order to maximize production. In such cases, the trees must be able to withstand such
treatment without drastically restricting growth rate.

Tree species should have nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation attributes
Within an agroforestry system, trees can play an important role in recycling nutrients,
leached down through the soil profile and minerals released from weathering parent
material such as rocks and sediments.
These nutrients are used in the growth and development of the tree, many returning
to the top-soil in form of dead leaves, twigs, flowers and seeds which slowly decompose
on the surface, or are eaten by animals.
Although all trees play some role in maintaining the nutrient status of the soil through
recycling.
Deciduous trees drop most of their leaves in autumn leaving a thick mat of leaves on
the ground, whereas most evergreen species maintain some level of litter fall throughout
the year.
Another important factor is the ability of many tree species to convert atmospheric
nitrogen into organic nitrogen for their own use through complex symbiotic relationship
between Rhizobium bacteria and their fine roots.
The bacteria form nodules on the roots which can convert nitrogen gas, as it is in the
atmosphere, into usable nitrogen for the plant.
Most leguminous trees and some non-leguminous ones, such as Acacia, Leucaena
and Prosopis as well as Casuarina spp. fix the atmospheric nitrogen.
The litter of these nitrogen fixing trees is generally high in nitrogen, thus increasing
the nitrogen status of the soil.

Tree species should have thin bark

Species selected for agroforestry combinations should not shed its bark regularly but
it should retain for longer period as bark shedding creates unhygienic conditions for
underground crop.
Tree species should be free from chemical exudations
The species selected for agroforestry combination must be free from allelo-chemicals
as these allelo-chemicals affect the growth of under-ground crops.
Tree species should have easily decomposable leaves
The suitable tree species for agroforestry will be that one in which fallen leaves
decompose with fast rate.

36
 The leaves of most of the legume tree species are small in size, decompose quickly
and easily, and add a large quantity of organic matter and nutrients to the soil.
Tree species having broad leaves such as teak, mango and banyan should not be
preferred for agroforestry system.
They contain more fibre matter and also require longer time for decomposition.
Further, broad leaves when fall on the tender crop plants, block their photosynthetic
activities.

Tree species should have their multiple uses

The selected tree species should have multiple uses.
The tree should yield more than one of the main produce like fuelwood, leaf fodder,
edible fruit, edible flower and fibre.

Tree species should have high yield potential

High yield potential is the most important criterion of selection of tree species for
agroforestry systems as the main aim is to obtain overall more output per unit area. Care
should be taken before collection of seeds and seedlings that they are being procured
from reliable source.

The following are a few tree species which help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen through their
roots:
Table 1 Nitrogen fixing tree species
1. Acacia albida 21. Bauhinia variegata
2. Acacia auriculiformis 22. Butea monosperma
3. Acacia catechu 23. Cassia fistula
4. Acacia aneura 24. Cassia siamea
5. Acacia dealbata 25. Casuarina equisetifolia
6. Acacia decurrens 26. Dalbergia latifolia
7. Acacia farnesiana 27. Dalbergia sissoo
8. Acacia implexa 28. Delonix regia
9. Acacia leucophloea 29. Gliricidia sepium
10. Acacia mearnsii 30. Hardwickia binata
11. Acacia melanoxylon 31. Leucaena leucocephala
12. Acacia mollissima 32. Moringa oleifera
13. Acacia nilotica 33. Oogeinia oojeinensis
14. Acacia planifrons 34. Parkinsonia aculeata
15. Acacia senegal 35. Peltophorum ferrugineum
16. Albizia chinensis 36. Pithecellobium dulce
17. Albizia lebbek 37. Prosopis alba
18. Albizia procera 38. Prosopis chilensis
19. Alnus nepalensis 39. Prosopis cineraria
20. Alnus nitida 40. Robinia pseudoacacia
41. Samanea saman 44. Sesbania bispinosa
42. Saraca indica 45. Sesbania grandiflora
43. Sesbania aegyptica 46. Tamarindus indica

37
Lecture:9 Different agroforestry systems prevalent in the country, shifting cultivation,
taungya, alley cropping, wind breaks and shelter belts, home gardens.

CLASSIFICATION OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS (NAIR, 1985)

Structural basis: refers to the composition of the components, including spatial arrangement of
the woody component, vertical stratification of all the components, and temporal arrangement of
the different components. Hence on the basis of structure agroforestry system can be grouped into
two categories.

A) Nature of components
B) Arrangement of components

A) Nature of components: Based on nature of component agroforestry systems can be classified

into following categories:
1. Agrisilviculture systems/ silviagriculture/ agrosilviculture
2.Silvopastoral systems/ silvipastoral
3.Agrosilvopastoral systems/ agrisilvipastoral
4.Other systems

1. Agrisilviculture/Silviagriculture/Agrosilviculture
This system involves the conscious and deliberate use of land for the concurrent production of
agricultural crops including tree, crops and forest crops.

Based on the nature of the components this system can be grouped into various forms:

a) Improved fallow species in shifting cultivation

b) The Taungya system
c) Multispecies tree gardens
d) Alley cropping (Hedgrow intercropping)
e) Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands
f) Crops combinations with plantation crops
g) Agroforestry for fuelwood production
h) Shelter belts
i) Wind breaks
j) Soil conservation hedges etc.

*** according to course

38
a) Improved fallow species in shifting cultivation:***
Shifting cultivation:
It is prevalent in many parts of Africa, Latin America, South-East Asia and Indian
subcontinent.

In India it is prevalent in Assam, Meghalaya, Jharkhand, Manipur, Orissa, Nagaland,

Chattisgarh, M.P., Arunanchal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Mizoram, Tripura, Kerala,
WestBengal, Sikkim.

It is known as ‘jhuming’ in North-east, ‘khallu / kurwa’ in Jharkhand and ‘dahiya’ or

‘podo’ in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh.

In this system, forest patch is selected and cleared felled. The herbs, shrubs and twigs
and branches (slashed vegetation) are burnt .Cultivation of crops is done for a few years
until soil fertility declines. The site is than abandoned (fallow period) and new patch is
selected for cultivation of crops. The site is again cultivated after giving rest for fewyears.

Earlier the fallow cycle was of 20–30 year. However, due to increasing requirement for
cultivation of land due to population pressure, fallow period has reduced from 25–30
years to 2–3 years which has broken down the resilience of ecosystem and the land is
increasingly deteriorating. Thus now shifting cultivation has become source of ecological
degradation, soil erosion and converting good forests into wastelands.

Effect of shifting cultivation

 Deforestation and denudation of hill slopes-in secondary succession, area is occupied by
weeds, useless shrubs etc
 Soil erosion which leads to soil and nutrient losses, silting of reservoirs and streams,
reduction in water-yield and landslips and landslides
 Shifting cultivation adversely affects cation exchange capacity and physical properties
of soil. It leads to lowering of organic matter and lowering the total quantity of
sesquioxides, iron, aluminum, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, etc.
 Increases soil pH and reducing microbial activity
 More weed growth and lower crop yield
 No opportunity for infrastructural development

Controlling shifting cultivation

 Motivate public for permanent agriculture by opening demonstration centers for improved
agricultural practices, good quality seed, manuring, irrigation, weeding use of improved
tools, terracing etc.
 Earning goodwill of local people: By engaging them in forest work and training them to
undertake shifting cultivation on scientific lines.
 Arable land can be provided to the tribals for carrying out agriculture and also to settle in
the area; a few schemes are being implemented under integrated tribal development programme
 Legal measures: on steep slopes, near to roadside etc
 Using land according to its capability
 Provision of alternative management
 Development of animal husbandry and dairy farming
 Training of artisans and development of handicrafts
 Employment in forest works and other industries
 Providing communication facilities
 Providing economic assistance for houses and agriculture operations

39
 Improved fallow species in shifting cultivation:
 Fallows are crop land left without crops for periods ranging from one season to several
years.
 The objective of improved fallow species in shifting cultivation is to recover depleted
soil nutrients. Once the soil has recovered, crops are reintroduced for one or more
season.
 The best species for the fallow system should induce good nitrogen fixation in the soil.
 The main aim of the fallow is to maintain or restore soil fertility and reduce erosion;
some plants can be introduced primarily for their economic value.
 Plants included in improved fallows should be compatible with future crops, free of any
negative physical or chemical effects on the soil and not in competition with the crops to
be planted later on the same site.

b) Taungya System of cultivation:****

 The taungya system was used primarily as an inexpensive means of establishing
timber plantations but is finally a recognized AF system.
 The taungya (taung = hill, ya = cultivation) is a Burmese word coined in
Burma in 1850. The system was introduced to India by Brandis in 1890 and the
first taungya plantations were raised in 1896 in North Bengal.
 It was introduced to S Africa in 1887 and was taken to Chittagong and Sylhat
(Now in Bangladesh) in 1870.

 In India it started in 1896 in North Bengal. In 1890, it was introduced to Coorg
in Karnataka. Regular plantation however started in North Bengal in 1911 for
raising Sal plantations and in 1912, extended for raising Teak. In 1923 it was
adopted in UP for raising Sal plantations.

 It is still practiced in the states of Kerala, West Bengal, Orissa, Karnataka and the
northeastern hill region.

 This is a modified form of shifting cultivation in which the labour is permitted to

raise agri-crops in an area but only side by side with the forest species planted by it.

 The practice consists of land preparation, tree planting, growing agricultural crops
for 1-3 years, until shade becomes too dense, and then moving on to repeat the
cycle in a different area. A large variety of crops and trees, depending on the soil
and climatic conditions, are grown in India. In fact this system was introduced to
raise forest plantations, but finally became recognized agroforestry system.

Types of Taungya:
i. Departmental Taungya: Under this, agricultural crops and plantation are raised by the
forest department by employing a number of labourers on daily wages. The main aim of
raising crops along with the plantation is to keep down weed growth.

ii. Leased Taungya: The plantation land is given on lease to the person who offers the
highest money for raising crops for a specified number of years and ensures care of tree
plantation.

iii. Village Taungya: This is the most successful of the three taungya systems. In this crops
are raised by the people who have settled down in a village inside the forest for this purpose. Usually
each family has about 0.8 to 1.7 ha of land to raise trees and cultivate crops for 3 to 4 years.

40
ADVANTAGES OF TAUNGYA:
Artificial regeneration of the forest is obtained cheaply;
Problems of unemployment are solved
Helps towards maximum utilization of the site;
Low cost method of forest plantation establishment;
In every case, highly remunerative to the forest departments;
Provision of food crops from forest land; and
Weed, climber growth, etc. is eliminated.

DISADVANTAGE OF THE TAUNGYA:

Loss of soil fertility and exposure of soil;
Danger of epidemics;
Legal problems created;
Susceptibility of land to accelerated erosion increases; and,
It is a form of exploitation of human labour

c) Multi-species tree Gardens:

In this system of agroforestry, various kinds of tree species are grown mixed.
The major function of this system is production of food, fodder and wood products for
home consumption and sale.

d) Alley cropping (Hedge row intercropping):***

 Alley cropping, also known as hedgerow intercropping,

 In this perennial, preferably leguminous trees or shrubs are grown simultaneously with
an arable crop.
 The trees, managed as hedgerows, are grown in wide rows and the crop is planted in the
interspace or 'alley' between the tree rows.
 During the cropping phase the trees are pruned and leaves and twigs are used as mulch
on the cropped alleys in order to reduce evaporation from the soil surface, suppress weeds
and/or add nutrients and organic matter to the top soil.
 The primary purpose of alley cropping is to maintain or increase crop yields by
improvement of the soil and microclimate and weed control. Farmers may also obtain tree
products from the hedgerows, including fuelwood, building poles, food, medicine and
fodder, etc

Characteristics of species for hedgerow intercropping: Alley cropping usually includes

leguminous trees to improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation; hence an ideal alley cropping
tree or shrub species should have following characteristics:

It should have a sparse, small crown to permit sunlight penetration into the cropped area
It should re-sprout rapidly after pruning, coppicing, pollarding or lopping.
It should form a deep taproot system so that it takes moisture and nutrient from deeper layers
and will not compete with agricultural crops.
It should have shallow lateral roots that are easily ‘pruned’ by ploughing along the hedgerow,
without serious damage to the plants.
Fast decomposition rate of leaf litter.
Ideally, trees and shrubs used for alley cropping should fix nitrogen.
Trees/shrubs should be non-exacting in nature.

41
ADVANTAGES
 Improved crop performance due to the addition of nutrients and organic matter into the
soil/plant system,
 Reduction of the use of chemical fertilisers,
 Improvement in the physical nature of the soil environment.
 Reductions in erosion losses.
 Provision of additional products such as forage, firewood or stakes when a multipurpose
tree legume is used as the hedgerow, and
 Improvement in weed control.

e) Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands:

 In this system various multipurpose tree species are scattered haphazardly or according to
some systematic patterns on bunds.
 The major components of this system are multipurpose trees and other fruit trees and
common agricultural crops.
 The primary role of this system is production of various trees products and the protective
function is fencing and plot demarcation. Examples of multipurpose trees employed in
agroforestry are: Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia albida, Cassia siamea, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Azadirachta indica, Acacia senegal, Cocos nucifera, etc.

f) Crop combinations with plantation crops:

 Perennial trees and shrubs such as coffee, tea, coconut and cocoa are combined into
intercropping systems in numerous ways, including:
i. Integrated multistory mixture of plantation crops;
ii. Mixture of plantation crops in alternate or other crop arrangement;
iii. Shade trees for plantation crops
iv. Intercropping with agricultural crops.

g) Agroforestry for fuelwood production:

 In this system, various multipurpose fuelwood/firewood species are inter-planted on or
around agricultural lands.
 The protective role is to act as fencing, shelter belts and boundary demarcation.
 Tree species commonly used as fuelwood are: Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbek, Cassia
siamea, Casuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Prosopis juliflora, Eucalyptus
tereticornis, etc.

h) Shelterbelt:***
 Shelterbelt is a wide belt of trees, shrubs and grasses, planted in rows which goes right
across the land at right-angle to the direction of the prevailing winds to deflect air
current, to reduce wind velocity and to give general protection to cultivated areas against
wind erosion and desiccating effect of the hot winds in lee-ward side.

 A typical shelterbelt has a triangular cross-section which can be achieved by planting

tall trees in the centre, flanked on both sides successively by shorter trees, tall shrubs and
then low spreading shrubs and grasses.

42
  A certain amount of penetrability is desirable in shelterbelts as a result of which the zone
of influence is very much greater and the velocity curve shows a smooth, slowly
declining trend.
 The width of shelterbelt depends upon local climatic conditions, wind velocity, and the
soil type.
 Shelterbelt should be oriented as nearly as possible, at right angles to the prevailing wind
In case, where winds blow from different directions, shelterbelt should be raised in quadrangles.

Height and spacing—

Height of shelterbelt is very important
As it affects the distance to which protection will be afforded on the lee-ward side.
Higher the trees forming the shelterbelt, the greater is the zone of influence on the leeward side.
This affects the spacing of the shelterbelts also. If wind erosion has to be completely controlled,
the second belt should be located a little before the place where the wind on the lee-ward side
often first shelterbelt assumes damaging velocity.

Taking 20% reduction in wind velocity as the basis of usefulness of a shelterbelt,

effective protection zone extends up to 15 to 20 times the height of the belt.

In Rajasthan, taking the height of shelterbelt to be about 7.5 m, spacing recommended is
10 times the height, i.e., 75 meters.

Length:
The length of shelterbelt is an important consideration because at the ends of the shelterbelt
eddies are produced resulting in increasing the wind velocity at these places.
It is because of this that road is not ordinarily allowed to cross a shelterbelt.
In some of the western countries, shelterbelts have been raised right across the country for the
protection they afford.

For shorter shelterbelt, the minimum length of shelterbelt to be most effective is 24 times
its height.

Soil Preparation:
Soil preparation should be done at least a year in advance to build up sufficient reserve of soil
moisture
It may be done either mechanically or by manual labour
Leguminous crops may be raised for the first few years in between the rows of trees and shrubs
for improving the fertility of the soil.

Choice of species:
The choice of species to be raised in shelterbelt is governed by the climate, soil and topography
of the area.
It is better to raise local species because of their easy establishment.
Exotics may also be used to improve the efficiency of the shelterbelts.

Characteristics of tree spp. used for shelterbelt:

The species selected should be non-exacting;
Fast-growing;
Wind-firm;
Drought-resistant;
Unpalatable to animals;

43
It should have a dense crown and low branching habit;
It should not be leafless at a time when protection is required;
It should be economically a multipurpose species, i.e., fit for firewood, timber and fodder.
The following species are recommended for creation of shelter belt:

Grasses: Cenchrus barbatus, Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum munja, Panicum turgidum,

Panicum antidotale. spp. , Sesbania aculeata.
Small trees: Acacia jacquemontii, Acacia leucophloea, Balanites aegyptiaca, Capparis aphylla,
Salvadora oleoides.
Trees: Acacia arabica, Acacia senegal, Acacia cyanophylla, Albizzia lebbek, Azadirachta
indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Lannea coromendelica, Parkinsonia aculeata, Prosopis cineraria,
Prosopis juliflora, Pongamia pinnata, Tecoma undulata, Tamarix articulata t Eucalyptus spp.,
Acacia tortilis

ADVANTAGES OF SHELTERBELTS:
Very little research work has been done in our country.
To find out the benefits of the shelter-belts on yields of agricultural crops, horticultural crops
and grasses.
However, on the basis of research work done in CAZRI, TNAU and abroad, the following
advantages of the shelterbelts may be mentioned:

Moderating effect on temperature—

Shelterbelt has a moderating effect on air and soil temperature by lowering the maximum and
raising the minimum.
Temperature during day time inside the forest is lower evaporation.
Temperature during night is higher inside the forest than open.

Increase in humidity—
Shelterbelts increase relative humidity from 1 to 50%.
There is distinctly perceptible increase in the average relative humidity in the
agricultural land protected by shelterbelts

Reduction in evapo-transpiration:
Shelterbelts reduce evapo-transpiration sufficiently in the zone of their influence.

Increase in soil moisture:

Shelterbelts increase the moisture content of the soil on the leeward side and delay it’s
drying up during summer.
They also increase the underground water supplies by promoting infiltration in the soil.

Reduction in wind velocity and wind erosion:

Shelterbelts deflect the wind upwards
Cause considerable reduction in the wind velocity on the leeward side upto a distance of 15 to
20 times the height of the trees forming the shelterbelt.
As there is considerable reduction in the wind velocity on the leeward side of a shelterbelt, wind
erosion is very much reduced.

Increase in agricultural and horticultural crops:

Shelterbelts increase production of agricultural and horticultural crops.
Study made in 8 cotton fields in distinctly semi-arid areas of U.S.A. revealed an increase
of 17.4% in cotton yield when protection against hot winds was provided by shelterbelts.

44
i) Windbreaks:
Wind break is a protective planting around a garden, a farm or a field to protect it against strong
winds.
It usually consists of 2-3 rows of trees or shrubs, spaced at 0.5 m to 2.5 m apart,
depending on the species.

j) Soil conservation hedges:

In this system, the major groups of components are: multipurpose and/or fruit trees and
common agricultural species.
The primary role of multipurpose fruit trees and agricultural species is soil conservation and
provision of various tree products.

The following tree species are used for soil conservation: Grevillea robusta, Acacia
catechu, Pinus roxburghii, Acacia modesta, Prosopis juliflora, Alnus nepalensis,
Leucaena leucocephala, etc.

HORTISILVICULTURE
It is deliberately integration of horticultural trees with timber trees in order to harvest
fruits and timber concurrently from single unit of land. Timber trees are planted on bunds of the
orchards acts as windbreak thus protect orchard from high winds.

HORTISILVOPASTORAL
In this system various improved leguminous grasses are grown in orchard in order to
provide forage to livestock. Trees are planted on the bunds of the orchards. These trees acts as
windbreaks and protect horticulture plants from high wind; also provides multiple products.

45
II. SILVI-PASTORAL SYSTEM (TREES + PASTURE and/or ANIMALS)
The production of woody plants combined with pasture is referred to as a silvi-pastoral system.
The trees and shrubs may be used primarily to produce fodder for livestock or they may be
grown for timber, fuelwood, and fruit or to improve the soil.
A silvi-pastroal system is needed in dry areas, in order to meet out the demands of wood and
fodder throughout the year. There are three main categories of silvicultural system

A. Protein bank
B. Live fence of fodder trees and hedges
C. Trees and shrubs on pasture land

A. PROTEIN BANK:
In this system various multipurpose trees (protein rich trees) are planted on or around farmlands
and rangelands
For cut and carry fodder production to meet the fodder requirements of livestock during the
fodder deficit period in winter.
These trees are rich in protein.
The trees planted in protein banks are…
Grewia optiva, Bauhinia variegata, Morus alba, Artocarpus spp., Anogeissus latifolia,
Cordia dichotoma, Dalbergia sissoo, Eutralobium saman, Zizyphus jujube, etc.

B. LIVE FENCE OF FODDER TREES AND HEDGES:

In this system, various fodder trees and shrubs are planted as live fences to protect the property
from stray animals
To protect the farm property from biotic influences.
The following trees are generally used: Sesbania grandiflora, Gliricidia sepium, Erythrina
abyssinica, Euphorbia spp., Acacia spp. etc.

C. TREES AND SHRUBS ON PASTURE LAND:

In this system various tree and shrub species are scattered irregularly or arranged according to
some systematic pattern,

III. AGRISILVOPASTORAL/AGROSILVOPASTORAL SYSTEM (CROPS + TREE +

GRASSES/ANIMALS)
This system has been grouped into two subgroups:

A. HOME GARDENS:***
 It is deliberate integration of trees, crop and animals in a same unit of land in some form
of spatial and temporal sequence.
 This is one of the oldest agroforestry practices found in high rainfall area of South and
South-East Asia.
 In India it is prevalent in Southern states like Kerala, Tamilnadu.
 Also common in North Eastern states like Tripura, Assom, West Bengal and part of
Islands of Andaman and Nicobar.
 In India it is a common practice to plant trees around the habitation.
 It is also known as multilayered AFS
 Area of homestead varies from 0.2-0.5ha
 Tall tree/timber tree occupy the top most layer followed by fruit tree.
 Small shrubs also form the parts of home garden.
 Shade loving vegetables find their place in the ground layer.

46
  Trees provide timber, fruits and also support climber such as pepper, cucurbits, clove,
yam, sweet potato, colocasia etc.
 Pineapple is a common fruit grown in home garden.
 In hills, the common spp. for home gardens is Grewia optiva, Ficus glomerata, Juglans
regia and Punica granatum.
 In rural areas, fruit trees and commercial tree spp., such as Acacia and Neem are of
common occurrence in most of the country.
 Cattle and poultry are the main component of homesteads.
 Forage spp. like Stylo, Guinea grass, Guatemala, Napier and Setaria cephalis variety
Kazungula also find their place in home garden.

B. WOODY HEDGES FOR BROWSING, GREEN MANURING, MULCHING AND SOIL CONSERVATION :
In this system various woody hedges especially
Fast growing
Good coppicing capacity planted in order to
Browse the animals
Mulching purpose
Green manuring purpose
Soil conservation purpose
Aim is production of food, fodder, fuel-wood and soil conservation

IV. OTHER SPECIFIED SYSTEMS

i) Apiculture with Tree:
In this system nectar and pollen rich tree/shrubs are planted on the bunds of the farm.
Some agriculture/oil seed crops are also grown.
Mangifera indica, Vitex negundo, Melia azedarach, Azadirachta indica, Prunus salicina,
Prunus armeniaca, Rubus ellipticus, Eucalyptus spp., Callistemon lanceolatus, Berberis
lycium, Toona ciliata, etc.
Main purpose of this system is production of honey.

ii) Aqua-forestry:
 Aqua-forestry is very common in coastal regions (more evident along Andhra coast).
 Farmers are cultivating fish and prawn in saline water and growing coconut and other
trees on bunds of ponds.
 These trees help in producing litter-feed to fishery and generate extra income to
farmers.
 Now fish culture in mangroves is also advocated which forms a rich source of nutrition
to aquatic life and breeding ground for juvenile fish, prawn and mussels.
 A well-balanced system of animal husbandry including goatry, poultry, duck-farming,
turtles and fishes in the small ponds in home-gardens make a balanced system of hig
moisture, energy and nutrient-use efficiency per unit area.
 The leaves of many leguminous trees viz. Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena, Moringa
oleifera, Acacia nilotica etc. have been found to serve as good fish feed when offered
as pellets and improved its productivity.
 Area is enclosed with earth embakements.
 Inside the embakement, system of ridges and canals is created. Rain water is collected
by making bunds which helps in growing of tree species.

iii) Multipurpose Wood Lots:
In this system special location-specific MPTs are grown mixed or separately planted for
various purposes such as wood, fodder, soil protection, soil reclamation, etc.

47
Lecture:10 Cultivation practices of two important fast growing tree species
of the region.

1 .Neem (Azadirachta Indica)

Family : Meliaceae.
Common names : Neem, Vepa, Margosa tree (English)
Origin : Native of India.

Description:
 It is versatile, hardy Indian tree of great religious, medicinal and ornamental importance.
 It is a medium to large sized, handsome tree with rounded crown of bright green dense
foliage, a stout, strong and glabrous branches.
 The bark on young trees is smooth, soft, moderately thick.

Distribution:
 It grows throughout the greater parts of India, more especially in the drier parts of the
country.
 It is absent in areas with excessive cold and as such dose not grow in Himalaya above
1000m elevation.
 The species has been used to afforest drier tracts, ravines and refractory soils in the states
of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is also planted in Assam
and Andaman islands also.

48
Climate:
 Temperature - Maximum 40°-45°C Minimum 0°-15°C
 Rainfall - 450-1125 mm

Soil:
 It grows well on a wide variety of deep or shallow soils ranging from sandy soils in
Rajasthan to clayey soils in Maharashtra,
 Does not survive on water-logged, highly saline or deep dry sand.
 Best growth is reported from black cotton soils
 It is salt tolerant species and suitable for afforesting saline and alkaline soils

Phenology:
It is semi - evergreen tree
Leaf-fall - February-March
Leaf renewal - March-April
Flowering - April-May
Fruiting - June-August
Seed collection June-July
Seed weight 9-10 seeds per gm
Seed viability 6-8 weeks, Reduces rapidly after 2 weeks
Germination per cent Fresh seeds upto 86%

Medium size tree produce 35-37Kg fruits

About 3300-4500 seeds weigh one Kg

Silvicultural characters:
Strong light demander,
Tolerates fairly heavy shade in early years,
Susceptible to fire and browsing damage,
Seedling and saplings are very sensitive to frost
Seedlings are intolerant of water logging conditions
It can withstand drought better than excessive rainfall
It coppices well and produce root suckers in dry locality

Regeneration
1.Natural –
It is seldom found growing gregariously,
It regenerates naturally by seeds, coppice and root suckers
Fruit ripening coincides with rainy season; fallen fruits germinate within a fortnight
giving a thicket of seedlings under mature tree.
Germination is epigeal
Mature tree comparatively have short tap root and number of horizontally growing
lateral roots

2.Artificial –
It can be raised easily through direct sowing, planting out of entire plants or stump
Planting.

49
Seed collection and storage
Fruiting starts early in south Indian and late in North India
Seeds are preferably collected June-July or some time seeds swept from the floor as
soon as they fall down
Seed do not require any pre-sowing treatment
De-pulping and cleaning the seed considerably improve germination percentage

Nursery technique
Sowing in raised nursery beds is done in June in drills 15cm apart;
The seeds being sown 2.5cm apart in the lines.
They should be lightly covered with soil since the emerging radicles are eaten by
rodents.
Depth of sowing is to 2.5cm.
Seed can be sown in poly bags (22cm×9cm) and later transplanted to 30cm×16cm
size poly bags.
Pricking out of seedlings or wilding is done at three leaves stage into polythene bags.

Direct Sowing
It is done by dibbling in bushes, broadcast sowing, sowing in lines or patches, in
trenches, sunken beds or circular saucers etc.
Especially sowing in lines or patches has been employed under taungya system.

Planting technique
One year old seedlings are considered the best over either two years or below one
year.
Planting should be done in July-August during rainy period and stopped in the
nonrainy days
Winter planting is unsuitable for neem.
Cleaning around the pits should be done at the time of planting.

Stump planting
It is carried out in 30 cm3 pits as soon as rain break.
Stumps are usually prepared from two year old seedlings,
One year old seedlings of fertilized nurseries can also be used.

Vegetative propagation
It is propagated by air-layering or by rooting stem cuttings and root cuttings.
Successful air-layering was achieved by treatment with 0.1 per cent Indole-butyric
acid or naphthalene acetic acid.

Economic importance:
 Almost every part of neem tree is useful from its roots, trunk, bark, leaves, flowers,
fruits and seeds in day to day life.

50
 2. EMLI

Botanical Name: Tamarindus indica L.

Common Name: Emli, Tamarind
Family : Leguminosae (Caesalpiniodeae)

Description
It is a large evergreen tree attaining a height up to 15m
Spreading crown 9 to 12m in diameter with numerous branches and twigs.
The trunk is short, the lower branches are borne almost horizontal.
Bark is moderately thick and dark grey with numerous longitudinal fissures and
horizontal cracks.
Two varieties has been identified East Indian variety with long pods, 6-12 seeded
West Indian variety with shorter pods, 1-4 seeded

Distribution
One of the most common tree of Tropical India,
It is believed to be indigenous to Tropical Africa probably introduced long back to
India by Arabs.
It is not tree of forest but is cultivated throughout country except Himalayan region
and arid western zone.

Site factor:
Climate:
Temperature - Maximum 35°-46°C Minimum 0°-17.5°C
Rainfall - 750-1900mm
Altitude - up to 1000m

51
Soil:
It is non-exacting type tree
It tolerates slightly saline and alkaline soils
Best growth is found on deep loamy or alluvial soils with adequate supply of moisture

Phenology:
Leaf-fall - April-May
Leaf renewal - March-April
Flowering - April-June
Fruiting - March-April
Seed collection - March- April
Seed weight - 1800-2000 seeds per Kg
Germination per cent - 75%

Silvicultural characters:
Strong light demander can’t grow under shade,
Frost tender,
Resistant to drought,
Produce root suckers and coppice well
Deep rooted and wind firm in nature
Not fire hardy but considered best tree for planting along fire lines in Karnataka.

Regeneration:
1.Natural –
It is not adequate in any circumstances.
Scattered seeds may germinate especially in abandoned areas, ruins etc.
Weeds retard the growth of the seedlings whereas weeding greatly favours growth.
The seedlings may attain a height of 0.6m or more in the first season and 1.20 m or
more in the second season if they are regularly weeded and watered.

2.Artificial –
It can be raised easily through direct sowing, planting out of entire plants or stump
planting or poly bag container plants.

Seed collection and storage

Plant begins to yield seed when about 8-10 years of age
Ripe pods are collected in the month of March-April
Seed is separated from edible pulp by washing with water then dried and stored
Fully grown tree produce 2 quintal of fruits per season
Individual pods contains 3-10 seeds

Nursery technique
Seeds sown in March-April in irrigated nursery in lines about 20-25cm apart.
No pre-treatment of the seed is necessary.
Germination starts in about a week and take about a month to complete
Seedlings attain plantable size by the July when they are about 3-4 months old and
attain a height of 30-40cm.

52
Direct Sowing
It is done in lines or patches.
Depth of sowing is about 1.5cm.
The lines are spaced at 4-5 m apart and the seeds are sown 10cm apart.
About 20 kg of seed is requires to sow one hectare area.
It gives 80% survival against transplants 60%.

Planting technique
Planting is done at the commencement of rainy season during July-August.
Seedlings were irrigated with 2 litres of water while planting.
The pit size of 30cm3 is recommended for planting
The plants should be protected through fencing

Stump planting
It is carried out in 30 cm3 pits as soon as rain break.
It gives 42% survival.

Vegetative propagation
It is done with soft terminal cuttings.
The cuttings are prepared with current year’s shoots and it is collected with new
leaves flush early in the morning in turgid condition.
Cuttings are treated with 1000ppm IBA in 50% Isopropyl alcohol as quick dip for
second then transfer to polypropylene tubets

Economic importance
The chief value of this tree lies in its fruits which are used for various types of food
preparations and sherbets.
The wood is used for carving.
It makes an ideal avenue tree by virtue of its shade, ornamental flowers and
longevity (200years or more).

53
 3. Magar bans

Botanical Name : Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees.

Common Name : Magar bans
Family : Poaceae/Graminae
Sub Family : Bambusoideae

Description:
It is a large bamboo, culms growing at an angle
Culm are greyish white when young and dull green when old
About 12-25m height and 10-19cm diameter
Internodes are 30-50cm long
Culm sheath is glabrous, rough with brown hairs on outer side

Distribution:
Found throughout in North-West Himalayas, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura
Cultivated in Himachal Pradesh between altitude 350-1400 m at Chamba, Mandi
and Bilaspur

Site factor
1.Climate:
Rainfall varies from 750-5000mm in its natural range
Temperature maximum 46°C and minimum -5°C
2.Soil:
It grows on wide variety of soils having good drainage
Sandy loam soils underlain by boulders are most suitable
It is rarely found on heavy soils such as clay or black cotton soils

54
Phenology:
Flower sporadically or gregariously
New culms arise from buds on the rhizome during August
New culms attain their full length by November-December

Natural regeneration:
Reproduction of bamboos is through rhizomes
Rhizome is underground portion of the stem, closely similar in structure to the
above ground portion of the stem i.e. culms and branches
The buds on rhizomes, which usually develop are generally one year old
It is affected by careless fellings, non observance of cutting and grazing rules are the
other causes which lead to congestion, reduce the yield as well as deteriorate the
quality of bamboos

Artificial regeneration
1.Rhizome planting
Separated out rhizomes can be planted in the rainy season
Traditional method of planting is by offsets at the onset of rainy season in June-July
and about 50% survival rate is expected
Culm is cut at a height of 1-1.5 m just above the joint and rhizome severed at the
desired oldest narrow point
A pit of 60 cm3 and spacing of 6 m × 6 m and 7 m × 7 m is desirable
The established plants yield culms of exploitable size in 4-5years
2.Single node cutting
One node cuttings, each with major length of its basal and minor of distal internode
are taken from the under one year old culms and planted in March
Before planting the cuttings, their branches are trimmed above third to fifth node
beyond the condensed basal portion
The cuttings are planted horizontally with the branch or bud upward, 10-15 cm deep
in rows and covered with soil having well decomposed farm yard manure

Mass production
A new technology for mass production of seedling developed by the FRI
Sowing seed in July in the germination trays, when the seedlings reach 3-4 leave
stage they are planted in polybags containing equal proportion of soil, sand and FYM
At the age of eight month seedlings are removed from polybags in April
Proliferated tillers of these seedlings are separated by cutting rhizome to act as
propagules
Each propagules consists of a tiller along with rhizome and roots

Economic importance
It is used for rafters, house posts, ladders, tent poles, shafts of tongas, scaffoldings
etc.
Shoots are used as vegetable and pickles
Important raw material for paper mills

55
 4.Teak, Sagwan

Botanical Name : Tectona grandis L.

Common Name : Teak, Sagwan
Family : Verbanaceae

Description:
Large deciduous tree up to 30 m high and 100 cm or more dbh
Long straight cylindrical bole up to 2/3 of the height of tree.
Deep tap root system
Bark pale brown, grey, striate, fibrous, peeling off in thin strips
Branch lets are quadrangular and channelled

Distribution:
Indigenous in both peninsulas of India, in North-Eastern drier part of Java and other
islands of Indian Archipelago
The Nilambur in Kerala, manmade teak forest are known to foresters throughout
world.
Natural habitat is between 10°N and 25°N on Indian subcontinent, in South-East
Aisa especially in India, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Combodia, Vitenam and Indonesia.
It does not occur naturally in Malaysia

Site factors

Climate
Teak naturally occurs only in monsoon climate
Temperature - Maximum 48°C, Minimum 2°C
Rainfall - 700mm to 2200 mm

56
 Altitude - 600m to 1200 msl.
Soil
It grows on variety of geological formations notably trap, limestone, granite, gneiss,
mica schist, sandstone, quartzite and clay
Well drained, well ventilated soils with high oxygen content are best
Absent in soil having pH < 6.0pH and >8.5pH

Phenology:
Leaf-fall Dry area - November to January
- Wet area - March
Leaf renewal - May
Flowering - June to September
Fruiting - November to January
Seed collection - January/February
Seed viability - more than 1 year
Seed weight - 125 to 176 per 100 gm.
Germination - 60 to 80 per cent.

Silvicultural characters
Strong light demander
Frost tender
Drought and wind sensitive
Fire resistant
Not browsed
Good coppice

Regeneration
1.Natural-
Seeds abundantly
Requires warmth and light for germination
In cool shady places the seeds may lie dormant for years
Establishment of seedlings largely depends on light
Frost sensitive nature hence seedlings are killed by frost
Light burning is beneficial
Weed growth and ground vegetation is obstacles
Especially Lantana camera discourages its regeneration
2.Artificial-
First ever plantation is carried out in Nilambur in 1842 under Conolly.
Seeds, coppice shoots, stump etc.

Seed collection and storage

Viable seeds obtained from the age of 5-6years
Twenty year old plantation regenerates naturally
Nine year old coppice raised plantation produce healthy seedlings
Seeds should be collected underneath the trees during January-March
Seeds cleaned and dried are collected in gunny bags and stored in dry areas
35 Kg seeds are required to produce stumps for one hectare area

57
Pre-sowing treatment
Necessary to break dormancy of the seed
Seed germination in the untreated seeds is totally absent or very in-significant
Following treatments require to break dormancy of the seed

Natural Weathering
Seeds are spread over raised platform in the middle of August during rains
seeds get soaked and then with sun they get dried thus getting natural weathering

Artificial weathering
Freshly collected seeds are put in gunny bags which are then submerged under
flowing water for four days. The gunny bags are taken out and spread over in
strong sun for four days. It is again submerged in water for 3-4 days following
drying. It is repeated for 3-4 times until endocarp and mesocarp get easily
cracked.

Pit method
Seeds are put in alternate layers of seeds and straw and daily watered for seven
days then dried and stored till the time of sowing.

Soaking in water
Immersion of seeds in water for number of days has hastens germination
Biological method
Burying the seeds for one year near the ant hill is reported to give better results
Chemical treatment
Soaking the seed in concentrated H2SO4 for 20 minutes and thorough washing
in running water hasten germination
Scorching
Scorching the seeds in light running fire of leaves of grass or alternatively seed picked
from plantation after a light ground leaf-fire is useful method
Cowdung
Soaking the seeds in the mixture of cowdung and water enhance germination

Nursery technique
Nursery beds are prepared one year in advanced of planting
Beds of 12 m × 1.2 m size are prepared
In moist localities raised beds are prepared while in dry localities sunken beds are
helpful for germination
Seeds are sown in the nursery bed from February-June
2.5-3 Kg seeds are required per bed
About 1200-1500 seedlings are expected

Preparation of stumps
Stumps with 1cm to 2cm diameter at collar level with about 25cm root portion and
2.5cm stem portion are most suitable

58
Plantation technique
1.Direct sowing
It is practiced very limited scale due to heavy causality
2.Entire transplanting
Dona plants are preferred in place of tree in place of pre-sprouted or normal teak stumps
The soil in dona retains moisture for comparatively longer period and keep the plant alive
Dona plants are 4-6 months old at time of planting or casualty replacement in July-August
3.Stump planting
This is the most useful and economical method for teak plantation
Stumps are plated in crow bar holes and generally buried up to the collar
In Odisha and drier part of Tamil Nadu stumps are buried up to the tip
In Madhya Pradesh in hard soil stumps are planted in 15cm diameter hole and about 30cm deep
While planting the stumps the collar is flushed with ground level

4.Pre-sprouted teak stumps

In very dry locality pre-sprouted stump planting give satisfactory results
The stumps are planted 4-6 month in advance and put in container raised on a
platform in shade and watered daily
These stumps after sprouting are planted at the onset of monsoon
The planting of sprouts is done with the ball of Earth intact in cylindrical holes

5.Polythene bag
Planting of seedling raised in polythene bags have also been tried in such cases
treated seeds are sown directly in polythene bags filled with manured soil
The bags are watered daily and planted out when seedling attains a height of 15cm

Vegetative propagation
Teak can be propagated by grafting, layering and rooting branch cutting
Among the grafting method used bud grafting is preferred as it is easy, economical
and more suitable for grafting on stumps
Grafting success depends upon age of mother plant, time of grafting and method
used

Economic importance
(i) Furniture and house construction
(ii) Ship and railway coach
(iii) Wood oil for decreasing durability of timbers

59
 5. Eucalyptus, Safeda,

Botanical Name : Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm.

Common Name : Eucalyptus, Safeda, Nilgiri
Family : Myrtaceae

Description:
It is a tall tree upto 40m high
Bole is straight and clean with whitish mottled bark
The crown is open
Juvenile leaves opposite
Adult leaves alternate
Inflorescence axillary usually seven flower umbel

Distribution
In India Eucalyptus is second most widely plated species after teak
It is distributed/planted all over India except North-eastern states
In is planted both in the forest and outside in agricultural lands, wasteland, roadsides etc.

Site factor

1.Climate
Temperature - Maximum 22°C -32°C,
Minimum 2°C-12°C
Rainfall - Upto 1500 mm

60
 Altitude - Upto 1700 m.
2.Soil:
It can be grown in wide variety of soil such as recent alluvial soil, laterite soils, sand
dunes, ravine, murum soil and sandy loam soils etc.
It can be grown in soils having pH more than 10 but growth is poor when pH
exceeds 8.5.

Phenology:
It is evergreen species
Flowering - Twice a year 1st in May-June 2nd in October-November
High number of fertile seeds was set in first flowering
Seed collection - July-August

Silvicultural characters
String light demander
Susceptible to frost because of thin bark and essential oil in the plant tissues
Good coppice
It is a wind firm in nature
Damaged by termites

1.Natural Regeneration
Very poor due to destruction of seeds by ants
Young seedlings smothered by leaf collar
Leaves are toxic and contain germination inhibitor

2.Artificial Regeneration
Seed collection and storage:
Seeds should be collected from 10year old trees. Although fertile seed is available
from young tree
In a year two collection 1st - February-March and 2nd – October-November
Capsules should be dries in shade for one day
Gently shaken to clean the shells
Dry and stored in a tins at cool dry places
3,67,400 seeds weigh one Kg

Nursery techniques:
Seed should be sown in raised nursery bed in the month of October-November or
February-March
Soil should be sterilized with Aldrex or BHC against termites
Seed should be sown 20gm/m2 of bed in lines 10cm apart and 2.5mm deep
Germination takes place within 5-15 days of sowing
60-75 seedlings are obtained from one gram of seeds
Seedlings are pricked out when they attain a height of 4-8cm
Pricking of seedling should be done in to polythene bag
Polythene bags initially should be placed in shade for few days and then shifted in
the open in sunken beds
The seedlings are hand watered for some time and later the beds may be irrigated.

61
Planting out:
The area to be planted is clear felled ploughing and properly soil working should be
done
In Terai areas of UP for the first year only cash crops are raised and plantings is
done in the 2nd year
Pit size should be 45cm3 or 30cm3
For saline and alkaline soils large pit of 60cm3 with soil replacement with good soil
are dug out at wider spacing
Planting is done in July in areas subject to South-West Monsoon
October-November in areas of North-East Monsoon
Container/bag should be removed at the time of planting
Watering and fertilizer application should be done in poor soils
Casualties are beaten up immediately after planting in the first year
In arid areas 3-4 watering in the first year produce good stock

Spacing
Spacing depends upon the objective of plantation
Spacing varies 1.8m × 1.8m – 3m × 3m
For firewood/fuelwood 1m × 1m or 1.5m × 1.5m
For pulpwood/poles 2m × 2m or 3m × 2m
For saw log 3m × 3m
For Windbreaks and shelterbelts 1.5m × 1.5m or 2m × 1m

Vegetative propagation
Clonal propagation has been attempted by means of Grafting, budding, air layering
and soft wood cutting
Propagules should be treated by IBA 10000ppm
The selected plus tree are cut at about 12cm height from the ground level
The coppice shoot are harvested between 45 days and 55 days after the tree has been cut
The cut shoot are placed in a bucket of water transplanted to the nursery
The length of cuttings vary from 10-15cm
The base of the cuttings should be treated with 200ppm solution of Benlate
Fungicide for 15-30minutes
The base up to 2cm is treated with 6000ppm IBA diluted with talc powder
The cuttings are planted in polythene tubes
The growing media is vermiculite
Cutting develop good root system within 5-6 weeks

Tending operations
Like weeding, fertilization thinning etc. Should be done time to time

Economic importance
(i) Pulp and fuel
(ii) Pole for general purposes
(iii) Leaves for oil

62
 7.
Scientific Name : Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
Common Name : Shisham, Sissu
Family : Leguminosae
Sub Family : Papilionoideae

Description:
It is a large deciduous tree with light crown having thick, rough, grey bark with shallow
broad longitudinal fissures exfoliating in irregular woody strips and scales.
It attains a height up to 30 m and a girth of 2.4 m.

Distribution:
The spp. occurs throughout the sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalayan valleys from
the Indus to Assam; usually upto 900 m, but occasionally ascending upto 1500 m.

Grow gregariously on alluvial soil along stream bank, beds and islands, and on freshly
exposed soil along roads and landscapes along with Khair.

Climate:
It grows from tropical to sub tropical climate.
Temperature - Maximum 40°C to 50°C, Minimum 4°C
Rainfall - 760 mm to 4600 mm
Altitude - Upto 1500 m.

63
Phenology:
Leaf-fall - November to December
Leaf renewal - January-February
Flowering - March/April
Fruiting - May – July
Fruit ripe - November-December
Seed collection - November-December
Seed viability - 12 - 18 months.
Seed weight - 530 / gm.
Germination - 80 per cent.

Silvicultural characters
Delbergia sissoo is a strong light demander
It is very frost and drought hardy spp.
It is wind firm in nature and sensitive to fire and browsing

Regeneration
NATURAL-
Seeds germinated during rainy season give good survival,
Seeds regenerate on newly exposed soil, along water channel, riverine tract.
ARTIFICIAL-
It is one of the easiest species to propagate through almost all the common methods
viz. direct sowing, entire transplanting, stump planting.

Seed collection and storage:

The seeds are plentiful every year, and keep viability for one year.
Fertile seeds are produced at the age of 3-4 years, but it is advisable to collect seeds
from the middle aged vigorously growing trees having straight and clean boles; on an
average a medium sized tree produces 12-15 kg pods (4-5 kg clean seed).
Time of collection varies from December to mid-February in Assam; West Bengal,
Punjab and from November to March in Bihar and Orissa.
The seed can be collected by ascending the tree or beating off with sticks.
The pods are dried in the sun for 3-4 days and stored after removing dead leaves,
foreign matter, etc.

Germination capacity and plant percent:

Germination capacity and plant percent in Delbergia sissoo are about 90 and 45 per cent
respectively.

Nursery technique
Soaked seeds germinate after 7 to 15 days.
Pricking by end of first season (18-20 cm height). 56 kg seeds are sufficient for one ha
area.

Planting technique:
Direct sowing:
Direct sowing is the easiest method to raise shisham plantations; in fact, most of the
seeds are sown in lines at the break of rains.
Distance between lines varying from 3 to 4m.


64

Entire planting:
The planting of entire seedlings being much more laborious and costly, is adopted
only in special cases such as arid areas, areas infested with tall grasses, wet sides or along
the roadsides.
Planting is generally done when the summer rains have properly set in, while the pits
may be dug sometimes earlier.
Stump planting:

Stump planting has clear advantages over either entire planting or direct sowing.
Cost of stump planting is low; planting period is extendable from July to September.
The season of stump planting would depend upon the local rainfall and availability of
artificial irrigation.
Best time for planting is the rainy season.
Stumps are spaced 1.8 m apart in lines on trenches which are 3 m apart from row to
row.

Economic importance
Furniture and house construction
Fuel and charcoal
Leaf fodder
Anti-erosion works

65
1. Babul (Acacia nilotica)
Family : Leguminosae (Mimosaceae)
Common Names : Babul, Kikar, Nalla Tumma (Telugu)
Origin : Indigenous to India

Phenology : It is a medium sized tree attaining a height of 18 m and diameter of 90 cm. It

is almost evergreen in habit it has a flattish umbrella shaped crown, feathery foliage paired
whitish long thin thorns at the base of each leaf, bright yellow sweet scented flower heads
and grey or black long flat pods with constrictions between the seeds which look like
strings of beads and characteristic feature of babul. The tree beings to flower from the age
of t here years and seeds every year thereafter. It flowers in June to September and pods
ripen in May – June. Three main varieties namely Telia, Rediana and Vamakanta babul
have been recognized in India out of which Telia is most popular since it provided less
shade to crops.

Silvicultural Characters : Babul seedlings and mature trees are susceptible to shade,
fire and frost and the tree insusceptible when moisture is limiting. It is poor coppicer but it
pollards will. Root suckers and seldom produced. It is browsed by goats, camels when it is
small but mature trees can be repeatedly lopped for regular fodder and small fuel wood. It
is moderately resistant to drought but it is a drought resistant and a tree of warm dry regions.
It prefers recent alluvial sandy loam but can grow on heavy black and clayey soils.
It is a tree of colonizer and Nitrogen fixer temperature 0o C – 50o C, Rainfall 100 – 1000 cm.

Establishment :

1. Natural regeneration : It regenerates naturally through the seed under favourable

conditions.

2. Artificial Regeneration : The babul tree can be propagated either through direct sowing or
nursery raised seedlings in poly pots.

3. Seed collection storage and planting : The ripen pods are collected form mature trees in
May – June and seed are extracted and stored after drying properly dried seed can be stored
upto 3 yeas.

For getting good germination pre-sowing seed treatment of dipping in hot water and soaking
for 24 hours is necessary of soaking, in concentrated sulphuric acid for 10 – 15 minutes and
wash minutes is required.

Planting of nursery raised seedlings is pits of 30 cm3 at a spacing of 3 x 3 meters proved

successful seed rate is 2 – 3 Kg/ha. Germination on average is 50%. Time of sowing June –
July

4. Management growth and yield : Fast growth under favourable conditions. It attains a
height of 8 – 14 metes and diameter growth of 2 – 3 cm / year is possible. Rotation of 15 – 20
years is followed and the plantations are managed by clear felling and replanting the area.
The manual increment is about 3x 3 /ha.

66
Utilisation :
1. Fuel wood : Babul is an extremely valuable fuel wood with calorific value of 4400
K.Cal/Kg. It gives charcoal of excellent quality and very popular source of fuel wood in the
Indian sub-Continent.
2. Timber : Babul wood is heavy (air dry wt. 760 Kg/M3) very hard strong tough resistant to
termites and impervious to water. It is most popular timber for carts, tool handle boats and
building purposes.
3. Fodder : Leaves and pods are widely used as fodder and constitutes the chief
diet for goats and sheep’s in arid and semi arid regions.

4. Tannins : Bark and pods are widely used in the tanning industry. Tanin content values
from 12 – 20%.
5. Gum : Babul gum is probably the earliest commercial source of gum Arabic used in the
manufacture of inks, matches, paints and confectionary.
6. Other uses : Babul is mostly suitable for planting in Tank fore shore areas and not suitable
for agro-forestry because of its shallow root system of the tree.
7. Thorny branches can be used for the protection of newly planted plant Species

2.Subabul (Leaucaena, leucocephala)

Family : Leguminosae (Horse Tamarind, Khari).
Origin : Native of Central America and has been introduced widely in many tropical
countries.

Phenology : It is a tall tree grown upto 20 meters or a shrub, less than 5 meters in height
unarmed and evergreen. It ahs feathery leaves, small white flowers and large bunches of
long flat pods each containing 15-30 seeds. Immature pods are light green ad translucent,
mature pods are brown shining with waxy cost and open spontaneously when dry.

Three types have been mainly recognised 1. Hawaiian types are short bushy trees
grow upto 5 meters and mainly grown for fuel wood. 2. the Peru types are medium tall
trees, grown upto 15 meters with extensive branching mainly grown for fodder purpose
(forage varieties) 3. The Salvador types are tall trees, grow upto 20 meters having large
leaves and pods mainly grown for timber etc. Varieties K-8, K-268, Hawaiian giants.

Silvicultural Characteristics : Leaucaena, is a light demander, fast growing, can tolerate

partial shade, but grows best in full sun. It is frost tender but can withstand drought but
prolonged drought may kill the seedlings. It is a good coppicer and pollarder and allows
repeated harvests of firewood timber and forage produces plentiful seed in first or
secondyear. It is a species of warm tropics, grow on wide range of soil types but mainly
grows on neutral soils.

Establishment :
1. Natural regeneration : Leaucaena, reproduces itself fairly through seed coppice. It seeds
profusely and the seed gets scattered under the mother tree which establishes well only under
full sun and moisture conditions.

67
2. Artificial regeneration : Leaucaena, can be raised by direct sowing of seed or by planting
container raised seedlings.

3. Seed collection and storage : It seeds twice a year July to November and February to
May. Pods are collected before they dehisce. The seeds collected after drying the pods are
liable to be attacked by stored pests for which the seeds are to be treated before storage. It can
be stored for along period of 10 years (Viable seed). The seed requires pre-sowing treatment
for quick germination which is being carried by either 1.Mechanical scarification of seed coat
2. Soaking in ordinary top water for 48 hours 3. soaking in hot water at 80o C for 2 minutes
and cooling in cooling in cool tap water for 12 hours. Seed requires inoculation with
Rhizobium at 250 g/20 kg seed. Germination capacity is 80%. A seed rate of 10-20 kg of
seed per ha. is required. A spacing of 3 x 3 meters is recommended. In the nursery the seeds
are sown in polythene bags during March – April which germinate in 4 – 6 days and the
seedlings attain plantable size by July – August.

Management growth and yield : For fire wood the plantations may be harvested in 2 -3
years rotation for timber rotation of 5 – 6 year may be followed for forage the cutting the
branches at the frequencies of 1-3 months depending upon the growth rate. Growth in
terms of height can exceed 4 m/year initially achieving 20 meters in 5-6 years. Wood yield
of 10-20 m3/ha/yr. on average under dryland situation is possible.

Utilization :
1. Fire wood : Leaucaena, wood makes excellent firewood and charcoal and the calorific
value of wood is 4200 – 4600 K.Cal/Kg of wood.

2. Timber : The wood is hard strong heavy (about 880 Kg/M3) mostly suitable for carpentry
purposes and makes cheap constructional timber and as a poles for fencing.

3. Fodder : Leaves pods and seeds are nutritious digestible and relished by cattle sheep and
goats. However a toxic alkaloid mimosine is present in the leaves of some of the varieties at
level (2-5%) that can be injurious to health of cattle. It is therefore important to select low
mimosine strains (Hawaiian giants) and supplement it with other forages. The mimosine
content can be reduced to 50% when leaves are dried at high temperature or by immersing
in ferrous sulphate solution.

4. Other uses : Its pulp is mixed with bamboo pulp for manufacture of paper, for
afforestation of denuded watersheds as wind breaks for farm and agroforestry pods yield a
dye used to colour wool cotton, fishing nets, powdered seed make good manure. The plant is
said to be a fish poision and worm repellent.

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 10

75
Bachelor of Science (Honours) Agriculture/B.Sc.(Ag.) and MBA (ABM) Part-I
Examination of the Four/Five-Year Degree Course, 2017-2018
SEMESTER-I

INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY
(HORT-112) (CODE-228)

Q. 1 Choose the correct answer and write the number of correct answer 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 in the
square given against each sub-question. 10×0.5=5.0
lgh mŸkj pqurs gq, mldh la[;k 1 ;k 2 ;k 3 ;k 4 izR;sd ds lkeus fn;s x;s oxZ esa
fyf[k,A
(i) When advance growth is very less or absent the number of seed bearer requirement is-
&
(1) More vf/kd
(2) Less de
(3) Zero “kwU;
(4) None of the above ( )
buesa lsa dksbZ ugha
(ii) The re-generation of forest obtained from seed is known as-
gS&
(1) Pure Forest “kq) ou
(2) Mixed Forest fefJr ou
(3) High Forest mPp ou
(4) Coppice Forest xqYe ou

(iii) The Indian forests are divided into how many types-

(1) 5 ikap
(2) 12 ckjg
(3) 16 lksyg
(4) 20 chl

(iv) Ravi – Multimeter is used for the measurement of-

(1) Volume of tree o`{k dk vk;ru

(2) Height of tree o`{k dh mapkbZ
(3) Age of tree o`{k dh vk;q
(4) Diameter of tree o`{k dk O;kl

76
(v) The botanical name of “flame of forest” tree is-
taxy dh vkx uked o`{k dk okuLifrd uke D;k gS\
(1) Delbergia sisso Mcyjft;k fllw
(2) Butea monosoperma cwfV;k eksuksLijek
(3) Delonex regia fMyksusDl jsftvk
(4) Tecomela undulata Vsdksesyk v.MwykVk
(vi) Forest Nursery bed prepared in water scarce areas are-

(1) Raised mBh gwbZ

(2) Flat lery
(3) Super raised mPp mBh gqbZ
(4) Sunken /kalh gqbZ
(vii) Regular Spacing is observed in-
fu;fer nwfj;k¡ ik;h tkrh gS&
(1) Monoculture Plantations ,d tkrh; IykuVs”ku
(2) Natural Forest izkd`frd ou
(3) Mixed Forest fefJr ou
(4) Pure Forest “kq) ou
(viii) Shifting cultivation is still prevalent in
?kqeqar [ksrh vc Hkh izpfyr gSA
(1) Kerala dsjy
(2) North – Eastern states mÙkj & iwohZ jkT;
(3) Gujarat xqtjkr
(4) Rajasthan jktLFkkG

(ix) Example for non-coppicer species is

dkSfil u gksus okyh iztkfr gS&
(1) Teak lkxoku
(2) Sal lky
(3) Conifers “kadq/kkjh o`{k
(4) Eucalyptus lQsnk
(x) World forestry day is observed on
fo”o okfudh fnol euk;k tkrk gSA
(1) 05 June 05 twu
(2) 10 July 10 tqykbZ
(3) 21 March 21 ekpZ
(4) 21 May 21 ebZ

Q. 2 Fill in the blanks: 10×0.5=5.0

fjDr LFkkuksa dh iwfrZ dhft, %

(i) The head quarter of ICFRE is located at……………………………………………………

vkbZ-lh-,Q-vkj-bZ- dk eq[;kYk; fLFkr gSa----

(ii) The King of Timber is known as-…………………………………………………………..

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bekjrh ydM+h dk jktk-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------dgykrk

(iii) Raising, maintaining and tending of forest crops is known as…SILIVICULURE.

taxy dk mxkuk] lkj laHkky ,oa fojyu dh izfØ;k djus dks--------------------------------------dgk tkrk Gsa

(iv) The new growth that develops in a crop before felling is known as………………………..
isM+ dks dkVus ls iwoZ ubZ o`f) fodflr gksus dks---------------------------------------------------------------------------dgrs gSA

(v) AFRI stands for……………….. JODPUR.

,-,Q-vkj-vkbZ- dk iw.kZ uke------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------gSA

(vi) …………………………is a method of raising forest crops along with agronomical crops.
ou o`{kkjksi.k ds lkFk d`f’k Qlyksa dks mxkus dh fof/k dks--------------------------------------------------------dgrs gSA

(vii) The botanical name of State tree is…………………………………………………………

jktLFkku jkT; isM+ dk okuLifrd uke----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------gS

(viii) …………………………..…….. has classified the Indian forest into different forest types.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- usa Hkkjrh; ouksa dk oxhZdj.k fd;kA

(ix) Strip of trees planted along the road sides are called as…………………………………….
lM+d fdukjs ikS/kksa dh ifV~Vdk yxkus dks -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------dgrs gSA

(x) Light demanders require………...regeneration period than that required for shade bearers.
izdk”k jksgh o`{kksa dk iqu:Riknu dky Nk;kizs{kh o`{kksa dh vis{kk------------------------------------------------gksrk Gsa

SECTION – II

Q. 3 Define the following: 5×1=5

fuEufyf[kr dks ijhHkkf’kr dhft,A
(i) Forestry okfudh
(ii) Pollarding iksykfMZx
(iii) Height classes mapkbZ oxZ
(iv) Alley cropping ,ys Qlyhdj.k
(v) Thinning fojyu

Q. 4 Differentiate the following: 2×3.5=7

fuEufyf[kr esas varj dhft,A

(i) Wind break and shelter belt. ok;q vojks/kh ,oa “ksYVj csYV
(ii) Social and Agro forestry. lkekftd ,oa “kL; okfudh

Q. 5 Write short notes/ comment/justify the following 2×6=12

fuEufyf[kr dh la{ksi esa fVIi.kh@o.kZu@O;k[;k dhft;sA

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(i) Describe different methods and formulas for calculation of volume of felled trees.
dVs gq;s o`{kksa ds vk;ru ds vkdayu dh fofHkUu fof/k;ksa ,oa lw=ksa dk o.kZu djsaA

(ii) Describe in brief about objectives, scope and constraints for artificial regeneration.
d`f=e iqu:Riknu ds mn~ns”;ks] O;kidrk ,oa cka/kkvksa dk la{ksIr esa o.kZu djsaA

Q. 6 Explain any two of the following three questions in 1- pages. 2×8=16

fuEufyf[kr rhu iz”uksa esa ls fdUgh nks dk mŸkj 1- ist esa le>kb;saA

(i) Write a detailed note on crown classification of forests in India.

Hkkjrh; ouksa ds fofHkUu N= oxhZdj.k ds fo’k; esa foLrkj ls fy[ksaA

(ii) Write in brief about cultivation practices of poplar.

iksiyj dh mRiknu i)fr;ksa dks la{ksIr esa fyf[k;sA

(iii) What do you understand by Objectives and scope of Silviculture? ou lao/kZu ds mn~ns”;ksa ,oa
O;kidrk ls vki D;k le>rs gS\

Q. 7 Explain/describe in detail any two out of the following three questions in 2-3 pages.
fuEufyf[kr rhu iz”uksa esa ls fdUgh nks dk mŸkj 2-3 ist esa le>kb;saA 2×10=20
i) (a) Write short note on MPTS.
,e-ih-Vh-,l- ij laf{kIr fVIi.kh dhft;sA
(b) Write short note on national forest policy.
jk’Vªh; ou uhfr ds ckjs esa la{ksIr esa fy[ksaA

(ii) Briefly describe about various methods of age determination of trees.

o`{kksa dh vk;q fu/kkZj.k dh fof/k;ksa ds ckjs eas la{ksIr esa fyf[k;sA

(iii) Explain about methods of obtaining natural regeneration in forests.

ouksa esa izkd`frd iqu:Riknu izkIr djus dh fof/k;ksa dks le>kbZ;aAs

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