INDIRECT EXPOSURE TO PESTICIDES: THE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF THE RESIDENTS OF SANTA

CATALINA, ILOCOS SUR

A Social Studies Research Proposal

Presented to
The Faculty of College of Teacher Education
University of Northern Philippines
Vigan City

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirement for the Degree
Bachelor of Secondary Education
Major in Social Studies

Rapacon, Marjorie D.

2024
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Title Page………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… i

Table of Contents……….……………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Chapter I: THE PROBLEM

Introduction..….….….….……………………………………………..………………………………………1

Statement of the Problem...…………………………………………………………….………….…….5

Scope and Limitations….….…………………………………….……………….…………………………6

Operational Definition of Terms…………..…...………………………………….……..….……….6

Assumptions……………………………………………………………………………………………………..7

Chapter II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Theoretical Framework…….………………………………….…………………………………………..8

Review of Related Literature………………………………….…………………………………………8

Conceptual Framework……………………………………………….. …………………………………16

Chapter III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design…..………………………………………………………………………………………….17

Population of the Study… ………...…………………………………………............................17

Data Gathering Instrument ………………………..……………………. .….........................18

Data Gathering Procedure …………………………………………….… .………………………….18

Data Analysis…………………………..……..…..……….………………….................................19

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………...................................20
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Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

Pesticides are widely known chemicals that are essential part of agricultural practices ever

since it was introduced. Unlike organic farming, the utilization of these chemicals are much

efficient, effective, and cheaper in dealing undesired organisms that kills and affects the growth

of crops, such as weeds, fungi, rodents, etc. However, due to the adaptation of the pests to these

chemicals, powerful and higher amounts are being used to protect the agricultural crops, which

raises the issue of adverse effects to human health and environment.

“What the palmerworm left, the swarming locust has eaten. What the swarming locust

left, the hopping locust has eaten” (Joel 1:4). This verse in the bible acknowledged the disturbing

impacts of pests to humans. The locust is a type pest that can cause a havoc across the world.

When huge swarms, it can potentially lead to plague. Before, most of the plagues were started

by pests, which includes the cockroaches, worms, locust, rodents, fleas, etc. Perhaps one the

most devastating plague was the bubonic plague, popularly known as the Black Death. It was

caused by a bacterium, Yersinia pestis, which spread mostly to humans by infected fleas that

travel on rodents and killed millions of people during the Middle Age. During those era, the

presence of any kind of pesticides was not readily available to control the fleas nor the rodents.

Until such time that these kinds of chemicals were introduced.

Today, pesticides are accessible worldwide, tons of them are being poured daily to the

agricultural field, killing any possible pest to swarm into the farmers’ crops. This greatly
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contributed to the huge growth of agricultural production across the world, which it minimizes

losses by protecting the crops against pests and yielding guaranteed profitable crops. Although

the intended outcomes are meet, the adverse effects to human health and the environment are

heavily evident. Yet, due to its affordability and efficiency in controlling, managing, and

eradicating pests, there is continuity of usage.

According to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2014), among the

farmers and farm workers, approximately 43% of Zimbabwean, 25% of Mexican and 23% of

Indian farmers and farm workers have been reported to suffer from work-related pesticide

poisoning. As many as 25 million farmers and farm workers suffer from mild poisoning and three

million farmers and farm workers suffer annually from serious pesticide poisoning, and resulting

in approximately 180,000 fatalities among agricultural workers annually in rural areas of

developing countries (Zhang et al., 2015). These are due to the lack of knowledge, proper

equipment, perceptions, behavior and regulation in handling pesticides.

In the year 1972 to 1973, the Philippine Government formulated and passed the Fertilizer

and Industry Authority or FIA, known as the Presidential Decree No. 135, signed by former

president Ferdinand Marcos on February 22, 1973. In spite of this, in 1977, it was replaced with

the Presidential Decree No. 1144, Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority or FPA. This just proves how

the country relies and promotes the usage of chemicals. In the study of Tirado et. Al. (2018), they

have noted that the current industrial agriculture system in the Philippines promotes the reliance

on agrochemicals, both synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, while neglecting to consider their

negative effects on the economy of local communities, human health and the environment. The

widespread use of irrigation, agrochemicals and new seeds have largely increased agriculture
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production, but this model of agricultural growth is flawed because of declining crop yields and

massive environmental impacts. The excessive and inappropriate use of chemical fertilizers in

crop soils cause land degradation and losses in soil fertility. Moreover, agrochemicals cause water

pollution that directly and indirectly affects human health. The effect of pesticide application also

affects other populations which consume contaminated food and water. Pesticide exposure can

trigger chronic eye, skin, pulmonary, neurological, and renal problems in people who manage

pesticides or are exposed to them.

Studies have also cited many pesticide pollution incidents across the Luzon Island. These

are residues of dangerous pesticides in the artesian wells around agriculture areas in Manguang

in Ilocos Norte and in other locations in Laguna and Nueva Ecija. In some wells, levels of the

pesticides Azin and Butachlor were higher than the safety limit set by the European Union (0.1

µg/L), and the maximum observed levels for other pesticides (Carbofuran, DDT, Diazinon,

Endosulfan, Endrin, MIPC, and Parathion) were also above the EU standard. Recently, researchers

at the Benguet State University have found pesticide residues of organophosphates,

organochlorines and pyrethroids in soil and vegetables grown in the Benguet municipality.

In Ilocos Sur, the distribution of such chemicals are evident, farmers from each

municipality are chosen and provided with pesticides that they can freely use on their fields. In

fact, an overview of agricultural pollution in the Philippines was conducted in 2016 and found out

that the crops, such as bitter gourd, eggplant, pechay, and tomato, have pesticides residues

within them. These crops were being sold in the public local markets. The pesticide residue

detected in the bitter gourd are the following; cypermethrin, fenvalerate, fipronil, and cyfluthrin.

On the other hand, the pesticide residue detected in the eggplant are the following;
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cypermethrin, profenofos, fipronil, chlorothalonil, chlorpyrifos, and dimethoate. The residues

found in pechay are the following; cypermethrin, profenofos, chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin,

indoxacarb, cyhalothrin, and dimethoate. Lastly, the pesticides residues found in tomato are the

following; cypermethrin, profenofos, chlorpyrifos, and fenvalerate. When prolonged exposure,

these chemicals can harm the human health and cause chronic diseases.

Similarly, the case of the municipality of Santa Catalina in the province of Ilocos Sur, where

the cases of high usage of pesticides are not foreign. The farmers in said municipality have made

use of tons of any kind of chemicals, especially when cultivating cabbage. This is due to fact that

this kind of crop can be easily swarm with pests, thus letting the farmers of no choice but to spray

pesticides more frequently with heavier dosage and harmful substances. This practice has caused

direct and indirect exposure to the farmers, residents, animals, and the environment.

Despite the abundant discoveries proving the adverse effects of pesticides, it is inevitable

as it protects and boost the crop production that supplies food for humanity. Though numerous

studies, reviews, and scientific studies on pesticides, they often focus on the effects to the

farmers and farm workers, overlooking those people residing near pesticide-treated field.

Therefore, this research aims to explore the experiences of the residents that have indirectly

expose to pesticides for decades, as it might have caused them uncomfortable living conditions,

and suffered from any kind of health issues throughout the duration of the exposure. This

research will further contribute to the enhance safety of handling pesticides in the agricultural

fields by providing awareness to the local farmers regarding to the adverse effects of indirect

exposure to these chemicals, through the use of the accounts of the residents that have

experience living in prolonged exposure. With this, the findings will help in decision-making and
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regulations to mitigate the potential health hazards associated with pesticide indirect exposure

in Cabittaogan, Santa Catalina, Ilocos Sur. In addition, this study will contribute to the fulfillment

of the Sustainable Development Goal 3 and 12, which are Good Health and Well-Being and

Responsible Consumption and Production.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to explore the prevalence of pesticide indirect exposure of the residents

in Cabittaogan, Santa Catalina Ilocos Sur.

Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions;

1. What is the profile of the participants in terms of the following;

1.1. age,

1.2. sex,

1.3. educational attainment,

1.4. occupation,

1.5. family members, and

1.6. number of years lived in the locality?

2. What are the health issues experienced by the residents after decade/s of prolonged

exposure?

3. What are the observed harmful effects of pesticides to environment?

4. How do residents cope up with the recurring issues regarding to the exposure?
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Scope and Delimitation

This qualitative research will focus on exploring the diverse experiences of the residents

in Cabittaogan, Santa Catalina, Ilocos Sur, after being indirectly expose to pesticides for decades.

The researcher will limit the study by considering 5 households with their experiences and

observations regarding the chemicals being poured in the agricultural field.

Each household will serve as one participant and will be inquired through the use of face-

to-face interviews to get to know better their viewpoints. Only the households surrounded by

the agricultural fields will be chosen due to the fact that they experience the effects of pesticides

more rather than those households that are living along the roads.

Operational Definition of Terms

Agricultural field. It refers to the field where residents are cultivating, planting and

harvesting various kinds of crops.

Lived Experiences. This refers to the length of direct observation, encounters,

participation, undergone, or lived through events of the residents’ in dealing with pesticides near

their households.

Farmers. This refers to the people who cultivates the agricultural land using heavy

dosages of pesticides or chemicals in growing their crops.

Indirect exposure. It refers to the condition of the residents wherein they are vulnerable

to the pesticides that are being poured near their households.

Pesticides. This refers to the different kinds of chemicals utilize by the farmers which they

use in agricultural field to destroy pests.

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Pests. It refers to various types of insects, animals, and plants that are detrimental to the

cultivation of crops.

Residents. This refers to the people of the Cabittaogan, Santa Catalina, Ilocos sur, whom

exposed indirectly to the utilization of pesticides as they are living near the agricultural field.

Assumptions

The study will be guided by the following assumptions:

1. The participants will answer the questions with all honesty and sincerity.

2. The data gathering instruments are valid and reliable.

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Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This section presents an in-depth discussion of theory and studies which are deemed

significant in conducting the research.

Theoretical Framework

The study is anchored from the theoretical support of Risk Perception Theory. According

to the Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, it is defined as the people’s judgements and

assessment of hazards that might pose immediate or long-term threats to their health and well-

being. It was initially developed by psychologists Paul Slovic and colleagues in the 1970s through

the psychometric diagram. Later, anthropologist Mary Douglas and political scientist Aaron

Wildavsky expanded the theory, which explains how individuals and communities evaluate risks

based on subjective factors such as emotions, personal experiences, and cultural influences.

Risk perception refers to people’s subjective judgement about the risk that is associated

with some situation, event, technology, or activity (Bohm, et. al. 2018). Also, perceived risk is a

crucial factor in the social dilemmas surrounding the risks and hazards of the environment.

People should be willing to commit to environmental behaviors when they perceive

environmental risks and become concerned about these risks (Davis et al., 2014).

This theory is relevant to the study of the lived experiences of residents after decades of

exposure to pesticides because it sheds light on how long-term exposure shapes risk perceptions.

Residents may assess the risks of pesticide use based on their health experiences, community
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values, and responses. Some may downplay the risks due to familiarity and perceived lack of

control, while others might see the risks as more severe due to observed health impacts.

Related Literature and Studies

On Pesticides

Pesticide use is viewed as an economic, labor-saving and efficient tool for pest

management and for increasing crop production (Damalas, et. al. 2015). Pesticides can help

reduce the yield losses caused by the pests (e.g. insect pests, pathogens, weeds), and to feed the

increasing world's population (Verger, et. al, 2014). Crop protection products particularly the use

of pesticides against pests is one of several factors that are contributing to the huge growth in

agricultural production. Pesticides are major inputs of the modern agricultural production, and

due to their high capability and trust worthiness for crop protection against pests and warranty

of high crop (Fan, et. al., 2015). To protect human health against vector-borne diseases, for

example, malaria, dengue, Zika fever, Chikungunya fever, and to protect home sites, storages,

lawns from weeds, pathogens and both, insect and mammal pests, pesticides are also used

(Nayak et al., 2015).

On Pesticides and Human Health

The common use of pesticide is a major challenge in trying to accomplish sustainable

agriculture, unfortunately it resulted in the contamination of all necessities of life as well as to

human health (Zhang, et. al., 2015). The mechanism of pesticides and chemicals enters the body

in 3 ways, namely: inhalation, skin absorption, and mouth (swallowing). Pesticides that enter the

human body it will affect the physiology and biochemistry in the body and damage enzymes. The
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nervous system is the target of organochlorine pesticides (Lushchak, 2018). The serious

conditions of health problems due to pesticides are determined by several factors, namely: the

type of pesticide, the use of mixing pesticides, spraying, storage, exposure time, the mechanism

of the pesticide entering the body, and pesticide levels.

According to the WHO (World Health Organization) estimates, there are 3 million cases

of pesticide poisoning each year and up to 220,000 deaths, primarily in developing countries. The

application of pesticides is often not very specific, and unintentional exposures occur to other

organisms. Young and developing organisms, are particularly susceptible to the harmful effects

of pesticides. Even very low levels of exposure during development may have adverse health

effects (Lah, 2015).

Based on scientific evidence, the real risks that pesticides pose to human health

(occupational and consumer exposure) are fully justified (Hess, et. al. 2021; Fredrich, et. al.,

2021). Pesticides can cause several adverse health effects which depend on the extent and

duration of exposure. Health effects of pesticides range from mild allergies, rashes, breathing

difficulties, neurotoxicity and reproductive abnormalities to deadly chronic diseases like cancer

(Tomer, et. al., 2015). The underlying mechanisms of these effects are genotoxic, neurotoxic, and

endocrine-disrupting actions (Monneret, et.al. 2017; Gundogan, et. al. 2018; Jokanovi’c, 2018).

Other pesticides are less toxic, but too much exposure to them also will cause harmful effects.

On Pesticides Contamination and Environment

Pesticides further cause adverse environmental effects by contaminating water, soil, and

non-target organisms, leading to a decline in biodiversity and/or loss in crop productivity (FAO,
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2021). Spraying is a widespread method of applying pesticides across extensive land areas.

However, due to factors such as wind, water runoff, and atmospheric weathering, a significant

portion of the pesticides applied (up to 95.0% of herbicides and over 98.0% of insecticides) may

not reach the intended pests (The Environmental Impact of Pesticides, 2017). Nonetheless, it

seems that the pesticides that do not reach their intended targets are dispersed throughout

ecosystems (Yildirim, 2023).

The major part of the pesticides applied in any area for a specific reason (about 99%)

remain unused and it gets mixed with air, soil, water and causes harmful effects on the people,

pets, and the environment (Aktar et al. 2019). Many pesticides are not easily biodegradable and

they remain persistent in the environment either remain on the soil surface i.e. soil

contamination or leaching through the soil to the ground water i.e. water contamination.

Through soil it may get into the air through wind and contaminate larger area i.e. air

contamination.

Pesticides contamination depend on the interactions between the physicochemical

properties (vapor pressure, stability, solubility, pKa) of the pesticide, soil adsorption and soil

persistence, the soil factors (pH, organic components, inorganic surfaces, soil moisture, soil

microflora, soil fauna), the plant species, and the climatic variation (Eleftherohorinos 2018). Also,

the toxicity and dosage application of pesticide, the weather conditions prevailing after

application, and persistency of pesticide in the environment could account for its adverse effects

on the environment.
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Soil Contamination

Soil contamination occurs when use of chemical pesticide exceeds the threshold

level. It endures for decades and possesses risk for soil conservation as well as soil health

by declining the population of beneficial micro-organisms. The famous soil scientist Dr.

Elaine Ingham says “If we lose both bacteria and fungi, then the soil degrades. Overuse of

chemical fertilizers and pesticides have effects on the soil organisms that are similar to

human overuse of antibiotics. When these pesticides are applied into the soil, they

undergo following reactions (Kalpana 2016): (a) Chemicals may vaporize and lost to the

atmosphere without any chemical changes. (b) They may absorb by soil colloids. (c) They

may leach through the soil. (d) They may undergo various chemical reactions or may

undergo microbial degradation by soil microorganisms. Soil acts as a natural sink for

various accumulating and concentrating contaminant which culminate in soil from various

sources. With time, the amount of accumulated pesticides reaches considerable

concentration and release persistent. It alters the physical, biological and chemical

characteristics of soil, thereby reducing its productivity.

Water Contamination

Water is essential for our life on earth. No living being can survive without it.

Water quality is important to support physiological activities of any biological cell. Water

contamination is the impairment in its native characteristics by addition of contaminants

to the extent that it either cannot serve for drinking purposes or to support the biotic

communities, such as fish. It is a major cause of global concern as it leads to the

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commencement of numerous fatal diseases which is responsible for the death of over

14,000 people every day (Oerke and Dehne 2014). Pesticide contamination in

groundwater is a matter of national importance because groundwater is used for drinking

water by about 50% of the world population (Agrawal et al. 2014). Especially in

agricultural areas where pesticides are more frequently used, as about 95% of the

population relies upon groundwater. Before the mid-1970s, it was thought that soil acted

as a protective layer that filter and stopped the pesticides from reaching groundwater

(Perlman 2016). Now studies have shown that pesticides can reach the ground water

aquifers from applications onto crop fields, seepage of contaminated surface water,

accidental spills and leaks, improper disposal, and even through dumping waste material

into water bodies. According to the U.S. EPA, 46 pesticides were found in groundwater in

26 states as a result of normal agricultural applications (Trautmann et al. 2014).

Air Contamination

The atmosphere is a complex system of natural gases which are essential to

support life on Earth. Pesticide contamination in atmosphere is an aspect of air pollution

that remains less documented than that of other environments. Air quality is a measure

of the amount of pollutants in our atmosphere (Singh et. al., 2018). Pesticides used in

agriculture have the potential to contaminate our atmosphere which directly affects

human, animal and plant health. Pesticide drift is the main cause of air contamination.

During this pesticide remain suspended in the atmosphere. Some pesticides remain in the

atmosphere for only a short period of time, while others can last longer. Pesticides

released into the atmosphere either settle to the ground, dissociate by sunlight and water
 14 21

in the atmosphere, or dissipate into the surrounding air and contaminate them (NPS

2016). During the time of applications, weather conditions like temperature and relative

humidity affect the spread of pesticide in air. Low relative humidity and high temperature

result in more spray evaporating. During the pesticide spray, high wind velocity increases

the spray drift and exposure. Also, pesticide applied as dust may travel with wind to other

areas as a dust particle (Singh et. al., 2018).

On Pesticides and Mitigating Strategies

The improper and uncontrolled use of pesticides poses a significant risk to human health

and cause harm to the natural surroundings (Khan et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2022). Therefore, it

is imperative that educating smallholder farmers about pesticide use and implementing

pragmatic policies to regulate the practice would curtail the inappropriate usage. This is

particularly important for smallholder farmers, who often have limited literacy, small

investments, weak extension services, and lack training and access to awareness programmes on

the safe use of pesticides (Khanal, et. al., 2016). Despite these challenges, smallholder farmers

handle significant quantities of pesticides. This challenges may be addressed by preventive

strategies which include the use of alternative sustainable agricultural practices or mitigating

strategies which are based on reducing pesticide exposure from the environment and health

safety (Tomer et al. 2015).

Thus, emphasizes the significance of improving extension programmes and utilizing peer-

to-peer communication channels to support the adoption of best practices in pesticide

management. Focused training and outreach programmes designed to enhance farmers'

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knowledge and implementation of pesticide management plans are urgently needed. These

interventions would help in reducing the dangers of pollution to the ecosystem and human health

(Orou-Seko, et. al., 2024). Environmental risks cause problems to people and usually lead to

relevant actions and preventive coping behaviors (Dominicis et al., 2015).

Synthesis

The use of pesticides is essential in agricultural systems, its often considered a quick, easy

and inexpensive solution for controlling weeds and insect pests in agricultural landscapes. When

employed in appropriate manner, they serve as a vital agricultural supply that safeguard crops

against undesirable plants, insects, germs, fungi, and rodents. Unfortunately, the indiscriminate

use of high dosage of pesticides have generated adverse health effects to those who are exposed

to it, directly or indirectly. It ranges from mild skin problems to severe effects such as cancer. In

addition to that, pesticides have contaminated almost every component of our environment.

Pesticide residues are found in soil and air, and in surface and ground water across the globe.

Pesticide contamination poses significant risks to the environment and non-target organisms

ranging from beneficial soil microorganisms, to insects, plants, fish, and birds. Contrary to

common misconceptions, even herbicides can cause harm to the environment. These problems

pose serious threats which interventions must be implemented.

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Conceptual Framework

This framework shows the interconnection of concepts between indirect exposure to

pesticides, observed health and environment adverse effects, and residents’ coping responses.

Indirect Exposure to
Pesticides

Health Issues Environmental Harm Coping Mechanisms

Figure 1. Research Paradigm

The framework centers on the effects of indirect exposure on residents in Cabittaogan,

Santa Catalina, Ilocos Sur, linking health issues, environmental harm, and coping mechanisms.

Health issues arise from prolonged exposure leading to problems in their well-being. The

exposure also results in environmental harm which further affects the living condition of the

residents. Lastly, the coping mechanisms that the residents adopt according to the risk they have

perceived on their experiences to such indirect exposure.

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Chapter III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This portion presents a discussion of the research design, the sample of the study, data

gathering tools, procedures, and data analysis that will be utilized in the study.

Research Design

This study will use a transcendental phenomenology – a sort of qualitative research that

enables the researcher to concentrate on participates’ real experiences (Neubauer, 2018). This

study aims to explore the prevalence of pesticide utilization in Cabittaogan, Santa Catalina Ilocos

Sur through the lived experiences of the residents’ indirect exposure. The study will focus on

gathering and evaluating the subjective views, observations, and experiences, which can be

utilize to get the detailed insights of the participants.

Population of the Study

The participants of the study will be composed of 5 households, one representative per

household, who have lived surrounded by agricultural pesticide-treated field in Cabittaogan,

Santa Catalina, Ilocos Sur for decade/s.

Participants will be selected for this study through careful consideration based on the

following criteria:

1. Participants must be resident of the study area.

2. Participants must have lived in the area for at least 10 years or more.

3. Participants must be 18 years old and above to provide consent and participate

in the study.

4. Participants must be living surrounded by agricultural fields.

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18

5. Participants must be willing to participate to engage in the study.

Data Gathering Instrument

The use of face-to-face and open ended interview in local dialect will serve as research

tools in which the participants will be observed and interviewed in their natural setting.

Participant observation will be voluntarily conducted privately after obtaining their consent.

The researcher will gather the data through the use of informal conversation and open-

ended questions to participants for in-depth interviews. Interviews will be used when the

researchers want to question or talk to someone and get information regarding an issue

(Merriam, 2020).

Judgmental or purposive sampling will be applied to identify the participants of the study.

The participants will be selected because they were qualified in the criteria provided by the

researcher. Furthermore, the researcher will ask permission to the participants to record and

document their interview for the purpose of transcriptions.

Data Gathering Procedure

The interview guide will be checked by an expert to make sure that the gathering

tool will be aligned and appropriate to the study. Also, the researcher will secure permission to

conduct the study.

After such, if permission will be granted, the researcher will administer personally in

gathering data from the participants of the study through the use of in-depth interview. The local

dialect will be utilized for the participants to easily grasp the questions and answer accurately.

The gathering of data will be recorded and documented.

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Data Analysis

For the analysis of this study, transcriptions of the audio recording will be done,

translations of the answers in English from the local dialect will be made; and finally, extractions

from interviews will be also done to further elicit the information obtained from the participants.

Transcriptions of the recorded interviews will be produced, which these transcript of the

interviews will be thematically analyzed and grouped into similar topics.

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