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INGLES TECNICO AERONAUTICO

PARTS OF A LIGHT AIRPLANE:

1. Propeller 12. Left Wing Flap

2. Landing Gear 13. Left Wing Aileron
3. Wing Strut 14. Door
4. Wing 15. Seat
5. Right Wing Aileron 16. Windshield
6. Right Wing Flap 17. Engine Cowl
7. Fuselage 18. Spinner
8. Horizontal Stabilizer 19. Wheel Cover
9. Fin and Dorsal 20. Landing Light
10. Rudder 21. Wing Tip Light
11. Elevator

AIRPLANE: An airplane is a vehicle heavier than air, powered by an engine, which travels through the
air by the reaction of air passing over its wings
COCKPIT: In general aviation airplanes, the cockpit is usually the space in the fuselage for the pilot
and the passengers. In commercial aircrafts it is just the pilot's compartment.
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PROPELLER: A propeller is a rotating blade located on the front of the airplane. The engine turns the
propeller which most often pulls the airplane through the air. (Part number 1)

LANDING GEAR: The landing gear, located underneath the airplane, supports it while on the ground.
(Part number 2)

WING STRUT: A Strut is a bar forming part of a framework (in this case, the wing), designed to resist
compression. (Part number 3)

WINGS: Wings are the parts of airplanes which provide lift and support the entire weight of the air-
craft and its contents while in flight. Usually they contain the fuel in tanks. (Part number 4)

AILERONS: Ailerons are the outward movable sections of an airplane's wings which move in opposite
directions (one up, one down). They are used in making turns. (Part numbers 5 and 13)

FLAPS: Flaps are the movable sections of an airplane's wings closest to the fuselage. They are moved
in the same direction (down) and enable the airplane to fly more slowly. (Part numbers 6 and 12)

FUSELAGE: The fuselage is the central body portion of an airplane which accommodates the crew and
passengers or cargo. (Part number 7)

HORIZONTAL STABILIZER: The horizontal stabilizer is the horizontal surface of the aft part of the fuse-
lage used to balance the airplane. (Part number 8)

FIN: A fin is a small flattened projecting surface or attachment on an aircraft for providing aerody-
namic stability. (Part number 9)

RUDDER: The rudder is the movable vertical section of the tail which controls lateral movement. (Part
number 10)

ELEVATOR The elevator is the movable horizontal section of the tail which causes the plane to move
up and down. (Part number 11)

WINDSHIELD: A glass screen at the front of an aircraft. (Part number 16)

ENGINE COWL: A cowl is a removable metal covering for an engine, especially on an aircraft.

SPINNER: Piece of metal that covers the propeller.

WHEEL COVER: Is a piece of metal that covers the wheels of an aircraft. It reduces the drag.

LANDING LIGHT: A light used to see the runway during landings at night.

WING TIP LIGHT: The tip is the pointed or thin end of the wing. It has a light to show the end of the
wing during night operations. The right side has a green light. The left side has a red light.

CONTROL SURFACES: Are the moveable outer surfaces of an airplane. These surfaces control the flow
of air over the various sections of the aircraft causing it to move in different ways. Inside the airplane,
pilots control the movement of the surfaces with their hands or feet by pushing, pulling or turning

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the controls to make the airplane move in the proper manner. The main moveable outer surfaces
are: ailerons, elevator and rudder. Other moveable surfaces are the flaps.

AIRPLANE PARTS AND FUNCTION:

This figure shows the parts of an airplane and their functions. Airplanes are transportation devices
that are designed to move people and cargo from one place to another. Airplanes come in many dif-
ferent shapes and sizes depending on the mission of the aircraft. The airplane shown on this slide is a
turbine-powered airliner that has been chosen as a representative aircraft.

Each major part of a fixed-wing aircraft serves an important purpose. For example, the propeller
helps move the aircraft through the air via thrust. The wings are lifting bodies that help keep the air-
craft airborne. The horizontal and vertical stabilizers contain vital control surfaces; and the fuselage is
a major structural component containing crew and passenger areas.

The importance of knowing each part is reinforced when you undergo flight training. Knowing the
function of each component allows you to understand what looks good and what might appear ab-
normal. In addition, to truly understand how an airplane flies, you must first study the major compo-
nents and the forces involved with flight. The same goes for learning about each part and how it fits
into the overall wonder of flight. Doctors study the body’s anatomy well before they begin treating
patients. So, why wouldn’t you need to know an aircraft’s anatomy before leaving the ground for the
first time?

For any airplane to fly, one must lift the weight of the airplane itself, the fuel, the passengers, and the
cargo. The wings generate most of the lift to hold the plane in the air. To generate lift, the airplane
must be pushed through the air. The air resists the motion in the form of aerodynamic drag. Modern
airliners use winglets on the tips of the wings to reduce drag.
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The turbine engines, which are located beneath the wings, provide the thrust to overcome drag and
push the airplane forward through the air. Smaller, low-speed airplanes use propellers for the propul-
sion system instead of turbine engines.

To control and maneuver the aircraft, smaller wings are located at the tail of the plane. The tail usual-
ly has a fixed horizontal piece, called the horizontal stabilizer, and a fixed vertical piece, called the
vertical stabilizer. The stabilizers' job is to provide stability for the aircraft, to keep it flying straight.

The vertical stabilizer keeps the nose of the plane from swinging from side to side, which is called
yaw. The horizontal stabilizer prevents an up-and-down motion of the nose, which is called pitch. At
the rear of the wings and stabilizers are small moving sections that are attached to the fixed sections
by hinges. In the figure, these moving sections are colored brown. Changing the rear portion of a
wing will change the amount of force that the wing produces. The ability to change forces gives us a
means of controlling and maneuvering the airplane.

The hinged part of the vertical stabilizer is called the rudder; it is used to deflect the tail to the left
and right as viewed from the front of the fuselage. The hinged part of the horizontal stabilizer is
called the elevator; it is used to deflect the tail up and down. The outboard hinged part of the wing is
called the aileron; it is used to roll the wings from side to side.

Most airliners can also be rolled from side to side by using the spoilers. Spoilers are small plates that
are used to disrupt the flow over the wing and to change the amount of force by decreasing the lift
when the spoiler is deployed. The spoilers are also used during landing to slow the plane down and to
counteract the flaps when the aircraft is on the ground.

The wings have additional hinged, rear sections near the body that are called flaps. Flaps are de-
ployed downward on takeoff and landing to increase the amount of force produced by the wing. On
some aircraft, the front part of the wing will also deflect. Slats are used at takeoff and landing to pro-
duce additional force.

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Basic components of an aircraft

FUSELAGE: The fuselage is that portion of the aircraft that usually contains the crew and payload,
either passenger, cargo, or weapons. This is the main body of an aircraft, exclusive of its tail assem-
bly, wings and engines. The term derives from a French word, “fusele”, meaning tapered, because the
fuselage is the shape of a long cylinder with tapered ends. It is conventionally made of aluminum sec-
tions that are riveted together, although newer aircraft employ non-metallic composite materials
bonded together. Most fuselages are long, cylindrical tubes or sometimes rectangular box shapes. All
of the other major components of the aircraft are attached to the fuselage.

Inside are three primary sections: the cockpit, the cabin (which often is subdivided into two or three
sections with different seating arrangements and different classes of service) and the cargo hold. The
pilots sit in the cockpit at the front of the fuselage. Passengers and cargo are carried in the rear of the
fuselage. Some aircraft carry fuel in the fuselage; others carry the fuel in the wings.

Cockpit: The cockpit is the most forward part of the fuselage and contains all the instruments needed
to fly the plane. Sometimes referred to as the flight deck, the cockpit has seats for the pilot and copi-
lot; a flight engineer on some planes; and seats for one or two observers that could be from the air-
line itself, or from the Aviation Authorities. The cockpits have hardened doors, securing them from
unauthorized persons during flight, takeoffs and landings.

Cabin: The cabin is the section of the fuselage behind (and below in the case of the double-deck Boe-
ing 747 and Airbus A380) the cockpit, where an airline carries passengers, cargo, or both. A typical
passenger cabin has galleys for food preparation; lavatories; one or more seating compartments,
closets and overhead bins, for stowing baggage, coats and other items carried onto the plane by pas-
sengers; and several doors to the outside, most of which are used only for catering and emergency
evacuations. The number of seats determines the number of exits. Small commercial jets typically
carry 50 to 100 passengers; the larger ones can carry more than 400.

Cargo Hold: This is the area of the fuselage below the passenger deck where cargo and baggage are
carried. It is basically the lower half of the fuselage cylinder. It is pressurized, along with the rest of
the fuselage, and has heating systems for areas designated for the carriage of live animals. Aircraft
also have ventilation systems that force air into these areas as well as automatic fire detection and
suppression systems. Doors in the belly of the aircraft provide access to the cargo holds. There is no
access from the cabin area.

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WING: The wing is the most important part of an aircraft since it produces the lift that allows a plane
to fly. To generate lift, the airplane must be pushed through the air. The air resists the motion in the
form of aerodynamic drag. Modern airliners use winglets on the tips of the wings to reduce drag. Like
the fuselage to which they are attached, they are conventionally made of aluminum alloy panels riv-
eted together, although newer aircraft employ non-metallic composite materials bonded together.

The wing is made up of two halves, left and right, when viewed from behind. These halves are con-
nected to each other by means of the fuselage. Most jet aircraft have swept wings, meaning the
wings are angled back toward the rear of the plane. Swept wings produce less lift than perpendicular
wings, but they are more efficient at high speeds because they create less drag. Wings are mostly
hollow inside, with large compartments for fuel.

On most of the aircraft in service today, the wings also support the engines, which are attached to
pylons hung beneath the wings. Wings are designed and constructed with meticulous attention to
shape, contour, length, width and depth, and they are fitted with many different kinds of control sur-
faces. A wing produces lift because of its special shape, a shape called an airfoil. If we were to cut
through a wing and look at its cross-section, as illustrated below, we would see that a traditional air-
foil has a rounded leading edge (forward edge of an aircraft’s wing) and a sharp trailing edge (rear
edge of an aircraft’s wing).

Definition of an airfoil

ENGINE: The other key component that makes an airplane go is its engine, or engines. Aircraft use
several different kinds of engines, but they can all be classified in two major categories. Early aircraft
from the Wright Flyer until World War II used propeller-driven piston engines, and these are still
common today on light general aviation planes. However, most modern aircraft now use some form
of a jet engine. The exact number of engines on an airplane is determined by the power and perfor-
mance requirements of the aircraft.

Most jet airplanes have two or four engines, depending on aircraft size. Some have the engines at-
tached to the rear of the fuselage. Many have them mounted on pylons, hanging below the wings.
These pylons are called nacelles. Some have a combination of both, with an engine under each wing
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and one on top of or within the fuselage at the rear of the plane. The pilots control the power pro-
duced by the engines, either directly or indirectly, through computerized controls. All large aircraft
are designed to fly safely on fewer than all engines. In other words, the remaining engine or engines
have enough power to keep the aircraft airborne until it can safely land.

Jet Propulsion: As mentioned above, some form of propulsion is required to move an aircraft through
the air and generate sufficient lift for it to fly. The earliest forms of propulsion were simple gasoline
engines that turned propellers. All modern airliners are equipped with jet engines, which are more
powerful and mechanically simpler and more reliable than piston engines. Jet engines first entered
commercial service in the late 1950s and were in widespread use by the mid-1960s.

A jet engine takes in air at the front, and compresses it into continually smaller spaces by pulling it
through a series of compressor blades. Then fuel is added to the hot, compressed air and the mixture
is ignited in a combustion chamber. This produces a flow of extremely hot gases out the rear of the
engine and creates a force known as thrust, which propels the engine (and thus the aircraft) forward.

It is the same principle that propels a balloon forward when blown up with air and released. The air
escaping from both a balloon and a jet engine creates a pressure differential between the front and
back of the enclosed space that results in forward movement. Importantly, as the hot gases pass out
the back of a jet engine, they turn a wheel known as a turbine. The turbine is connected by a center
shaft to the compressor blades at the front of the engine and thus keeps the compressor spinning
while the engine is on.

As with all combustion engines, power is increased by adding fuel to the combustion chamber. To-
day's most powerful jet engines can produce more than 90,000 pounds of thrust. Expressed another
way, each of these giant engines can lift 90,000 pounds straight up off the ground. Since aircraft rely
on their wings for vertical lift and engines only for horizontal movement, these large engines can lift
enormous amounts of weight off the ground and power aircraft at great speeds.

Types of Jets: There are three basic types of jet engines. Turbojets are engines that use exhaust
thrust alone to propel an aircraft forward, as just described.

Turbofans, or fanjets, are an improved version of the turbojet. With a larger fan at the front, the tur-
bofan pulls in more air. It also diverts some of the incoming air around the combustion chamber and
later mixes it with the hot exhaust gases escaping out the back. This lowers the temperature and
speed of the exhaust, increasing thrust at lower speeds and making the engine quieter. Hi-bypass
versions are an improved version of turbofan.

The third type is the turboprop, or propjet. It uses a jet engine to turn a propeller. Both the propeller
and the exhaust gases of the jet itself generate thrust. Turboprops are used on small, short-range
aircraft such as those often operated by regional and commuter airlines. They are efficient in these
types of operations, but less so at the high speeds and high altitudes flown by large commercial jets.

HORIZONTAL STABILIZER: If an aircraft consists of only a wing or a wing and fuselage, it is inherently
unstable. Stability is defined as the tendency of an aircraft to return to its initial state following a dis-
turbance from that state.

The horizontal stabilizer, also known as the horizontal tail, performs this function when an aircraft is
disturbed in pitch. In other words, if some disturbance forces the nose up or down, the horizontal

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stabilizer produces a counteracting force to push the nose in the opposite direction and restore equi-
librium. When in equilibrium, we say that an aircraft is in its trim condition.

The horizontal tail is essentially a miniature wing since it is also made up of an airfoil cross-section.
The tail produces a force similar to lift that balances out the lift of the wing to keep the plane in equi-
librium. To do so, the tail usually needs to produce a force pointed downward, a quantity called down
force.

VERTICAL STABILIZER: The vertical stabilizer, vertical fin or vertical tail, functions in the same way as
the horizontal tail, except that it provides stability for a disturbance in yaw. Yaw is the side-to-side
motion of the nose, so if a disturbance causes the nose to deflect to one side, the vertical tail pro-
duces a counteracting force that pushes the nose in the opposite direction to restore equilibrium.

The vertical tail is also made of an airfoil cross-section and produces forces just like a wing or horizon-
tal tail. The difference is that a wing or horizontal tail produces lift or down force, forces that are
pointed up or down from the aircraft. Meanwhile the vertical tail produces a force pointed to one
side of the aircraft. This force is called side-force.

Empennage: The empennage is the tail assembly of an aircraft, consisting of large fins that extend
both vertically – the tail and vertical stabilizer – and horizontally – the horizontal stabilizer – from the
rear of the fuselage. Their primary purpose is to help stabilize the aircraft, much like the keel of a
boat or fletching of an arrow. In addition, they also have control surfaces built into them to help the
pilots steer the aircraft. Empennage is another term sometimes used to refer to the after portion of
the fuselage plus the horizontal and vertical tails.

BASIC CONTROL SURFACES:

Aircraft control surfaces and axes of motion

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In addition to the wing and tail surfaces, aircraft need some additional components that give the pilot
the ability to control the direction of the plane.

We call these items control surfaces. The control surfaces attached to an aircraft's wings and tail alter
the equilibrium of straight and level flight when moved up and down or left and right. They are ma-
nipulated from controls in the cockpit.

The ability to change forces gives us a means of controlling and maneuvering the airplane. In some
planes, hydraulic lines connect the cockpit controls with these various exterior panels. In others, the
connection is electronic, called fly-by-wire.

ELEVATOR: The elevators are panels attached to the trailing edge of an aircraft's two horizontal stabi-
lizers, also part of the tail assembly or empennage. It can be deflected up or down to produce a
change in the down force produced by the horizontal tail. The angle of deflection is considered posi-
tive when the trailing edge of the elevator is deflected upward. Such a deflection increases the down
force produced by the horizontal tail causing the nose to pitch upward.

The elevators control the pitch of an aircraft, which is the movement of the nose up or down. They
are used during flight and are manipulated by pulling or pushing on the control wheel or side-stick
controller in the cockpit.

RUDDER: The rudder is a large panel attached to the trailing edge of a plane's vertical stabilizer in the
rear of the plane. It can be deflected to either side to produce a change in the side-force produced by
the vertical tail. The angle of deflection is usually considered positive when the trailing edge of the
rudder is deflected towards the right wing. Such a deflection creates a side-force to the left which
causes the nose to yaw to the right.

It is used to control yaw, which is the movement of the nose left or right, and is used mostly during
takeoffs and landings to keep the nose of an aircraft on the centerline of the runway. It is manipulat-
ed via foot pedals in the cockpit. Jet aircraft also have automatic yaw dampers that function at all
times to minimize side-to-side oscillations and ensure a comfortable ride.

AILERON: The ailerons are panels built into the trailing edge of the wings. They are deflected in oppo-
site directions (one goes trailing edge up, the other trailing edge down) to produce a change in the lift
produced by each wing.

On the wing with the aileron deflected downward, the lift increases whereas the lift decreases on the
other wing whose aileron is deflected upward. The wing with more lift rolls upward causing the air-
craft to go into a bank. The angle of deflection is usually considered positive when the aileron on the
left wing deflects downward and that on the right wing deflects upward. The greater lift generated
on the left wing causes the aircraft to roll to the right.

Like the elevators, they are used during flight to steer an aircraft and are manipulated by turning the
control wheel or side-stick controller in the cockpit to the left or right. Thus, if a pilot rotates the con-
trol yoke or stick, to the left, the left aileron deflects upward and the right aileron defects downward,
causing the aircraft to roll, or bank, to the left.

The effects of these control surfaces and the conventions for positive deflection angles are summa-
rized in the following diagram.

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Aircraft control surfaces and positive deflection angles

ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS:

We've already seen the major parts of a typical plane, but a few important items were left out for
simplicity. Let's go back and discuss a few of these items.

Components of an aircraft
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The other major control surfaces are the flaps and slats, both designed primarily to increase the lift of
the wings at the slow speeds used during takeoffs and landings. When extended, they increase lift
making the surface area of the wings larger and accentuating the curve of the wings. Flaps also are
commonly deployed during final approach to increase lift, which provides control and stability at
slower speeds. The pilots control flap and slat settings, although automatic extension/retraction sys-
tems are sometimes provided to protect flight and structural integrity.

FLAP: Flaps are usually located along the trailing edge of both the left and right wing, typically in-
board of the ailerons and close to the fuselage. Flaps are similar to ailerons in that they affect the
amount of lift created by the wings. However, flaps only deflect downward to increase the lift pro-
duced by both wings simultaneously. Flaps are most often used during takeoff and landing to in-
crease the lift the wings generate at a given speed. This effect allows a plane to takeoff or land at a
slower speed than would be possible without the flaps.

SLATS: In addition to flaps on the trailing edge of a wing, a second major category is flaps on the lead-
ing edge. These leading-edge flaps, more often called slats, are also used to increase lift.

SPOILERS: Spoilers are panels built into the top surfaces of the wings and are used principally during
landings to spoil the lift of the wings and thus keep the aircraft firmly planted on the ground once it
touches down. They also can be used during flight to expedite a descent or combined with aileron
deflections to improve controllability.

CABIN & COCKPIT: Sometimes these two terms are used synonymously, but most of the time the
term cockpit is applied to a compartment at the front of the fuselage where the pilots and flight crew
sit. This compartment contains the control yolks (or sticks) and equipment the crew use to send
commands to the control surfaces and engines as well as to monitor the operation of the vehicle.
Meanwhile, a cabin is typically a compartment within the fuselage where passengers are seated.

LANDING GEAR: The landing gear, the undercarriage assembly that supports an aircraft when it is on
the ground, consists of wheels, tires, brakes, shocks, axles and other support structures. Most planes
today use what is called a tricycle landing gear arrangement. This system has two large main gear
units located near the middle of the plane and a single smaller nose gear unit near the nose of the
aircraft. Virtually all jet aircraft have a nose wheel with two tires, plus two or more main gear assem-
blies with as many as 20 tires.

The landing gear is usually raised and lowered hydraulically and fits completely within the lower fuse-
lage when retracted. Aircraft tires are filled with nitrogen rather than air because nitrogen, aside
from being inert, does not expand or contract as much as air during extreme temperature changes,
thus reducing the chances of a tire blowout.

TRIM TAB: The above diagram illustrates a "trim tab" located on the elevator. These control tabs may
be located on other surfaces as well, such as a rudder control tab or a balance tab on the aileron.
Nonetheless, the purpose of all these tabs is the same. In the previous section, we discussed that the
horizontal stabilizer and elevator are used to provide stability and control in pitch. In order to keep a
plane in a steady, level orientation, the elevator usually has to be deflected by some small amount.
Since it would be very tiring for a pilot to physically hold the control stick in position to keep the ele-
vator at that deflection angle for an entire flight, the elevator is fitted with a small "tab" that creates
that elevator deflection automatically. The trim tab can be thought of almost as a "mini-elevator." By
deflecting the tab up or down, it increases or decreases the down force created by the elevator and

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forces the elevator to a certain position. The pilot can set the deflection of the trim tab which will
cause the elevator to remain at the deflection required to remain trimmed.

COCKPIT COMPARTMENTS:

The most obvious features in a cockpit are the seats for the pilots and the instrumentation panel.
However, you will also be able to find stowage areas (e.g. for documents, fire extinguishers, clothing),
as well as the pedestal, side consoles, a third (or jump) seat and access to electric and electronic
compartments.

Cockpit enclosure: This is a typical layout for an aircraft cockpit. Yet, the design may change depend-
ing on manufacturers' preferences and type of aircraft.

Flight deck: The flight deck comprises the main displays and controls for flying the aircraft, as well as
their location in the cockpit environment. A typical airliner will have the main displays in the instru-
mentation panel, in front of the pilots, and the controls around him (central pedestal and side con-
soles) and above him (overhead panel).

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Control column: A yoke is, perhaps, the prototypical flight control, positioned right in front of each
pilot. It controls pitch (nose up/down via pull/push inputs) and roll (left/right bank via left/right turn
inputs), and may control trim, as well. However, pitch and bank can also be controlled via a stick, as
in some Airbus's models.

Rudder pedals: They are positioned on the floor in front of the pilots, and act on the rudder, at the
tail of the aircraft. They control jaw (right/left movement via push inputs on the right/left pedal)
while flying, as well as steer the aircraft on the ground.

Instrument panel: The main instrument panel holds the most important flight displays regarding both
flight performance and aircraft status.

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Pedestal: It normally contains the throttle and other engine controls, input keyboards for the naviga-
tional system, etc.

Side consoles: They are used for placing the side stick, communication instruments, documentation,
etc, depending on the type of airplane.

Other compartments: E.g. accessories and maintenance panel.

Overhead panel: It contains miscellaneous controls and features not directly involved in flying. E.g. air
conditioning, anti-ice controls, cabin pressurization controls, oxygen controls, etc.

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FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS:

Most regulated aircraft have these flight instruments:

ALTIMETER: The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea level by measuring the difference
between the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pres-
sure obtained through the static system.

It is adjustable for local barometric pressure that must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude
readings. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand as the static pressure drops therefore causing
the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite occurs when descending.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR: The attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon) shows the aircraft's
attitude relative to the horizon. From this, the pilot can tell whether the wings are level and if the
aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon.

This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility.
Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.

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AIRSPEED INDICATOR: The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed (usually in knots) relative to
the surrounding air. It works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot tube.

The indicated airspeed must be corrected for air density (which varies with altitude, temperature and
humidity) in order to obtain the true airspeed, and for wind conditions in order to obtain the speed
over the ground.

MAGNETIC COMPASS: The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. While
reliable in steady level flight, it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, descending, or
accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field. For this reason, the heading indicator
is also used for aircraft operation.

For purposes of navigation it may be necessary to correct the direction indicated (which points to a
magnetic pole) in order to obtain direction of true north or south (which points to the Earth's axis of
rotation).

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HEADING INDICATOR: The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG; sometimes
also called the gyrocompass, though usually not in aviation applications) displays the aircraft's head-
ing with respect to magnetic north.

Principle of operation is a spinning gyroscope, and is therefore subject to drift errors (called preces-
sion) which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass. In
many advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft), the heading indicator is replaced by a Hori-
zontal Situation Indicator (HSI) which provides the same heading information, but also assists with
navigation

TURN INDICATOR: The turn indicator (also known as turn and slip) displays direction of turn and rate
of turn. Internally mounted inclinometer displays 'quality' of turn, i.e. whether the turn is correctly
coordinated, as opposed to an uncoordinated turn, where in the aircraft would be in either a slip or a
skid.

The original turn and bank indicator was replaced in the late 1960s and early '70s by the newer turn
coordinator, which is responsive to roll as well as rate of turn. The turn and bank indicator is seen
typically in aircraft manufactured only prior to that time, or in gliders manufactured in Europe.

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR: The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer). Senses changing in the air
pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute,
meters per second or knots.

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Additional panel instruments that may not be found in smaller aircraft

COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR: The CDI is an avionics instrument used in aircraft navigation to de-
termine an aircraft's lateral position in relation to a track, which can be provided by a VOR or an In-
strument Landing System.

This instrument can also be integrated with the heading indicator in a horizontal situation indicator.

RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR: An RMI is generally coupled to an automatic direction finder (ADF),
which provides bearing for a tuned Non-directional beacon (NDB).

While simple ADF displays may have only one needle, a typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF
receivers, allowing for position fixing using one instrument.

LAYOUT:

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Six basic instruments in a light twin-engine airplane arranged in a "basic-T". From top left: airspeed
indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed indica-
tor

Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments that give the pilot information
about the aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and altitude.

T ARRANGEMENT: Most aircraft built since about 1953 have four of the flight instruments located in
a standardized pattern called the T arrangement.

The attitude indicator is in the top center, airspeed to the left, altimeter to the right and heading in-
dicator under the attitude indicator. The other two, turn-coordinator and vertical-speed, are usually
found under the airspeed and altimeter, but are given more latitude in placement.

The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel, often on the windscreen centerpost. In
newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments the layout of the displays conforms to the basic T ar-
rangement.

PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF THE AIRPLANE:

The airplane has different systems, such as, Fuel System, Electrical System or Hydraulic System. A
Fuel system provides the fuel to the engines. It consists of fuel tanks, pumps, lines or pipes and liqui-
dometers.

An Electrical System provides AC (Alternating Current) and DC (Direct Current) to the airplane. A de-
vice uses either AC or DC, not both. One kind of current can be changed to the other with special
equipment. The principal components are: battery, generator, alternator and an auxiliary power unit
(APU).

A Hydraulic system performs work by the use of the fluid under pressure. Consists of a reservoir,
where the hydraulic fluid is contained, a pump, lines or pipes for moving fluid, and the actuating cyl-
inder (device that extends or retracts when pressure is applied). They may move flaps, landing gears,
controls, doors, etc.

AIRPLANES: HOW THEY FLY?

One of the first things that cabin attendants have to learn is how and why airplanes fly. Both in train-
ing school and then later in actual flight, they will become familiar with the theory of flight and the
types of aircraft that the airline uses.

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A basic understanding of the principles of flying is necessary because passengers frequently ask ques-
tions about this subject, and they expect the cabin attendants to be able to answer them.

Certain laws of nature are utilized in flight. The first requirement is the appropriate flying shape, or
airfoil, which is commonly called the wing. The aircraft is supported by the earth's atmosphere. The
air is really a mixture of gases that have mass and weight but no shape.

The forces that act on the airplane in flight are: Weight, Lift, Thrust, and Drag. Weight refers to the
force of gravity that acts on the plane and everything in it. In order to fly, the plane must create a
force stronger than the force of its own weight. This is called lift.

The lift is produced by the movement of the air around the wing as the plane moves through it. When
the wing moves through the air quickly, a low-pressure area vacuum is created on top of the wing,
and a high pressure or normal area is created under the wing. It is like a cushion of air on which the
plane rests and stays aloft during flight.

An airplane propelled by the thrust of its jet engines can be thought of as flying on this cushion of air.
Drag is the total resistance of the air to the aircraft passing through it. It may occur when the wing
moves through the air to create lift, or it may occur when the landing gear is lowered.

The pilot has controls that enable him to operate the plane as it moves through the air. He can cause
it to ascend, descend, or remain level He can also make turns in the air.

This is called banking. The controls utilize the forces of the air by making slight adjustments or chang-
es in the wings or the tail. When the flaps-the hinged sections of the wing-are raised or lowered by
the pilot, they can cause the aircraft to increase lift, decrease landing speed, and so forth. Similarly,
changes in the tail of the aircraft cause the nose to turn to the right or the left.

Weather and atmospheric factors also affect flight. A headwind, or wind blowing against the nose of
the plane, will decrease speed. A tailwind will have the opposite effect. Altitude also affects flight

There is a huge river of wind that circles the globe generally from west to cast at anywhere from
25,000 to 50,000 feet above the surface of the earth. This is called the Jet Stream. As much as two
hundred miles an hour may be added to the speed of a plane flying west to east within the Jet
Stream.

Many planes are identified by manufacturing company and model number in a kind of code that
identifies the size, type of plane, passenger capacity, and other information.

For example, the Airbus A-380 is a double-deck, wide body, four engine jet airliner. It can carry up to
853 passengers in all-economy class configurations. Its cruising speed is 560 miles per hour (900
km/h), and the maximum operating range is 8,300 nautical miles (15.400 kilometers).

AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION

The pattern of seats, cargo partitions, and other items that specified for a particular airplane, flight,
or type of service is called “configuration”.

There is usually a seating chart with the names of the passengers for the convenience of the flight
service crew, as well as for record-keeping.
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The seats have both numbers and letters. In many planes, the letters begin with "A" on the left side
of the cabin with the highest letter on the right side of the cabin nearest the window. Incidentally,
airline vernacular uses the terms port and starboard to indicate left and right, respectively.

On many aircraft, the rightmost seats have letter designations HJK, skipping the letter I. This is be-
cause each seat has a row number followed by letter. Letters that confuse with numbers must be
avoided. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) was the first to implement this, avoiding I (1), O (0) and
S (5). The remaining letters are called the DEC alphabet.

Occasionally, aircraft with a seating structure of 2+2 may letter the seats as "ACDF" to keep with the
standard of A/F being window and C/D being aisle on short-haul aircraft (which generally have 3+3
seats).

In First and Business class cabins, the seat letters for the window seats will typically be the same as in
coach, with some letters skipped in between as there are fewer seats per row. For example, if econ-
omy cabin is ten across, labeled ABC-DEFG-HJK, the Business Class cabin might be labeled AC-DG-HK
for a six across layout, with A-DG-K for a four across First Class.

One notable exception to this is Delta Air Lines, who uses sequential letters regardless of cabin layout
on all aircraft (AB-CD-EF in Business Class and ABC-DEF-GHJ in Economy).

Some airlines omit the row number 13. For example Lufthansa, reputedly because of a widespread
superstition that the number 13 is unlucky. Emirates used to have a row 13, but on their latest A380
aircraft have removed it. British Airways are less superstitious, and their seat map for A320 aircraft
shows a row 13.
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Like many other expressions in airline terminology, they are terms that have been used on ships hun-
dreds of years. For convenience, the seats may be referred to as board or outboard, this designates
their position relative to aisle or window. Inboard refers to the engines closest to the fuselage or the
seats closest to the aisle, outboard refers to the engines farthest from, the fuselage or the seats clos-
est to the windows.

In first class, some airlines mark each seat with the name of the passenger for whom it has been re-
served. The abbreviation for passengers is PAX, and first class and economy class are designated by
FICL and EY respectively.

The stewardess-in-training has many opportunities to become familiar with the aircraft even before
her first flight. An important point of training for most airlines is the aircraft mock-up, which is a rep-
lica of the interior of an airplane, complete with galleys, seats, and other equipment.

Another aspect of the aircraft and its equipment that the flight service crew must be thoroughly fa-
miliar with is the emergency equipment. This is a very complex network of equipment to be used only
in specific kinds of emergencies. The introduction to and familiarization with emergency procedures
is probably the most important part or stewardess training.

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VOCABULARY:

THE PLANE - SPECIAL TERMS

Ailerons: Surface used to keep the wings level and are also used when the plane turns
Aircraft: Any type of machine that can be used for flight in the air
Airspeed: A short way of saying airspeed indicator, which measures speed through the air.
Air Intake: A hole or opening that points forward and takes in au for the engine
Alternator: An engine-driven device for producing Alternating Current (AC).
Altimeter: An instrument in the airplane for measuring altitude.
APU: Auxiliary Power Unit. Device to provide energy when the engine is not functioning.
Artificial horizon: an instrument in an airplane showing its attitude, that is, the position of the air-
plane's wings and fuselage in relation to the earth, also frequently called an attitude indicator.
Attitude indicator: Same as artificial horizon.
Auto-pilot: A device for automatically maintaining desired attitudes.
Battery: A device that stores electrical energy.
Directional gyro: A flight instrument stabilized by a gyroscope that shows the direction of flight
DME: Distance Measuring Equipment.
Empennage: The tail of the aircraft
Engine: The source of power that makes an aircraft fly it is never called a motor. The engine uses gas-
oline or a similar fuel. To burn the fuel, the engine also require a great amount of air
Elevators: Movable horizontal control surface on the tail, used to control climb or descent.
Flight compass: An abbreviation for the magnetic compass, which points to the earth magnetic north.
Flaps: Part of the aircraft, which increases lift for take off or landing.
Fuselage: The central body of the aircraft. Consist of the flight deck and the cabin.
Galley: The kitchen on a ship or aircraft.
Generator An engine-driven device for producing Direct Current (DC),
Heading indicator: Same meaning as Directional gyro.
Landing gear: The wheels of the aircraft, consists of main gear and nose gear.
Main Gear: The wheels under the wings or the aircraft, plus the parts that fasten them to the wings
or fuselage.
Nacelle: The house of the engine.
Navigation Lights: Small lights at the end of each wing, on the tail, and sometimes on the fuselage.
The navigation lights assure that other aircraft can see the plane at night. The light on the left wing is
red. The one on the right wing is green. The others are white.
Nose Gear: Wheel under the nose of the aircraft, plus the parts that fasten it to the fuselage.
Plane: An aircraft with wings and one or more engines. The word airplane is used in informal conver-
sation, and the word aircraft is used in formal and informal speech and also in writing.
Post lights: Small lights on the panel for instrument illumination
Propeller: Two or more blades fixed to a central bar that is turned at high speed by air engine
Radar: (Radio and detection ranging). An electronic device that uses reflected radio waves to detect
and measure the location of other planes. It can also detect the location of the ground and measure
the plane's altitude above the earth. Radar serves as "eyes" when human eyes cannot see because of
darkness, clouds, or fog.
Radio: An electronic device used for speaking to other planes or to personnel on the ground. All air-
crafts have radios, since they are necessary for communication with control towers and other sta-
tions on the ground.
Rudder: Flat piece hinged vertically on the tailplane of an aircraft, for controlling movement about
the vertical axis.
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Spoiler: A device over the wings used to destroy lift
Stabilizer: Horizontal and vertical fixed control surfaces on the tail.
Stable: Steady, in a condition to hold an attitude without effort by the pilot

FLYING MANEUVERS - SPECIAL TERMS

Approach: The part of the flight in which the plane comes near the airport to end the flight.
Climb: The second put of a flight is the climb. It begins immediately after the takeoff. During the
climb, the plane goes up to the height at which it will cruise.
Cruise The main part -and the longest part of the flight, when the aircraft is flying straight and level,
usually to go somewhere. From the end of the climb until the plane begins to go down again (de-
scent), the plane is cruising. The speed at which it flies is called its cruising speed.
Descent: The part of the flight in which the plane comes down from the cruise to end the flight. It is
also sometimes called the letdown.
Flight: If a plane is even one inch above the ground, it is in flight. A flight is a trip by plane, starting
from the exact time the aircraft begins to fly and lasting until its wheels touch the ground again.
Knot: The unit of speed for aircraft and ships. A knot is one nautical mile per hour. One knot equals
1.15 statute miles per hour, or 1.85 kilometers per hour
Preflight Inspection: Examination of an aircraft before flying it. The preflight inspection is often called
the preflight check or simply the preflight.
Stall: Loss of control in an aircraft caused by trying to climb too steeply or too slowly.
Take Off. To leave the ground and begin to fly. The take off is the beginning of a flight.
To Bank To roll the plane sideways a little; to raise one wing and lower the other. When you bank,
the wings are not level; the plane is in a bank. You must bank when you turn a plane The ailerons
make the plane bank.
To Check: To inspect or examine. A checklist is a printed list of things to inspect. It also specifies the
order in which they should be inspected.
To Retract the Gear: To raise the wheels (the gear) up into the plane. You retract the gear a few sec-
onds after the takeoff and lower them again before the landing. The full name for the gear is the
landing gear.
To Land: To bring the aircraft back to the ground. Planes almost always take off and land on a run-
way. The landing includes the final approach and the touchdown; that is, it includes the final descent
until the plane's wheels touch the runway.
Traffic Any plane or planes flying newt to an airport. The term is also used to refer to any other plane
you can see while you are in flight, or which might cross your path in the air.
Trim: Adjust the controls for hands-off fly.

COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT - SPECIAL TERMS

Aircraft Commander: The man who is in charge of the aircraft, the flight, and the people on it.
Aircrew: All personnel on the aircraft who are responsible for accomplishing the mission. They are
also sometimes called crewmembers.
Announcement Handbook A book containing the announcements that are read to passengers at
specified times The handbook is kept aboard the aircraft The announcements are usually routine in
nature and deal with greetings, notices of meal and cocktail service, and so forth. They also deal with
emergency procedures or other special instructions. On international airlines, the announcements
are in English and other languages appropriate to the flight and the airline.
Bassinet: A special cradle carried aboard the aircraft. It can be attached to the cabin seat with special
fittings.

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Bulkhead: The partition between two sections. It is movable. It also separates the flight deck from
the cabin and the galley from the rest of the cabin.
Cabin: The passenger section of the aircraft. It is divided into sections, the First Class, Business and
the Economy Class.
Call Button: The button that the passenger presses in order to call the flight attendant to his seat if
he needs something. The button is located overhead on some aircraft and in a panel on the armrest
in others. A light above the seat goes on when the button is pressed.
Cockpit: The space in the fuselage of a plane where the pilot sits. Sometimes the flight deck is called
the cockpit.
Copilot, First Officer or Second Pilot: A man trained as a pilot who assists in flying. He sits in the right
seat on the cockpit
Crew: The people who work on the aircraft. When it is in flight, the pilot, copilot, navigator, and so
on, as well as the flight attendants who serve in the passenger compartment are called the crew. The
larger the plane, the larger the crew will be.
Crew Change Point: The place at which different crews replace the cabin and cockpit crews on a
flight. The original crews proceed to a hotel for food and rest for at least twelve hours, in most cases,
before they resume flying. Meanwhile, the original flight continues with the new crews on board.
Currency Money: That is, money in actual use, which would include bills, coins, and (usually) travel-
ers' checks, but not personal checks, letters of credit, and so on. Many countries control the amount
of currency that can be brought in or taken out of the country.
Customer Service Representatives: The airline agents who assist the passengers on the ground at the
airport. They do everything from checking them in for the flight, to helping them after arrival. They
are also called airport passenger service agents or simply passenger service agents.
Customs: Taxes on articles or merchandise brought into a country. The tax itself is called a duty. Most
arriving international passengers must make a customs declaration and have their baggage inspect-
ed. Many international airports have shops where duty-free merchandise may be bought.
Domestic vs. International: A domestic passenger is traveling entirely within one country. An interna-
tional passenger is traveling between two or more different countries.
ETA: The abbreviation for “Estimated Time of Arrival”.
ETD: The abbreviation for “Estimated Time of Departure”.
Flight Deck: The area in which the pilot and copilot sit. In some large aircraft, the navigator and other
members of the aircrew also sit on the flight deck.
IFR: Instrument Flight Rules. When the weather is bad and the aircrew cannot see the ground, they
must fly by the rules of instrument flight. In other words, they must use the instruments of the panel
to determine where to fly the plane. For example, IFR conditions are weather conditions that require
a pilot to use Instrument Flight Rules, and an IFR day is a day with bad weather.
Interphone: Phone on the plane by which the cabin crew can talk with the cockpit crew.
Kilograms/Pounds: Weight allowances for baggage are usually given in kilograms for a first-class pas-
senger the allowance is thirty kilograms; for an economy passenger it is twenty kilograms. There are
2.2 pounds in a kilogram; therefore, the allowances in pounds are sixty-six for first class and forty-
four for economy. The abbreviation for kilogram is K The abbreviation for pound is Lb.
Life Jackets Demonstration: Life jackets used for showing the passengers how to put on and inflate
their own life jackets. On American flag-carriers, this is done at the beginning of each flight over wa-
ter, as required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
Navigator: The crewmember who calculates the position of the aircraft, its direction and speed, and
advises the pilot on such matters. Nowadays is not necessary due to the navigation and communica-
tion advances in aviation.
Overweight. More baggage than is allowed according to the weight allowance permitted by the pas-
senger's ticket. Airlines can (and sometimes do) charge for overweight baggage.

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Purser's Log: Record of the flight in which all-pertinent information about the service is recorded,
including the purser's evaluation of the quality of service.
Spray Announcement: In some countries, spraying the cabin against insects is required when the
plane lands and before the door is opened. If so, there is a brief standard announcement to let the
passengers know what is happening.
Stowaway: A person who boards the aircraft illegally and attempts to hide somewhere on board for
the purpose of getting a free ride to his destination Flight service personnel check the aircraft for
stowaways at the beginning of each flight.
Transfer Counter: An airline counter for passengers who are making a connecting flight on a different
airline from the one on which they arrived. It is sometimes called an interline counter.
Transit: A transit passenger is one who is stopping at an airport that is not his destination. For the
international transit passenger stopping at an airport in a foreign country, there are usually special
areas so that he will not have to go through Passport and Customs formalities. These areas are usual-
ly called transit lounges.
VFR: Visual Flight Rules These rules are used when flying in clear weather, when the pilot can easily
see other traffic and the ground. The government determines visual Flight Rules and Instrument
Flight Rules.

THE HANGAR - SPECIAL TERMS

The hangar is a garage for an airplane. Some buildings on the line (flight line) provide for the repair of
aircraft, radios, for the issue of personnel flight clothing and equipment, and for the issue of fuel and
oil. The one large enough to hold several aircraft during inspection and repair is the hangar. There we
might find:

Drill: Tool or machine for making holes.

Fillets: That covers something, the covering.
Inspection Checks: Official examination. Visit to judge the quality of the machine
Jack: A device for lifting off the ground anything of heavy weight, such as a car.
Longerons: Is an important part of the structure of the airplane. With the fibs are strongest parts of
the fuselage and wings
Overhaul: Examine thoroughly and repair if necessary. Thorough examination and repair, if is neces-
sary.
Ribs: Curved rods used for strengthening a framework.
Rivets: Metal pins for fastening metal plates, its end being hammered flat after fixing so that they
spread and hold firmly.
Skin: Outer surface built over a framework or solid inside. Aircraft wings with metal or cloth sins

WEATHER – SPECIAL TERMS

Meteorologist: A scientist who studies and predicts the weather. Meteorology is the science of the
weather.

Referring to Winds:

Calm: The absence of wind.

Clear air turbulence: A special kind of turbulence, wich has no clouds.
Crosswind: A wind blowing across one’s direction of travel.
Drift: Deviation from an intended course because of currents of winds.
Gusts: A brief, strong rush of wind.
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Headwind: A wind blowing from directly in front.
Tailwind: A wind blowing in the direction of travel of the aircraft.
Turbulence: Relating to or denoting irregular and disordered flow of fluids (especially wind).
Wind shear: Variation in wind velocity along a direction.

Referring to clouds:

A bank of clouds: A set of similar clouds grouped together in rows.

Broken: The clouds are spread out.
Ceiling: The maximum altitude that an aircraft or a cloud can reach.
Cirrus: Cloud forming wispy streaks at high altitude.
Cumulonimbus (CB´s): Cloud forming a towering mass with a flat base at fairly low altitude and often
a flat top, as in thunderstorms.
Overcast: Cloud covering a large part of the sky.
Storm cells: A small group forming a nucleus of storm activity.
The tops: The highest or uppermost part of a cloud.

Referring to surfaces:

Damp: Moisture in the air, on a surface, or in a solid, typically with detrimental or unpleasant effects.
Flooded: An overflow of a large amount of water over dry land.
Standing water: Water that still in a surface.
Pools of water: A small, shallow patch of liquid lying on a surface.
Wet: Cover o saturated with water.

Referring to visibility:

CAVOK: Abbreviation for “Ceiling and Visibility OK”, means good conditions to operate an aircraft.
Fog: A cloud of tiny water a droplet in the atmosphere at or near the earth’s surface, which obscure
or restricts visibility.
Haze: A slight obscuration of the lower atmosphere, typically caused by fine suspended particles.
Mist: A cloud of tiny water droplets in the atmosphere at or near the earth’s surface, limiting visibility
to a lesser extend than fog.

Referring to precipitation:

Drizzle. Light rain falling in very fine drops.

Freezing rain: Consisting of droplets that freeze rapidly on contact with a surface.
Frost: A deposit of small white ice crystals formed on the ground or other surfaces when the temper-
atures fall below freezing.
Hail: Pellets of frozen rain in shower from cumulonimbus clouds.
Icing: The formation of ice on a vehicle or in an engine
Rain: The condensed moisture of the atmosphere falling visibly in separate drops.
Scattered showers: A small, dispersed amount of rain or drizzle
Sleet: Rain containing some ice, or snow melting as it falls
Slush: Partially melted snow or ice.

Referring to storms:

Hurricane: A storm with a violent wind, a particular a tropical cyclone in the Caribbean
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Lightning: The occurrence of a brief natural high-voltage electrical discharge between a cloud and the
ground or within a cloud, accompanied by a bright flash and often thunder.
Sandstorm: A strong wind in a desert carrying clouds of sand.
Thunder: A crashing noise heard after a lightning flash due to the expansion of rapidly heated air
Tornado: A mobile, destructive vortex of violently rotating wings having the appearance of a tunnel-
shape cloud.
Typhoon: A tropical storm in the region of the Indian or Western Pacific oceans.
Waterspout: A stream of liquid issuing with great force.

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