Introduction:

In the evolving landscape of global politics, China's transformation under the leadership
of Xi Jinping represents a significant shift in international relations and security
strategies. This essay explores the profound changes in China's national security
objectives and the means to achieve them since Xi's ascent to power in 2012, contrasting
them with the previous strategies under the leadership of Hu Jintao and his predecessors.
The essay navigates through the intricacies of China's political evolution, focusing on Xi
Jinping's rise to power, shifts in national security objectives, and the methods employed
to achieve these objectives. The essay then delves into the theoretical frameworks of
Realism and Power Transition Theory, providing a lens to understand this strategic
reorientation. Xi Jinping's consolidation of power, through anti-corruption campaigns and
military reforms, represents a significant aspect of this transformation.
Finally, the essay critically evaluates the impact of these strategies through the means that
Xi governed China. This critical perspective offers a nuanced understanding of the
complexities and consequences of China's strategies under Xi Jinping.
Historical Context and Theoretical Framework
Prior to 2012, under the leadership of Hu Jintao and his predecessors, China's National
Security Strategy was largely guided by Deng Xiaoping's adage " Tao Guang Yang Hui"
(hiding strength, biding time) (Doshi, 2019)i. This policy emphasized economic
development and maintaining a low profile in international affairs, avoiding
confrontations and focusing instead on internal growth and stability. China's engagement
in global affairs was cautious, aiming to avoid any significant geopolitical waves while it
grew its economic and military capabilities. (Zhao, 2012)ii
In contrast, the era of Xi Jinping marks a significant departure from this cautious
approach. To analyze this transition, two theoretical frameworks in international relations
are particularly pertinent: Realism and Power Transition Theory. Realism, with its
emphasis on state power and security in an anarchic international system, provides a lens
through which to view China's more assertive and security-focused stance under Xi. This
theory suggests that states inherently seek power and act primarily out of self-interest to
ensure their survival and security (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2023)iii.
Meanwhile, the Power Transition Theory further complements this analysis. It posits that
as a rising power strengthens, it is likely to challenge the existing international order,
reflecting its growing capabilities and interests (Harris, 2014) iv. This theory can be
applied to understand China's current efforts to reshape international norms and
institutions to better align with its status as an emerging global power.
Together, these frameworks provide a comprehensive theoretical backdrop for
understanding the evolution of China’s National Security Strategy under Xi Jinping. The
shift from a low-profile approach to a more assertive global stance reflects not only a
change in leadership but also a strategic reorientation in response to China's growing
capabilities and ambitions on the world stage.
Xi Jinping's Rise to Power and Power Consolidation
In 2012, the political landscape of China was poised for significant transformation. The
Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was navigating complex challenges both domestically
and internationally. The nation was grappling with issues related to economic disparities,
corruption, and calls for political reform (Shambaugh, 2012) v. It was against this
backdrop that Xi Jinping emerged as the General Secretary of the CCP and later became
the President of China in 2013.
In his first days in office, Xi vowed to crack down on "tigers and flies", that is, high-
ranking officials and petty civil servants alike. He also warned his colleagues on the
Politburo that corruption would "doom the party and state” (Bradsher, 2012) vi. Xi
Jinping's consolidation of power through his anti-corruption campaign is a key facet of
his leadership. Officially termed as the "Central Commission for Discipline Inspection"
(CCDI), this authority has led to significant outcomes. High-profile figures, including
senior officials and military leaders, were targeted, showcasing Xi's commitment to
eradicating corruption (Tian, 2020)vii. The campaign served multiple purposes: rooting
out corruption, which was a major source of public discontent, and more importantly,
consolidating Xi's power by removing potential rivals and reshaping the political elite
(Daly, 2016)viii.
After that, Xi Jinping has made a shift toward the centralization of power within both the
Communist Party of China (CPC) and the government, a move that marks a significant
departure from the collective leadership model prevalent in previous administrations.
This centralization is most evident in the enhanced role of the CPC's Central Committee,
which Xi has elevated to a more central position in policymaking. This strategic
enhancement has allowed for more streamlined decision-making processes, directly
aligning with Xi's agenda for a more efficient and decisive governance structure
(Grzywacz, 2023)ix. Simultaneously, Xi's approach has involved diminishing the
influence of the Politburo Standing Committee, traditionally the core of China's collective
decision-making mechanism. Historically, this body functioned as a platform for
consensus-building among China’s top leaders, ensuring that major policy decisions were
the result of collective deliberation. Under Xi, however, the Politburo Standing
Committee's role has been curtailed, shifting the balance of power towards the Central
Committee and, by extension, towards Xi himself (Shirk, 2018)x.
In 2018, a pivotal change occurred in China's political landscape when the National
People's Congress voted to abolish term limits on the presidency. This significant
amendment to the constitution removed the restriction that limited the presidency to two
consecutive terms, thereby paving the way for Xi Jinping to potentially remain in power
indefinitely (Al Jazeera, 2018)xi. This decision marked a departure from the established
practice of enforcing term limits, a system that had been instituted as a means to prevent
the excessive concentration of power in the hands of a single individual. The abolition of
these term limits represented a fundamental shift in China's approach to political
governance, reflecting a move towards a more centralized and potentially perpetual
leadership under Xi.
Under Xi Jinping’s leadership, the Chinese government has embarked on a stringent
crackdown on dissent, significantly tightening control over various spheres of public and
private life. This crackdown has encompassed a broad suppression of activists, human
rights lawyers, and journalists, effectively curbing any form of opposition or critique of
the government (Spires, 2021)xii. Additionally, this suppression extends to the digital
realm, where online platforms are rigorously monitored and censored, limiting freedom
of expression on the internet. Such measures have not only quashed dissenting voices but
also instilled a sense of caution among the general populace (Spires, 2021) . The impact of
these actions is twofold: on the one hand, they have further consolidated Xi’s authority
and control over the Chinese political landscape, reducing the possibility of internal
challenges to his rule. On the other hand, this approach has attracted international
criticism for its implications on human rights and freedom of speech (Freedom House,
2023; Human Rights Watch, 2023)xiii xiv.
Last but not least, Xi Jinping has significantly shaped the ideological landscape of China
by promoting his political doctrine, famously known as "Xi Jinping Thought on
Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era." This ideology, a comprehensive
framework encompassing various aspects of governance, economic development, and
social reform, has been enshrined in the Communist Party of China's (CPC) constitution.
This enshrinement is a testament to the profound influence of Xi's thought on the
country's political and ideological direction. By embedding his doctrine into the Party's
constitution, Xi's status has been elevated, aligning him with revered past leaders like
Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. This institutionalization of Xi Jinping Thought not only
cements his authority within the Party and the state but also sets a definitive ideological
course for China's future development (Jones, 2022)xv.
Xi Jinping's governance in China strongly resonates with the principles of Realism in
international relations. Realism asserts that states are primarily driven by their pursuit of
power and self-interest. Xi's consolidation of power within China illustrates this aspect of
Realism, as he has systematically centralized authority, suppressed dissent, and
eliminated potential rivals. Additionally, Xi's focus on China's national interest is a
hallmark of Realism, with his leadership characterized by assertive actions to secure
China's territorial claims and safeguard its sovereignty, including territorial disputes in
the South China Sea and the cross-Trait of Taiwan issue (Iida, 2020)xvi.
Xi Jinping's leadership in China can also be analyzed through the lens of Power
Transition Theory, which focuses on the dynamics between rising and declining great
powers. Power Transition Theory suggests that such states may challenge the existing
international order dominated by established powers (Schweller, 2011) xvii. Xi's assertive
foreign policy and efforts to project Chinese influence globally can be seen as
manifestations of China's desire to establish a more dominant position within the
international system. This aligns with the theory's emphasis on power transitions
potentially disrupting international stability. The rivalry between China and the United
States, characterized by economic competition, military modernization, and strategic
maneuvering, is indicative of the theory's predictions about rising powers challenging the
hegemony of established ones (Swaine, 2016)xviii. Additionally, Xi Jinping's emphasis on
Chinese nationalism and identity-building efforts within China aligns with the Power
Transition Theory's recognition of the role of nationalism in shaping state behavior
during power transitions(Johnson, 2021)xix. By strengthening domestic support and
reinforcing China's identity, Xi seeks to bolster China's position as a rising power in a
changing global landscape.
Shifts in National Security Objectives
The ascension of Xi Jinping to the throne of supreme power of China has shown a pivotal
shift in the nation’s security strategies, deeply ingrained with his personal ideology and
political vision.
Under the leadership preceding 2012, most notably under Hu Jintao and Jiang Zemin,
China’s security policy was significantly influenced by Deng Xiaoping’s maxim of “hide
your strength, bide your time”. This approach fostered a period of economic-centric
prudence and a reluctance to assertively project power on the international stage. During
this period, China's focus was predominantly on internal development and economic
growth, maintaining a relatively low profile in global geopolitics (Cabestan, 2009)xx .
Xi Jinping’s leadership diverges markedly from this trajectory. Central to Xi’s doctrine is
the “Chinese Dream” of national rejuvenation, which has recalibrated China’s security
agenda to a more assertive and ambitious posture (Chávez Mazuelos, 2022) xxi. A notable
facet of this shift is the emphasis on military modernization. The Xi era has seen an
unprecedented increase in defense spending and a focus on advancing military
technologies, a contrast to the previous era’s primary focus on economic security
(Maizland, 2020)xxii. The PLA’s modernization under Xi not only underscores a
commitment to enhancing China’s military capabilities but also reflects a strategic pivot
to position China as a formidable global military power (Teixeira Júnior & Ferreira da
Silva, 2020)xxiii .
Furthermore, the internal security dynamics have shifted towards stricter control, with
increased surveillance, censorship, and a crackdown on dissent. This contrasts with the
more liberalized approach of Hu Jintao’s tenure, which, while still restrictive, allowed
relatively greater space for civil society and media (Holloway, 2020)xxiv .
The comparison of pre- and post-2012 security objectives reveals a China under Xi
Jinping that is more assertive, both in its internal governance and international posture.
Xi's ideological imprint, emphasizing national rejuvenation, and a strong centralized
state, has engendered a strategic shift in China's approach to security, distinct from the
more cautious and economically focused strategies of his predecessors. This shift
underlines the profound impact of Xi Jinping's ideology on the trajectory of China’s
national security objectives.
Means of Achieving Security Objectives and Critical Evaluation
Territorial Sovereignty
Central to Xi Jinping's security strategy is the unwavering emphasis on territorial
sovereignty. This focus manifests in the robust modernization of the People’s Liberation
Army (PLA), marking a shift from the quantity-focused military expansion of previous
eras to a more quality-centric approach (Wuthnow and Saunders, 2017) xxv. Investment in
advanced technologies, notably in cyber warfare and artificial intelligence, is indicative
of a modern military strategy. The PLA's transformation is evident in China's assertive
posture in the South China Sea, where the militarization of islands has not only solidified
territorial claims but also strategically bolstered China's presence in a geopolitically
crucial region (Haver et al., 2022)xxvi. This strategy has effectively enhanced China's
territorial presence, as seen in the construction and militarization of artificial islands in
this disputed region.
However, this approach has led to heightened regional tensions, exemplifying the
complexities of such a robust stance. The fortification of islands in the South China Sea
has escalated disputes with neighboring Southeast Asian. This assertive posture, while
solidifying China’s territorial sovereignty claims, risks an arms race and undermines the
principles of cooperative security in the Asia-Pacific region (Vuving, 2017) xxvii.
Furthermore, the militarization of these areas contradicts the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), raising legal and ethical concerns (Reddick,
2017)xxviii . While Xi’s strategy has strengthened China’s position in its immediate
periphery, the long-term implications of such assertiveness may challenge the stability
and security of the broader regional and international order.
International Influences
In this realm, Xi's tenure is distinguished by the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a
monumental global infrastructure project. The BRI extends beyond mere economic
cooperation, serving as a tool for geopolitical and strategic influence. Through the BRI,
China seeks to create economic dependencies, thereby extending its global influence
(Jose, 2021).xxix This initiative also intertwines with China's military strategy, as some
BRI projects are strategically located in regions crucial for China's maritime and land-
based defense capabilities (Ji, 2016)xxx. Simultaneously, Xi has steered China towards a
more assertive foreign policy, marking a shift from the country’s traditionally low-profile
diplomatic approach (Hu, 2014)xxxi. Engagement in international organizations and
forging alliances, especially in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, exemplify China’s
pursuit of a revised global standing.
The BRI has successfully fostered new economic partnerships and trade routes, creating a
network of economic interdependence that enhances China's global leverage. For
instance, through the BRI, China has invested in critical infrastructure projects across
Asia, Africa, and Europe, thereby gaining substantial political and economic influence in
these regions.
Nevertheless, this strategy also carries complex implications. While the BRI bolsters
China's global standing, it has raised concerns regarding the creation of potential debt
traps for participating countries (Gerstel, 2018) xxxii. This aspect of the strategy has been
criticized for potentially undermining the economic sovereignty of smaller nations and
challenging principles of sustainable development and fair economic practices (Lindley,
2022)xxxiii.
Internal Control
The third pillar of Xi’s security strategy is the rigorous enforcement of internal security
measures. The implementation of sophisticated surveillance systems and the controversial
Social Credit System signifies an unprecedented level of government control and
monitoring. The implementation of sophisticated surveillance systems and the Social
Credit System showed positive aspects in the context of governance and social order. By
closely monitoring activities and behavior, the government is better positioned to identify
and address potential threats to societal harmony preemptively (Ding & Zhong,
2020)xxxiv . This system rewards positive social actions and penalizes misconduct, thereby
encouraging a culture of integrity and civic responsibility.
On the other hand, Xi Jinping's strategy of employing extensive surveillance and the
Social Credit System has significant negative implications, particularly concerning
individual rights and freedoms. The pervasive nature of these measures has raised serious
concerns about privacy violations, as the state possesses the ability to monitor and record
an unprecedented amount of personal information (Vinayak, 2019) xxxv. Moreover, the
Social Credit System, while intended to promote desirable behavior, can be seen as an
instrument of social control, potentially leading to a situation where conformity is
enforced, and individual autonomy is suppressed (Kühnreich, 2018) xxxvi. Additionally, the
international perception of these measures has often been negative, with concerns about
human rights and authoritarian governance being highlighted, potentially affecting
China's global standing and diplomatic relations.
Conclusion
The tenure of Xi Jinping has marked a pivotal era in the history of China, characterized
by significant shifts in both domestic and international strategies. Xi's approach, starkly
contrasting with the more cautious and economically-centered policies of his
predecessors, reflects a bold reorientation towards assertive national security objectives
and a more prominent global role. His leadership has been instrumental in recalibrating
China's position on the world stage, driven by a strong emphasis on territorial
sovereignty, international influence, and internal control. Xi's strategies, while successful
in strengthening China's military and economic might, have also sparked international
concerns over regional stability, economic hegemony, and human rights issues.
Xi Jinping's era, therefore, presents a complex tapestry of power consolidation, strategic
assertiveness, and technological governance. It underscores a new phase in China's
journey as a rising global power, navigating the delicate balance between national
interests and international responsibilities.
i
Doshi, R. (2019) ‘Hu’s to blame for China’s foreign assertiveness?’, Brookings Institution. Available at:
https://www.brookings.edu/articles/hus-to-blame-for-chinas-foreign-assertiveness/ (Accessed: 30 Dec 2023)
ii
Zhao, S. (2012) ‘Hu Jintao’s Foreign Policy Legacy’, E-International Relations. Available at:
https://www.e-ir.info/2012/12/08/hu-jintaos-foreign-policy-legacy/ (Accessed: 30 Dec 2023)
iii
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2023) ‘Political Realism in International Relations’, Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/realism-intl-relations/ (Accessed: 30 Dec 2023)
iv
Harris, P. (2014). Problems with Power-Transition Theory: Beyond the Vanishing Disparities Thesis. Geopolitics, History,
and International Relations, 6(2), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2014.983634
v
Shambaugh, D. (2012). International Perspectives on the Communist Party of China. Journal of Chinese Political Science,
17(3), 223-237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004302488_053
vi
Bradsher, K. (2012) ‘China's Anticorruption Commission Investigates Senior Official’, The New York Times, 5 December.
Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/06/world/asia/early-target-of-chinas-anti-corruption-commission-
identified.html (Accessed: 31 Dec 2023).
vii
Tian, Y. (2020). The Anti-corruption Discourse of China: Cracking down on “Tigers”. Fudan Journal of the Humanities and
Social Sciences. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-020-00303-5
viii
Daly, R. (2016) ‘The Mixed Rationales and Mixed Results of Xi Jinping’s Anticorruption Campaign’, Wilson Center.
Available at: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/the-mixed-rationales-and-mixed-results-xi-jinpings-anticorruption-
campaign (Accessed: 31 Dec 2023)
ix
Grzywacz, J. (2023) ‘How Xi Jinping Used the CCP Constitution to Cement His Power’, The Diplomat. Available at:
https://thediplomat.com/2023/01/how-xi-jinping-used-the-ccp-constitution-to-cement-his-power/ (Accessed: 02 Jan
2024)
x
Shirk, S.L. (2018) 'China in Xi’s "New Era": The Return to Personalistic Rule', Journal of Democracy, 29(2), pp. 22-36.
Available at: https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/china-in-xis-new-era-the-return-to-personalistic-rule/
(Accessed: 02 Jan 2024)
xi
Al Jazeera. (2018) 'China parliament scraps presidential term limits', 11 March. Available at:
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/3/11/china-parliament-scraps-presidential-term-limits
xii
Spires, A.J. (2021). Civil society in the PRC: empirical studies and normative lenses. Critical Asian Studies, 53(3), 414-418.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2021.1955220
xiii
Freedom House. 2023. "China: Freedom on the Net 2023 Country Report." Freedom House. Accessed [02 Fed 2024].
https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2023.
xiv
Human Rights Watch. 2023. "China: Xi’s ‘New Era’ Marked by Rights Abuses." Human Rights Watch. Accessed [02 Jan
2023]. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/13/china-xis-new-era-marked-rights-abuses
xv
Jones, H. (2022) 'Forging the ‘New Era’: The Temporal Politics of Xi Jinping', The Diplomat, 1 October. Available at:
https://thediplomat.com/2022/09/forging-the-new-era-the-temporal-politics-of-xi-jinping/ (Accessed: 02 Jan 2024).
xvi
Iida, M. (2020). Xi Jinping’s diplomacy and the rise of his political authority. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies,
[online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/24761028.2020.1843217 (Accessed 02 Jan 2024)
xvii
Schweller, R.L. (2011) ‘Emerging Powers in an Age of Disorder’, Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and
International Organizations, 17(3), pp. 285-297. DOI: 10.1163/19426720-01703002
xviii
Endnote reference: Swaine, M.D. (2016). Xi Jinping’s “New Model of Major Power Relationships” for Sino-American
Relations. Chinese Leadership Monitor. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15339114.2016.1203342
xix
Johnson, S. (2021) Nationalism with Chinese Characteristics: Xi Jinping's Nationalist Agenda in Three Cases. Johns
Hopkins University. Available at: http://jhir.library.jhu.edu/handle/1774.2/64265
xx
Cabestan, J.-P. (2009) 'China's Foreign – and Security – Policy Decision-Making Processes under Hu Jintao', Journal of
Current Chinese Affairs, 38(3). DOI: 10.1177/186810260903800304
xxi
Chávez Mazuelos, J. A., 2022. The Chinese Dream of National Rejuvenation and Foreign Policy under Xi Jinping. Agenda
Internacional, 29(40), pp. 34-35
xxii
Maizland, L. (2020) 'China's Modernizing Military', Council on Foreign Relations, 5 February. Available at:
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-modernizing-military (Accessed: 05 Jan 2024)
xxiii
eixeira Júnior, A. W. M., & Ferreira da Silva, P. (2020). China in the contemporary world order: grand strategy, military
modernization, and balance of power. Security and Defense Studies Review, 23. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5216/sec.v23i.59618
xxiv
Holloway, S. (2020). Xi Jinping’s liberal birdcage: Democracy’s form and future in Hong Kong. International Journal,
75(2), 249-266. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020702020930745
xxv
Wuthnow, J. and Saunders, P. C., 2017. Chinese Military Reforms in the Age of Xi Jinping: Drivers, Challenges, and
Implications. Institute for National Strategic Studies. [online] Available at:
https://inss.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/stratperspective/china/ChinaPerspectives-10.pdf?ver=2017-03-21-152018-
430
xxvi
Haver, Z., Lee, R., Clemens, M., and Allen, K., 2022. The People's Liberation Army in the South China Sea: An
Organizational Guide. Recorded Future. Available at: https://www.recordedfuture.com/blog/peoples-liberation-army-
south-china-sea-organizational-guide
xxvii
Vuving, A. (2017) 'Force Buildup in the South China Sea: The Myth of an Arms Race', Asia Maritime Transparency
Initiative, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 16 October. Available at: https://amti.csis.org/force-buildup-scs-
myth/
xxviii
Reddick, J.L. (2017) 'Under the Dragon's Wing: A Strategic Approach to China's Militarization Efforts of its Artificial
Islands in the South China Sea'. US Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, United States. Available
at: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1038848 (Accessed: 05 Jan 2024)
xxix
Jose, H. S. (2021). Preservation of the ASEAN Regionalism: Responding to the Belt Road Initiative as the New ‘Carrot or
Stick’ Policies. Hellenic Association for Political Science. https://doi.org/10.12681/hapscpbs.27670
xxx
Ji, Y. (2016). China’s Emerging Indo-Pacific Naval Strategy. Asian Survey, 56(4), 617-642.
https://doi.org/10.1353/ASP.2016.0035
xxxi
Hu, S. (2014). General Assessment of the PRC's Foreign Policy: New Initiatives and Orientations under Xi Jinping.
xxxii
Gerstel, D. (2018). It’s a (Debt) Trap! Managing China-IMF Cooperation Across the Belt and Road. [online] Center for
Strategic and International Studies. Available at: https://www.csis.org/analysis/its-debt-trap-managing-china-imf-
cooperation-across-belt-and-road
xxxiii
Lindley, D. (2022) 'Assessing China's Motives: How the Belt and Road Initiative Threatens US Interests', Air University.
Available at: https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/3111114/assessing-chinas-motives-how-the-belt-and-
road-initiative-threatens-us-interests/
xxxiv
Ding, X. & Zhong, D.Y. (2020) 'Rethinking China’s Social Credit System: A Long Road to Establishing Trust in Chinese
Society', Journal of Contemporary China, pp. 630-644. [Online]. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2020.1852738
xxxv
Vinayak, V. (2019). The Human Rights Implications of China’s Social Credit System. OxHRH Blog.
https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/the-human-rights-implications-of-chinas-social-credit-system
xxxvi
Kühnreich, K. (2018). Social control 4.0? China’s Social Credit Systems. Eurozine. [online] 10 August. Available at:
https://www.eurozine.com/social-control-4-0-chinas-social-credit-systems/