Devni Tillekeratne

Diploma in Diplomacy & World Affairs

DIPLOMACY
 Table of Contents

Diplomatic reporting ..................................................................................................... 3

Diplomatic functions and tools ...................................................................................... 5
Foreign policy ............................................................................................................... 8
Bilateral diplomacy ..................................................................................................... 11
Multilateral diplomacy ................................................................................................. 15
AI diplomacy............................................................................................................... 18
Cultural diplomacy ..................................................................................................... 20
Economic diplomacy .................................................................................................. 22
Health diplomacy........................................................................................................ 29
Public Diplomacy ........................................................................................................ 37
Digital diplomacy ........................................................................................................ 39
Science diplomacy...................................................................................................... 55
Climate diplomacy ...................................................................................................... 60

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Diplomatic service
Diplomatic service refers to the sector within a government responsible for conducting
foreign relations, representing the state abroad, and promoting its interests and policies on
the international stage.

Diplomatic service plays a vital role in shaping a country’s foreign policy, fostering
international cooperation, and addressing global challenges through diplomatic means.

Diplomatic service plays a crucial role in maintaining diplomatic relations, negotiating

agreements, participating in international organizations, and advancing national interests
through diplomatic channels.

Key aspects

Representation: Diplomatic service involves representing the country abroad through

embassies, consulates, and diplomatic missions, advocating for the government’s positions
and engaging with foreign counterparts.

Negotiation and diplomacy: Diplomatic service professionals engage in negotiation,

dialogue, and conflict resolution to address international issues, promote cooperation, and
advance diplomatic goals.

Protocol and etiquette: Diplomatic service adheres to diplomatic protocol, etiquette, and
international law in interactions with other countries, ensuring smooth diplomatic relations
and effective communication.

Cultural Understanding: Diplomatic service requires an understanding of different

cultures, languages, and customs to navigate international relations effectively and build
relationships with diverse counterparts.

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Diplomatic reporting
Information is the lifeblood of the diplomatic services with diplomats, like veins and arteries,
reporting from their posts back to their home countries. These diplomatic reports, or cables,
as they are more commonly known, keep information flowing; they help co-ordinate
activities and prepare the groundwork for decisions.

While reporting remains an intellectual activity requiring good judgment, good cognitive
skills, and a good writing style, it, too, has been affected by the Internet. What should be
reported? How should diplomats integrate into their cables what has already been published
by journalists, bloggers, and other providers of information? What value do diplomatic
reports add to the already available information and analysis provided by Wikipedia and
blogs, among others? What is the usability of the new generation of artificial intelligence
tools for summarising texts?

What is diplomatic reporting?

Thousands of reports are written every day: they record meetings, analyse situations, and
suggest actions. Since the ancient Egyptian Tal-Amarna diplomacy right up until the present
day, diplomatic reports have been at the heart of diplomacy. They very often determine the
internal chemistry of diplomatic services. Diplomats try to establish their positions and gain
peer-recognition through the quality of their reports.

One way to look at diplomatic reporting is to consider it as one facet of a broader and more
general phenomenon – the flow of information. Transmission of information is a basic human
activity that in one form or another takes place all the time and under multiple
circumstances. It is a product of instinct combined with need. Like any other method of
information flow diplomatic reporting needs to have its own recognisable structure. It has to
emerge from a clearly defined context. It needs direction and purpose. It should avail itself
of whatever means of communication are currently available.

Two contrasting aspects characterise the flow of information in whatever form it is

conducted. On the one hand once information exists there is both the need as well as the
natural tendency for it to flow outwards. One may put this in another way. Information cannot
exist in isolation. There is the need for a human recipient, as much as a human conveyor, for
facts and events to become information. The underlying thrust is therefore towards all type
of reporting, including diplomatic reporting, to become open and unrestrained.

The question is the extent to which there are limits to this openness, and furthermore who
decides on these limits. This leads to another, and contradictory, aspect of the issue of

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information flow. Information is a form of power. Withholding information is a means for one
individual or a group of individuals to exercise control over others.

On the whole, technology has been on the side of the moves towards freer flow of
information, though it has occasionally also been used for the opposite purposes. The major
breakthrough came with the invention of printing. One could go back even further, to the
invention of writing. The latest breakthrough is represented by the internet. It is useful to put
the Internet phenomenon in this historical context. In the way it is evolving, Internet forms
part of the age-long contest pointing towards a freer and more open flow of information.

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Diplomatic functions and tools
Diplomacy is performed through the following functions outlined in Article 3 of the Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961), inter alia:

▪ Representing the sending State in the receiving State

▪ Protecting the interests of the sending State and of its nationals in the receiving State,
within limits permitted by international law

▪ Negotiating with the Government of the receiving State

▪ Ascertaining, by all lawful means, conditions and developments in the receiving

State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State

▪ Promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, as
well as developing economic, cultural, and scientific relations

The phrase inter alia suggests the potential for including additional diplomatic functions.

What is diplomatic representation?

Diplomatic representation includes the following aspects: ceremony and symbolism, power
and interests, and ideas. States are typically represented via resident diplomatic missions
and occasionally through non-resident ambassadors.

What are diplomatic negotiations?

At the heart of diplomatic functions lies negotiation. Quincy Wright articulates diplomacy as
‘the craft of negotiation, striving to achieve maximum group objectives with minimum costs,
within a political system where war is plausible’.

Hedley Bull views diplomacy as ‘the administration of international relations through

negotiation’. G. R. Berridge emphasises negotiation as an alternative to force, stating:
‘Diplomacy is the management of international relations via negotiation, as opposed to
force, propaganda, or legal recourse.

It also encompasses other peaceful methods (like information gathering or fostering

goodwill) aimed directly or indirectly at promoting negotiation.’

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Why is information gathering important in diplomacy?

Since the dawn of diplomacy, information gathering and analysis has been a key diplomatic
function. While information acquisition posed significant challenges in the past, today’s
digital age offers abundant data from sources like Wikipedia, social media, and other online
platforms.

However, the internet also presents hurdles in discerning and verifying reliable sources. How
much can diplomatic services trust online data? How can diplomats assess, contextualise,
and utilise this information effectively?

How to achieve the protection of interests and citizens abroad?

Diplomatic and consular protection are two primary means of safeguarding a state and its
citizens abroad. Diplomatic protection involves diplomats from the sending state working
via their foreign affairs ministry, while consular protection involves consular officers liaising
directly with relevant authorities in the receiving state.

The principle of diplomatic protection, initiated in 17th and 18th century Europe and
America to shield foreign investments, was established in the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations (Article 3). Notably, the Calvo Doctrine, named after an Argentinean
jurist and widely applied, assigns jurisdiction in international investment disputes to the
country where the investment is made.

The age-old consular function aims to protect the commercial and other interests of a
sending state’s citizens. The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963) is a major
legal source regulating consular relations, supplemented by numerous bilateral consular
agreements and the European Convention on Consular Functions (1967), ratified by only
four countries.

How is diplomatic communication defined?

Diplomacy is fundamentally about communication and information exchange. It’s seen as

‘transnational communication among global elites’, according to Bhagevatula S. Murty.

Similarly, Brian White views diplomacy as ‘a dialogue and negotiation process among
international actors aiming to resolve conflicts’ and as ‘an instrument for executing foreign
policy’.

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This crucial role of communication in diplomacy is encapsulated by Trần Văn Dĩnh, who
compares communication to the lifeblood of diplomacy: ‘Communication is to diplomacy
what blood is to the human body.

When communication stops, the diplomatic process – the body of international politics –
either succumbs to violent conflict or withers.’

Other scholars like Constantiou and James Alan characterise diplomacy as ‘a regulated
communication process’ and ‘the communication system of international society’,
respectively.

What is the future of diplomatic meetings?

The COVID-19 pandemic has catapulted us into a digital age, driving everyday activities from
offline to online. The shift has surged in online lectures, meetings, and conferences. With
this rise, new conferencing platforms emerge, with existing ones gaining momentum.

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Foreign policy
Foreign policy refers to a government’s strategy in dealing with other nations and
international actors to safeguard its national interests, promote its values, and achieve
diplomatic goals. It is a crucial aspect of diplomacy and international relations, shaping a
country’s interactions on the global stage. Foreign policy decisions can encompass a wide
range of areas, including:

Diplomatic relations: Establishing and maintaining diplomatic relations with other

countries through embassies, consulates, and international organizations.

Trade and economic relations: Negotiating trade agreements, promoting exports,

attracting foreign investment, and addressing economic issues with other nations.

Security and defense: Formulating policies related to national security, military alliances,
arms control, and peacekeeping operations.

Development and humanitarian assistance: Providing aid, development assistance, and

humanitarian support to countries in need, often in collaboration with international
organizations.

Environmental and global issues: Addressing global challenges such as climate change,
pandemics, terrorism, and human rights violations through international cooperation and
multilateral agreements.

Foreign policy is influenced by a country’s historical background, cultural values, economic

interests, security concerns, and political ideology. It involves a complex interplay of
diplomacy, negotiation, and strategic decision-making to advance a nation’s interests and
values in the international arena.

What are the similarities and differences between diplomacy and foreign policy?

Diplomacy and foreign policy often overlap in their usage and application. Henry
Kissinger used the term ‘diplomacy’ interchangeably with ‘foreign policy’ and ‘international
relations’, while Hans Morgenthau describes diplomacy as the creation and enactment of
foreign policy. This seemingly covers all aspects of foreign policy under the umbrella of
diplomacy.

However, a more nuanced understanding differentiates foreign policy – the formulation of

international objectives – from diplomacy, the means through which these objectives are

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achieved. Jacques Chazelle underscores this distinction, stating, ‘Diplomacy is the set of
methods and activities a State employs in service of its foreign policy’.

But is it too limiting to frame diplomacy as simply the execution arm of foreign policy? Peter
Marshall argues that the dichotomy is an oversimplification and that diplomacy tactics can
significantly shape foreign policy goals. José Calvet de Magalhães echoes this, warning
against a definition that reduces diplomacy to the single, albeit crucial, task of foreign policy
implementation.

Similarities:

Negotiation: Both diplomacy and foreign policy involve negotiation processes to address
conflicts, reach agreements, and advance common goals.

Communication: Effective communication is essential in both diplomacy and foreign policy

to convey messages, build relationships, and facilitate understanding among nations.

Representation: Diplomacy and foreign policy often involve the representation of states and
their interests on the global stage through official agents, embassies, and diplomatic
missions.

Differences:

Scope: Diplomacy focuses on conducting international relations through diplomatic

channels, while foreign policy encompasses the broader framework of a state’s strategies,
goals, and approaches in its interactions with other countries.

Functions: Diplomacy emphasizes specific functions such as negotiation, representation,

and conflict resolution, while foreign policy covers a wide range of areas, including security,
trade, development, and international cooperation.

Level of Analysis: International relations typically take a theoretical and analytical

approach to understanding global phenomena, while diplomacy and foreign policy involve
practical application in managing relations and shaping policies.

These similarities and differences underscore the complementary nature of diplomacy and
foreign policy in advancing a state’s interests and engaging with the international
community. While diplomacy focuses on the practice of conducting relations through

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diplomatic channels, foreign policy provides the strategic framework for a state’s
interactions with other nations.

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Bilateral diplomacy
The current crisis of multilateralism has triggered the growing importance of traditional
bilateral diplomacy.

Typically, bilateral diplomacy between two countries officially involves foreign ministries and
heads of state.

However, increasingly, other government departments, from trade to culture and defence,
are engaged in bilateral negotiations and cooperation.

Diplomatic missions are the main permanent structure for bilateral relations. Many small
countries conduct bilateral diplomacy through non-resident ambassadors or missions in
multilateral centres. Countries also maintain their bilateral relations via summits and other
meetings of heads of state.

Digital technologies and tools also shape today’s bilateral diplomacy.

What is bilateral diplomacy?

Bilateral diplomacy (BD) is a key building block of international relations, covering

relationships between the home country and individual foreign states, one at a time. It is the
very core of managing foreign relations. The cooperation is based on consent and within the
norms of international law. It differs from multilateral diplomacy, including regional variants,
in the partners engaged, but not in the intrinsic techniques. It is a principal task of foreign
ministries, embassies, and consulates.

Bilateral diplomacy works with individual foreign states on a variety of topics to further one’s
own domestic and international goals. Recognizing differences and taking prompt action to
minimize possible problems are crucial. Security is the first concern of each state, and it is
at the foundation of foreign policy.

The efficiency of a country’s bilateral diplomatic engagement is often enhanced by

involvement in regional and multilateral frameworks, highlighting the convergent nature of
modern diplomacy. Non-state agencies (NSAs) and coalitions of interests, which drive and
implement diplomatic engagement, are two additional aspects that play a role in this
expanding diplomatic contact. Participation in regional and multilateral frameworks
supports bilateral diplomacy aims by increasing a country’s capacity to respond to regional
and global opportunities and challenges.

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Why does bilateral diplomacy matter?

Bilateral diplomacy is essential for any country to engage directly with other countries,
whether they are in their immediate neighbourhood or beyond. As a result of these
engagements, states strengthen their own’s (foreign) objectives. Furthermore, bilateral
diplomacy lays the foundation for constructing coalitions of interests in regional and
multilateral fora.
The strength of a country’s bilateral connections impacts its standing in the global arena.

All countries benefit from strong diplomatic cooperation. However, when it comes to small
states’ foreign policy, the relevance of bilateral diplomacy is most visible. Though smaller
states’ limited capabilities might place them in an inferior position when dealing with larger
ones, the starting disadvantage can be overcome. This may include dependence on
collective solidarity and the rule of law, a tight engagement on particular tasks, and the
application of new solutions.

How is bilateral diplomacy conducted?

The practice of diplomacy is about dialogue, formal, informal, off-the-record, casual, and
often long-winded. Some of that leads to negotiation, culminating in agreements that may
be tacit, or formalized in documents that bear different names, such as exchanges of
letters, protocols, accords, and treaties. The process is continual, unceasing, usually even
shooting wars.

When disputes or problems arise, countries work in diverse ways to solve the differences. In
situations of persisting mutual problems, a bilateral relationship may enter a phase of
slowdown, or if the problem persists, a deep freeze, which might limit mutual interactions to
a minimum. Typically, in our globalized world, countries privilege economic cooperation, i.e.,
trade and investments.

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR) codified practices that had evolved
over time and became the enduring foundation of diplomatic practice. The central pillar of
the VCDR is reciprocity: countries extend diplomatic privileges and immunities to others
based on receiving the same benefits for themselves. This Convention is focused on bilateral
diplomacy.

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The core of the VCDR is Article 3:

The functions of a diplomatic mission consist inter alia in:

1. Representing the sending State in the receiving State;

2. Protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its
nationals, within the limits permitted by international law;

3. Negotiating with the Government of the receiving State;

4. Ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving

State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State;

5. Promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving
State, and developing their economic, cultural, and scientific relations.

Where is bilateral diplomacy performed?

The central role in formulating a county’s foreign policy is performed by its diplomatic
institutions. These institutions include the ministry of foreign affairs (MFA), as well as other
ministries and official agencies that collaborate on their bilateral agendas.

Diplomatic representations abroad are mainly performed by embassies and consulates.

These have been regulated under international law for more than six decades now under
the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR) of 1961 for embassies and since
1963 under the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (VCCR) for consulates.

What is new in bilateral diplomacy?

Each generation of practitioners and scholars of diplomacy tends to focus on changes. Even
though key elements are unaltered, viewed from another perspective changes are profound.

1. Bilateral diplomacy is complexified. Relations with each capital in that inner circle
are now dominated by calculations of what competing powers are doing there, and
how to get optimal results from those crosscurrents. Almost all bilateral dealings are
with the home country’s ‘first circle’ of priorities – a group of countries that are ‘vital’
to its interests.

2. BD and global affairs are subject to several multiplicities. One is the different
actors, official and non-state agencies, who play their legitimate roles. Another is the

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 ever-widening array of subjects in contemporary international dialogue. And a third is
the instruments that some countries may use to exert pressure on one another.

3. International networking by public institutions is of huge value to the country,

expanding its footprint and its country brand; we may call this essential public
diplomacy.

4. The MFA is the master of the diplomatic network – controlling embassies,

consulates, permanent missions – but the network serves multiple home clients,
official and non-official. The effective MFA understands that its overseas network is a
prime asset in its home coordination tasks, especially with the country’s non-official
agencies. The more it is used, the stronger the MFA’s home connections. That also
enriches the diplomat’s essential knowledge base.

5. New challenges, such as political uncertainties. economic slow-down, the 2020

Covid-19 pandemic, and climate change, are some of the issues of concern for
modern societies.

When did bilateral diplomacy develop?

Diplomacy was practiced whenever people organized themselves into collective entities.
Bilateral diplomacy is the oldest type of diplomacy, dating to ancient times when kingdoms
negotiated with one another. The key concerns were trade and security. Besides Europe and
the Middle East, there are examples of diplomacy and advanced ancient civilizations in
China, India, Africa, and the Americas.

Modern diplomacy has its roots in Italy in the Middle Ages, commencing in the 14th century
with the establishment of consulates by Venice and the other city-states that traded with The
Levant, and a century later with the dispatch of the first resident ambassadors. France was
another early practitioner and the first to establish a secretariat of state in 1626 to deal with
foreign affairs, which went on to become the Foreign Ministry (also called Quai d’Orsay,
based on its location). Both countries produced rich literature on this new art.

The norms regulating diplomacy emerged through practice and were consolidated in treaties
among European regional powers. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) ended the 30-year war in
Europe and defined the sovereign state. Then there was the Congress of Vienna (1815),
which among other things formalized diplomatic rules of precedence. In 1961 The Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR) codified practices that had evolved and
became the enduring foundation of diplomatic practice.

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Multilateral diplomacy
We can define multilateral diplomacy as the cooperation of three or more countries that
work toward a common goal. It has developed alongside bilateral diplomacy mainly through
congresses and conferences. Modern multilateral diplomacy begins with the co-founding of
international organizations, especially the UN, the Council of Europa, the OSCE, and the
European Union.

In the wake of current challenges and globalization, multilateral diplomacy is an

indispensable form of international diplomacy. Global challenges that we are facing such as
climate change, migration, sustainable development, opportunities and risks of new
technologies can only be addressed through mutual cooperation.

What is multilateral diplomacy?

A multilateral diplomacy is a diplomatic approach in which multiple countries work together

to address common issues and challenges. This involves engaging in dialogue and
negotiation to achieve shared goals and promote cooperation among nations. It can take
many forms, such as international agreements, treaties, and conventions.

Why does multilateral diplomacy matter?

Multilateral diplomacy is essential for addressing complex global challenges that require
cooperation among countries. By working together, countries can find solutions that are
more effective, efficient, and sustainable than those pursued bilaterally. Multilateral
diplomacy also promotes dialogue and understanding among nations, which can help to
reduce tensions and prevent conflicts.

How is multilateral diplomacy conducted?

Multilateral diplomacy is typically conducted through a process of negotiation, where

representatives of different countries come together to discuss and reach an agreement on
a particular issue. The negotiation process typically involves several stages, including
agenda-setting, information sharing, proposal-making, and consensus-building.

Throughout the negotiation process, countries may also engage in informal consultations
and bilateral meetings to build relationships and seek common ground. Multilateral
diplomacy can be a complex and time-consuming process, requiring skilled diplomats who

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can navigate different cultural and political perspectives to find common ground and reach
consensus.

Where is multilateral diplomacy performed?

Multilateral diplomacy is performed in various settings, including international organizations

such as the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the World Health
Organization (WHO), among others. These organizations provide a platform for countries to
come together and negotiate on various issues that affect global stability, security, and
development.

Multilateral diplomacy is also performed through regional organizations such as the

European Union (EU), the African Union (AU), and the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), among others. These organizations provide a platform for regional
cooperation and integration, and their member states engage in multilateral diplomacy to
address issues that are specific to their regions.

In addition to these formal settings, multilateral diplomacy is also performed through

informal mechanisms such as summits, bilateral meetings, and diplomatic dialogues. These
mechanisms provide opportunities for countries to engage in informal discussions and build
relationships that can lead to more effective multilateral cooperation.

Overall, multilateral diplomacy is a critical component of international relations, as it

enables countries to come together and negotiate on issues that affect the global
community.

How is multilateral diplomacy adapting to new global challenges?

A major trend in multilateral diplomacy is the increasing importance of non-state actors,

such as civil society organisations, businesses, and other stakeholders. These actors are
becoming more involved in international organisations’ decision-making processes,
demanding greater transparency and accountability from governments and multilateral
institutions.

Another trend is the growing use of digital tools and online platforms to conduct diplomacy.
This has facilitated greater collaboration and communication among diplomats and
government officials but has also brought new challenges related to cybersecurity, data
privacy, and online disinformation that are to be addressed in multilateral fora.

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When did multilateral diplomacy develop?

Multilateral diplomacy has a long history, dating back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648,
which established the principle of state sovereignty and paved the way for modern
international relations. The League of Nations, established after World War I, was an early
example of a multilateral organization. Since then, multilateral diplomacy has become
increasingly important as countries face growing global challenges that require collective
action.

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AI diplomacy
AI diplomacy is about the impact of AI on geopolitics, AI as a topic on the diplomatic agenda,
and AI as a tool for diplomacy. On geopolitics, countries with advanced AI can exercise more
military, economic, and societal power. AI is a topic on the diplomatic agenda where various
agreements and treaties are negotiated. Lastly, AI is a practical tool in diplomacy used for
decision support, drafting, translation, negotiation support, and analysis of trends and
future developments.

Over the past few years, there has been significant progress in the field of artificial
intelligence (AI), which is increasingly becoming part of our everyday lives (from intelligent
digital personal assistants and smart home devices to autonomous vehicles, smart
buildings and medical robots) and not just the stuff of science fiction.

These advances are expected to have implications in several policy areas (economic,
societal, education, etc.), diplomacy, infrastructure and society in general, and
governments, the technical community, and private sector actors worldwide are
increasingly considering them.

Policy implications of AI

The policy implications of AI are far‐reaching. While AI can potentially lead to economic
growth, there are growing concerns over the significant disruptions it could bring to the
labour market. Issues related to privacy, safety, and security have also been brought into
focus, with calls being made for the development of standards that can help ensure that AI
applications have minimum unintended consequences.

Economic and social

AI has significant potential to lead to economic growth. Used in production processes, AI

systems bring automation, making processes smarter, faster, and cheaper, and therefore
bringing savings and increased efficiency. Concerns are raised that automated systems will
make some jobs obsolete, and lead to unemployment. There are, however, also opposing
views, according to which AI advancements will generate new jobs, which will compensate
for those lost, without affecting the overall employment rates.

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Safety and security

AI applications in the physical world (e.g. in transportation) bring into focus issues related to
human safety, and the need to design systems that can properly react to unforeseen
situations, and have minimum unintended consequences. AI also has implications in the
cybersecurity field. On the one hand, there are cybersecurity risks specific to AI systems,
and on the other, AI is being applied to cybersecurity, from spam filtering to detecting serious
cybersecurity vulnerabilities and address cyber-threats.

Privacy and data protection

AI systems work with enormous amounts of data, and this raises concerns regarding privacy
and data protection. Such concerns are well illustrated by the increasingly important
interplay between AI, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data. Developers of AI systems are
asked to ensure the integrity of the used data, as well as embed privacy and data protection
guarantees into AI applications.

Ethics

As AI algorithms involve judgements and decision-making – replacing similar human

processes – concerns have been raised regarding ethics, fairness, justice, transparency, and
accountability. The risk of discrimination and bias in decisions made by AI systems is one
such concern. Researchers are carefully exploring the ethical challenges posed by AI and
are working, for example, on the development of AI algorithms than can ‘explain themselves’.

Legal

When debates on AI governance first emerged, one overarching question was whether AI-
related challenges (in areas such as safety, privacy, and ethics) call for new legal and
regulatory frameworks, or whether existing ones could be adapted to also cover AI. Applying
and adapting existing regulations was seen by many as the most suitable approach. But as
AI innovation accelerated and applications became more and more pervasive, AI-specific
governance and regulatory initiatives started emerging at national, regional, and
international levels.

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Cultural diplomacy
Cultural diplomacy, also known as art diplomacy, is a unique player in international
relations and stands out by its emphasis on soft power and people-to-people connections.
It fosters understanding and cooperation between nations by exchanging cultural elements
such as art, music, language, and traditions. This distinct approach sets it apart from
traditional diplomacy, which focuses on political and economic negotiations.

Cultural diplomacy aims to use cultural exchange and promotion to foster mutual
understanding, establish positive relationships, and promote national interests between
different nations. It contributes to fostering positive relationships between nations by:

Mutual Understanding: By sharing aspects of their culture, nations can build a deeper
understanding of each other, dispelling stereotypes and misconceptions. For
instance, French film festivals in India or Japanese tea ceremonies in the United States help
people appreciate each other’s heritage.

Building Relationships: Cultural diplomacy helps build lasting relationships among

individuals, communities, and organizations in different countries, serving as a foundation
for collaboration in various fields. Examples include the Fulbright Program, which exchanges
scholars between the United States and other countries, and Sister Cities International,
which connects cities across borders to promote cultural and commercial ties.

Conflict Resolution: By promoting understanding and building relationships, cultural

diplomacy can help prevent or resolve conflicts by allowing open dialogue and discussion.
For example, Israeli and Palestinian musicians performing together can create a platform for
peace and dialogue.

Promoting National Interests: Cultural diplomacy is a powerful tool for nations to promote
their interests abroad. By showcasing their culture, they can influence perceptions and build
a positive international image. For example, South Korea’s promotion of K-pop and Korean
dramas globally has significantly enhanced its cultural influence and soft power. This aspect
of cultural diplomacy is a key strategy for nations to advance their interests on the global
stage.

Public Diplomacy: Cultural diplomacy often falls under the umbrella of public diplomacy, a
unique form of international relations that involves interacting and communicating with the
public in foreign countries, not just with governments. Events like Germany’s
Oktoberfest celebrations in other countries or Smithsonian Folklife Festival showcasing
international cultures are prime examples. These events engage the public and foster

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goodwill, making cultural diplomacy a powerful tool for building positive international
relations.

Cultural diplomacy can take various forms, including exchange programs, festivals, art
exhibitions, music performances, and joint artistic projects. For instance, the Venice
Biennale art exhibition hosts artists worldwide, while the African American cultural
festival AFROPUNK has editions in various countries, promoting cross-cultural dialogue and
understanding. Overall, it is a powerful tool for promoting cultural understanding, breaking
down stereotypes, and fostering tolerance and cooperation between nations.

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Economic diplomacy
Economic diplomacy is the use of government recourses to promote the growth of a
country’s economy by increasing trade, promoting investments, collaboration on bilateral
and multilateral trade agreements and etc.

It can also mean the use of the economy to promote foreign policy objectives. Most
commonly known are foreign aid and economical sanctions.

Current trends include increasing collaboration between state and non-official agencies,
and increased importance given to WTO issues, the negotiation of free trade and preferential
trade agreements, double taxation avoidance, and alike.

Definition of economic diplomacy

Economic diplomacy is concerned with ‘international economic issues’ to ‘enhance

prosperity’, which has been ‘the main priority for states in most regions of the world.’

In a broad sense, economic diplomacy can be defined as any diplomatic activity that
promotes the state’s economic interests. It also includes diplomacy that uses economic
resources to achieve a specific foreign policy objective.

In a narrow sense, economic diplomacy is about export promotion and inward investment.
This is sometimes called commercial diplomacy.

Evolution of economic diplomacy

The exchange of goods demonstrates the value of bargaining, fosters skill in the activity, and
cannot flourish in the absence of civil – if not necessarily friendly – relations. This seems to
be why, in Ancient Greece and probably elsewhere, the exchange of goods between
neighbouring tribes and cities at the fairs held at shared religious shrines contributed to the
growth of diplomatic institutions. The Delian League, which grew from such a basis, reached
its height in the early seventh century BCE. It is no surprise, therefore, that from the first,
modern diplomacy, i.e. the diplomacy conducted chiefly by means of resident missions
headed by a foreign national that took root in the late fifteenth century AD, had an economic
flavour.

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In fact, such missions emerged from the European consulates established around the
Mediterranean and its adjacent seas in the late Middle Ages and these consulates had their
origins in international trade. When cargo vessels from distant lands arrived in a port, the
scope for misunderstanding and trouble was obvious. Sailors speaking strange tongues,
displaying peculiar habits, and usually soon drunk, were rarely impressive advertisements
for their homelands.

The attitudes of sea captains and local officials to commercial matters and legal procedures
were also often at variance, especially when religions were different. To make matters worse,
there was usually intense competition between ship-owners from different states, and
where foreign merchants settled and formed a community at an important foreign port they
needed to be internally regulated as well as defended against rivals and rapacious local
officials.

If trade between distant lands was to flourish, therefore, there had to be some representative
of the merchants in the ports who had the authority and ability to sort out these problems.
Enter the consul: spokesman for the merchants and, where this suited the local authorities,
as in the Ottoman Empire, magistrate over them. The consuls, at first, were not servants of
the state, living instead on earnings from their private trade plus a small tax (‘consulage’) that
it was agreed with the merchants they could impose on the goods moving through their
settlements in return for the service they provided. Nevertheless, thus was established the
habit of permanent representation in a foreign land for the purpose of dealing with local
officialdom and it was chiefly from this that the modern embassy slowly evolved: diplomacy
began with trade.

Economic diplomacy since 1500s

In the modern period of European history, extending from about 1500 to the First World War,
high politics generally dominated the work of most diplomatic missions because the
potential of permanent representation for the conduct of foreign (political) policy was soon
realised. This was eventually the destiny even of the British Embassy at Constantinople, for
by the end of the eighteenth century the Levant trade was in serious decline and whether the
decaying Ottoman Empire should be propped up or carved up (‘the Eastern Question’) was
an issue that was already beginning to mesmerise the great powers. The latter-day focus on
high politics was also reinforced by the increasing attractiveness of ambassadorships to the
aristocracy, the members of which traditionally held ‘trade’ in contempt. (The earliest
residents had not been grandees.)

However, economic diplomacy was by no means completely discounted because:

23
 1. The consular posts established by merchants remained active and were, indeed,
taken over by the state during the course of the seventeenth century, becoming
outposts of a ‘sovereign’ diplomatic mission, whether legation or embassy.

2. International trade began to grow enormously in the first half of the eighteenth
century and, in the late nineteenth century, so did investment abroad (direct and
portfolio) by the major capitalist states: Britain, France, and Germany, with the United
States also beginning to enter the lists.

3. Diplomatic missions were responsible for the negotiation of commercial treaties;

that is, the general framework in which trade was conducted in bilateral relationships.

As rivalry intensified between the major trading states for foreign markets and between the
major capital-exporting states for foreign concessions (to sink mine shafts, build railways,
cut canals, etc.), so economic diplomacy began to make a real comeback in the late
nineteenth century. This was also the high point of the colonial era, when European states
established control over vast swathes of territory in Africa and Asia, driven by a search for
raw materials and markets. In the course of the twentieth century, with further increases in
the relative importance of international trade and investment, it was well on course to being
once more the top priority of many diplomatic missions. How did this take shape?

Economic diplomacy in 19th and 20th century

Consular services, although remaining separate from diplomatic services, were gradually
reformed: better organised and professionalised, with senior consular officers salaried,
although the pace of these changes varied significantly from state to state.

Diplomatic missions themselves became more directly involved in supporting their

businessmen and bankers looking for new markets and investment outlets. Diplomatic
generalists as well as the new ‘commercial attaché’ took on this work.

Heads of mission (ambassadors or ministers) and their diplomatic secretaries still

negotiated commercial treaties. However, when their posts became more easily reached by
railways and steamships and such treaties were particularly important, they were commonly
assisted in this by experts sent from home. (This is confirmed in Germany’s case by Prince
Lichnowsky, Berlin’s ambassador at London before the First World War; see the References
and additional reading list). They also tended to ignore the day-to-day promotion of trade.
Instead, they usually confined their interest to major capital investment projects, especially
when such schemes were thought to serve wider political interests such as:

1. bolstering their country’s prestige and undercutting that of a rival;

24
 2. securing control of, or influence over, a vital line of communication, e.g. the new Suez
Canal (French driven), the Berlin-Baghdad Railway (German driven); or

3. fuel needed for military purposes, coal and oil.

This work involved:

▪ Embassy support in the placement of capital on advantageous terms (securing

‘concessions’), including the encouragement by receiving states of what today would
probably be called ‘good governance’ (e.g. by pressing financial advisers and customs
officers on governments unfamiliar with Western capitalism, such as those of the
Chinese and Ottoman empires), pressure on host governments for guarantees for the
repatriation of profits and for monopolies for their businesses in a particular region
(e.g. Japan and Russia in Manchuria), and so on.

▪ Embassy intervention to protect capital investments once placed, which evolved into
the legal doctrine of ‘diplomatic protection’: that any means consistent with
international law might be employed by one state in seeking redress for an injury to
one of its nationals or corporate bodies caused by an internationally wrongful act or
omission on the part of another – providing all local remedies have been exhausted.
The application of this doctrine was particularly notable – and much resented – in
South America. The doctrine could be invoked in either of the following situations:

▪ violence and disorder at the scene of the investment, perhaps caused by

revolutionary turmoil; or

▪ revocation of privileges or breach of contract in regard to a particular

investment.

When ‘diplomatic protection’ was employed in such circumstances, typically by the

capitalist states of the Northern Hemisphere, it was often something of a misnomer: the
‘local measures’ (usually local courts) were often ignored and it could – and in the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries often did – extend well beyond a démarche by a head of
mission. It could also involve such measures as arbitration, judicial settlement, sanctions,
reprisals – even armed intervention and outright annexation. Not surprisingly, it provoked a
counter-doctrine.

Commercial attachés

Commercial attachés were among the first specialist attachés to appear in embassies and
marked a new development: diplomatic involvement in promoting the day-to-day trade of

25
their businessmen as well as the shaping of the treaty framework in which they operated.
Chiefly, this meant the promotion of exports. The first commercial attaché is believed to have
been appointed to the British Embassy in Paris in 1880. France and Germany, and then other
states, followed this example, as international trade became increasingly the concern of
governments.

The introduction of commercial attachés led to a long period of uncertainty as to how the
commercial staff of embassies should be appointed and supervised35. Initially, and for a
long time afterwards, they were simply recruited from the consular service with a remit to
report both to the foreign ministry and the government department responsible for overseas
trade, as consuls themselves had usually done. In fact, commercial attachés were just
consuls by another name, except that they were usually relieved of their non-economic
responsibilities.

Subsequently, during the whole of the twentieth century, two administrative models as to
how the commercial staff of embassies should be appointed and supervised vied for
adoption:

1. The dedicated commercial attaché, who was a civil servant employed by a

department of trade (e.g. British Department of Overseas Trade, 1919–1943; US
Department of Commerce) but temporarily ‘attached’ to an embassy. Such attachés
(aka ‘commercial counsellors’ and ‘commercial secretaries’) might move from one
diplomatic mission to another but tended to remain at least in the same region and
also to remain specialists in this work throughout their careers. This model had the
advantage of bringing specialist knowledge and experience to bear on the task of
promoting commerce but risked creating tension between ministries at home and the
staff inside embassies; it also placed obstacles in the way of mobility of staff and
promotion.

2. The straight diplomat, who was employed by a foreign ministry and did not specialise
in commercial work, but did occasional postings in that capacity; for example, as
‘counsellor (commercial)’, ‘2nd secretary (commercial)’, and so on.

The second model was the one that came to be favoured after the Second World War by the
UK but the first seems to have remained the American preference. The advantages and
disadvantages of the second model were in general the reverse of those of the first.

The late twentieth century

26
The ultimate decisiveness of US economic resources to the outcome of the stalemated
European war of attrition between 1914 and 1918, the subsequent need for vast economic
reconstruction, the later Great Depression and the rise of economic nationalism in the
1930s, all led to a greater emphasis on economic diplomacy in its various facets – although
resistance from the old guard in the diplomatic service was often stubborn, and not just in
the ‘old world’.

Nevertheless, after the Second World War, the rise of economic priorities continued
remorselessly. The ‘ex-enemy states’ had to reclaim their markets and the ‘victor states’ had
to start worrying about their declining share of world trade and investments. After getting
stuck in Vietnam and finding itself faced not only with a resurgent Europe and Japan but also
a muscle-flexing oil cartel (OPEC), in the 1970s the economic worriers even came to include
the United States. As for the new states that emerged from the dissolving European empires,
the title embraced by them – ‘developing countries’ – was alone sufficient to indicate the
priority most of them attached to economics in their foreign as in their domestic policies.
They were followed at the end of the century by the successor states of the USSR, anxious to
replace Soviet-style socialism with market economies.

One of the consequences of these developments is that since the Second World War foreign
ministries have been under steadily increasing pressure to demonstrate that their diplomats
are giving high priority to economic diplomacy. They have also needed to do this because,
beginning in the 1960s, major improvements in transport and communications were
beginning to cast doubt – particularly in the tabloid media and on the part of multinational
corporations – on the continuing need for large networks of diplomatic missions. Why were
they still needed when telephone communications and fast, direct flights between capital
cities were by this time readily and cheaply available to businessmen? To defend their
budgets, therefore, foreign ministries needed to cultivate a domestic constituency among
businessmen with three components:

▪ big businesses (rich and politically connected), which might not usually have need
for diplomatic assistance abroad but could be persuaded of its value in particular
states of importance to them; for example, because of political instability, a tense
relationship, or state control of the economy;

▪ small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), that could less afford to project their
own influence anywhere abroad, and existed in much greater numbers; and

▪ trade associations and chambers of commerce.

27
With this domestic constituency in mind, foreign ministries began to take great pains to
advertise the economic priority they were determined to impose on their missions abroad.
The British case is probably fairly typical.

Trade and investment promotion

Trade and investment promotion represent the cutting edge of economic diplomacy. While
the agencies at home, the foreign ministry, and the economic ministries prov1ide direction,
much of the work is carried out in the field, by embassies and by overseas offices of
promot2ion agencies, within the home country policy framework.

These activities hinge on close coordination between the ministry of foreign affairs (MFA),
economic ministries, and official promotion agencies, plus associations of business and
industry, and their overseas network.

Role of non-state actors

It is mainly concerned with ‘what the governments do’ and is an activity pursued by state and
non-state actors in our ‘real world of today.’ The non-state actors engage in economic
diplomacy both by ‘shaping government policies and as independent players in their own
rights’ (Bayne and Woolcock, 2012).

28
Health diplomacy
Health diplomacy is a form of diplomacy that focuses on protecting the health and well-
being of populations across national borders. It involves using health-related issues to build
relationships, foster cooperation, and promote peace and stability between nations.

Health diplomacy is a field of diplomacy that brings together the priorities of global health
and foreign affairs. It brings together a variety of participants in areas that affect public health
all around the globe.

Its main goals, defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), are:
– better health security and population health;
– improved relations between states and a commitment of a wide range of actors to work
together to improve health; and
– achieving outcomes deemed fair and supporting the goals of reducing poverty and
increasing equity.

Health diplomacy can take many forms, including collaborative research, public health
initiatives, medical exchanges, and emergency response efforts. It is often used to address
infectious disease outbreaks, environmental health threats, and the global spread of chronic
diseases.

The COVID-19 pandemic is a good example that shows the importance of cooperation
through health diplomacy in resolving issues on a global level.

WHAT is health diplomacy?

Health diplomacy refers to the multi-level and multi-actor negotiation processes that
influence and govern the global policy environment for health. It is the applied practice of
foreign affairs to further global health goals that require international cooperation and
collective action. Health diplomacy pertains specifically to health issues that transcend
national boundaries given the substantial effects they can have on international security,
stability and socioeconomic development. Overall, the practice of health diplomacy aims to
facilitate engagement in diplomatic efforts by uniting the fields of public health, international
affairs, management, law, and economics to promote and protect global health.

29
Health Diplomacy encompasses a variety of activities such as:

▪ Multilateral engagement: Participation in international organizations, such as the

World Health Organization (WHO), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the
United Nations (UN), in order to collaborate on global health policies, exchange
information, share best practices, and coordinate responses to health challenges.

▪ Negotiation and cooperation: countries collaborate to negotiate health-related

agreements, treaties, and conventions, such as the World Health Organization’s
International Health Regulations, which provide a framework for preventing,
detecting, and responding to public health emergencies.

▪ Health aid and assistance: countries provide financial, technical, and humanitarian
assistance to support the health systems of other countries, especially in contexts
with limited resources. This may include the provision of vaccines and medical
supplies, the training of healthcare professionals, and the support of infrastructure
development.

▪ Health security and emergency response: health diplomacy is essential for

administering and responding to public health emergencies, such as disease
outbreaks and pandemics. It includes surveillance, information sharing, joint
research, and coordinated response efforts.

▪ Health promotion and advocacy: Countries use diplomacy to advocate for specific
health issues, raise awareness, and mobilize political support for global health
priorities like immunization campaigns, tobacco control, and confronting the social
determinants of health.

WHY is health diplomacy relevant?

Health diplomacy is relevant for several reasons:

▪ Global Health Challenges: In an interconnected world, health issues such as

pandemics, antimicrobial resistance and the impact of climate change on health
threatens the global population as a whole. Health diplomacy highlights the
importance of collaborative efforts to achieve health security and equity thus
promotes international cooperation and coordination to prevent, detect and respond
to global health threats.

▪ International Security: Health threats, such as pandemics or biological attacks,

have significant transnational political and security implications. Disease outbreaks

30
 can disrupt economies, strain healthcare systems, creating social and political
unrest. Health diplomacy plays a crucial role towards preventing conflict and
promoting stability throughout these crises by fostering collaboration on
surveillance, information sharing and joint response efforts.

▪ Sustainable development: A vital aspect of sustainable development is health.

Health diplomacy focuses on expanding access to high-quality healthcare,
confronting health disparities, and bolstering health systems. By engaging in health
diplomacy, countries can collaborate to attain the United Nations’ health-related
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

▪ Global Health Governance: Countries can influence the development of global

health policies, regulations, and frameworks through diplomatic negotiations and
collaborations. This facilitates the establishment of norms, standards, and
guidelines for addressing global health challenges and ensures a coordinated global
response.

▪ Socioeconomic Development: Health is closely linked to socioeconomic

development whereby countries with healthier populations tend to experience
greater economic growth and stability. Health diplomacy seeks to facilitate trade in
health-related products and services, foster research collaborations, and guarantee
access to essential pharmaceuticals. Furthermore, the practice of health diplomacy
may generate investment within health systems which can contribute to poverty
reduction, social cohesion, and sustainable development.

▪ Alleviating Health Inequities: The practice of health diplomacy focuses on

promoting health equity by addressing the social determinants of health, advocating
for fair and equitable access to healthcare resources and supporting efforts to attain
universal healthcare coverage.

HOW is health diplomacy performed?

Health diplomacy is performed through various strategies and approaches that involve
diplomatic engagement at national, regional, and global levels. Key ways in which health
diplomacy is practiced include:

▪ Health Advocacy: Health diplomats can help mobilize political support for and raise
awareness on specific global health issues. When in engaging in public diplomacy,
health diplomats convey the significance of health within the context of larger

31
 political and economic objectives with which promoted international cooperation
and generates a more coordinated global response.

▪ Bilateral and Multilateral Diplomacy: Health diplomacy is performed both

bilaterally and multilaterally. Bilateral engagements consist of diplomatic efforts
such as establishing partnerships and collaborating on healthcare infrastructure
development. Health diplomacy also takes place within multilateral organizations
such as World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations (UN), World Trade
Organization (WTO), with health diplomats attending summits and conferences that
aim to develop international agreements, guidelines, and resolutions that address
global health challenges.

▪ Health Aid and Assistance: countries may engage in health diplomacy by

supporting the health systems of other nations with financial, technical, or
humanitarian assistance. The provision of medical supplies, medicines, healthcare
training and expertise can help countries build their capacity whilst strengthening
diplomatic relations and promoting a collective approach to solving global health
challenges.

▪ Partnerships and Alliances: The practice of health diplomacy involves a multi-

stakeholder approach to solving global health issues by encouraging the formation of
alliances and partnerships between governments, international organizations, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders. Public-private
partnerships are essential towards leveraging expertise, resources, and innovative
solutions to address global health challenges and promote health equity.

▪ Research and Data Sharing: health diplomacy entails collaborations in research

and data sharing among nations to enhance comprehension and response to global
health issues. Data sharing promotes increased accuracy of surveillance and
encourages evidence-based decision making which is crucial to the establishment
of effective health-related policies and agreements.

WHO are the actors in health diplomacy?

Health diplomacy involves multiple actors operating at various levels in order to shape and
implement health-related policies and interventions. Some key actors in health diplomacy
include:

▪ International Organizations: Operating in the multilateral context, international

organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations

32
 (UN), the World Trade Organization as well as regional bodies like the European Union
(EU) play a crucial role in health diplomacy. The provide platforms for collaboration,
facilitate the coordination of global health initiatives and provide leadership as they
develop guidelines and set the global health agendas.

▪ Governments: National governments are central actors in health diplomacy as they

dictate the allocation of resources, develop health-related policies and engage in
multilateral discussions to address global health challenges. Furthermore,
subsidiaries such as ministries of health and departments of foreign affairs often
work together to formulate and advance health diplomacy objectives.

▪ Diplomatic Corps: Health diplomats represent their countries’ interests in

international conferences, forums and meetings thus play a vital role in negotiating
health agreements, enhancing diplomatic relations between nations, and advocating
for health-related issues.

▪ Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): NGOs play multifaceted roles in health

diplomacy including publicizing the diplomatic process surrounding health-related
policies, advocating for specific health issues, injecting ideas and knowledge into
dialogue and implementing health programs on the ground. They often work in
partnership with governments and international organizations to address global
health challenges, particularly in areas with limited resources.

▪ Private Sector: The private sector, which includes businesses, multinational

corporations, private foundations and more facilitate the practice of health
diplomacy through partnerships, investments and innovation. Actors in the private
sector can provide direct funding and investments towards the implementation of
global health initiatives as well as use their influence to raise awareness and
advocate for health issues.

▪ Academia and Research Institutions: academic institutions and research

organizations contribute to health diplomacy in various ways, notably through
research and data collection, communication and dissemination of information and
policy development and analysis. In addition, NGOs often act as hubs, bringing
together an array of stakeholders for discussion and collaboration on health issues
and facilitating partnerships between the public and private sector.

▪ Civil Society Organizations (CSOs): CSOs contribute to health diplomacy in several

ways. They are often at the forefront of advocacy, raising awareness on specific health
issued that tend to be underserviced. They offer a unique ‘grassroots’ perspective that
can inform and shape health policies to be more effective and inclusive. They also

33
 play a role in monitoring health initiatives and progress to ensure transparency and
accountability in the health sector.

WHEN has health diplomacy evolved?

Health diplomacy has developed over time, adapting to shifting global health challenges and
alternating international relations dynamics. Some of the key periods and specific events
that have influenced the evolution of health diplomacy include:

▪ Early 20th Century: The early 20th century marked the beginning of organized
international cooperation in health and effectively paved the way for modern health
diplomacy. One of the most significant developments throughout this era was the
establishment of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) in 1902 which
bolstered cooperation on common health issues among the countries of the
Americas.

▪ Post-World War II: the formation of the United Nations (UN) and its specialized
health agency the World Health Organization (WHO) marked the recognition of health
as an international concern. The WHO played a central role to the evolution of health
diplomacy following its broad mandate which includes setting global health
standards and policies, coordinating international health efforts, promoting health
equity, and serving as a platform for diplomatic dialogue on health matters.

▪ HIV/AIDS Pandemic: the international response to the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the

1980s and 1990s highlighted the need for health diplomacy to address a significant
health crisis. Multilateral initiatives, such as the establishment of the Global Fund to
Fight AIDS have demonstrated the significance of collaborative strategies and
resource mobilization.

▪ The Rise of Global Health Governance: In the late 20th century, the emergence of
issues such as the HIV/AIDS pandemic, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
outbreak and the Ebola Outbreak emphasized the need for enhanced global health
governance. The SARS outbreak in 2002-2003 highlighted the global
interconnectedness of health and demonstrated the necessity for international
cooperation and collaboration in disease surveillance and knowledge sharing in
order to contain and manage infectious disease outbreaks. The Ebola outbreak in
West Africa in 2014-2016 showcased the critical role of health diplomacy in
coordination rapid global response to health emergencies.

34
 ▪ COVID-19 Pandemic: The recent COVID-19 pandemic underscored existing
disparities in global health specifically in terms of healthcare capacity and vaccine
distribution. As a result, discussions on health equity are now at the forefront of
health diplomacy emphasizing the need for universal healthcare coverage and
equitable access to health resources. Furthermore, the pandemic necessitated
unprecedented levels of global collaboration which exposed the many weaknesses
of existing health diplomacy mechanisms.

WHERE is health diplomacy performed?

As a multidisciplinary field, health diplomacy is performed in various contexts including:

▪ Multilateral organizations and conferences: Institutions such as the World Health

Organization (WHO), the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank serve as platforms
for diplomatic engagement. Conferences and forums hosted by these organizations
provide opportunities for health diplomats to discuss and negotiate global health
polices and facilitate coordination on global health matters.

▪ International Health Partnerships and Initiatives: International health

partnerships and alliances such as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Gavi, the Vaccine
Alliance, or the Global Polio Eradication Initiative enable the practice of health
diplomacy by bringing together the relevant stakeholders to coordinate efforts,
combine resources and implement health interventions.

▪ Disaster Management and Humanitarian Response: Health diplomacy also takes

place in the context of humanitarian assistance and disaster management
situations. Coordination between countries, international organizations, and
humanitarian actors is crucial for effectively addressing health needs, providing
medical aid, and coordinating relief efforts in crisis-affected regions. Countries
collaborate via platforms such as the WHO’s Emergency Committee, which assists
with knowledge sharing, mobilization of resources and supporting the affected
nations.

▪ Bilateral Diplomacy: Health diplomacy is frequently conducted through bilateral

meetings and negotiations between two nations. Diplomatic missions and
embassies facilitate dialogue and coordination on specific health-related issues
based on mutual interest, ongoing collaborations, or emerging health threats.

▪ Academic and Research Institutions: Health diplomacy occurs within academic

and research institutions as universities and research centers engage is cross-border

35
 collaborations to share scientific knowledge and address global health challenges.
Scholars and researchers contribute to health diplomacy by generating evidence-
based recommendations and providing expertise that informs prioritization of health
issues.

▪ Philanthropic and Non-governmental Initiatives: Philanthropic endeavors and

non-governmental initiatives promote health diplomacy by providing financing,
forming alliances, advocating for causes, implementing programs, assisting with
research, enhancing capacities of nations to deal with health issues. They play a
crucial role in addressing global health challenges, fostering innovation, influencing
policy, and facilitating the implementation of health programs and interventions.

36
Public Diplomacy
Olympic games is much more with sport competition. It is one of the most powerful tools of
public diplomacy of the host country. We are following successes and failures of public
diplomacy in the Olympic Games, including 2024 Paris.

About public diplomacy

There is no agreed definition of public diplomacy. Fitzpatrick identified 150 definitional

statements of public diplomacy.[1] All of them can be situated between the wide and narrow
definitions of public diplomacy.

The wide definition treats it as an expression of soft power and makes the point that PD,
covering networking and other core activities, is diplomacy.[2] Such an approach is
excellent for focusing on how PD integrates all the soft outreach promotional activities
covering culture, education, the media and even some elements of economic work. This is
good as an approach but not for operational purposes because each activity has its own
context and needs.

Thus cultural outreach is PD, but it is best handled as cultural diplomacy, with its own
participants and its ground rules. The same is true of educational promotion work, consular
work, outreach to scientific and other research institutions and the like.

The narrow definition confines the focus of PD to influencing the public at home and
abroad on issues relating to foreign affairs. This is fine for concentration on the operational
activities that PD must first implement, and the specific methods that are to be deployed for
that, mostly in partnership with the other domestic actors.

For instance, the PD department in a foreign ministry can treat this definition as the basis for
its own activities. But if it were to attempt to function on the basis of the wide definition, it
would quickly find itself in contention with the agencies that handle this broad range of
activities.

Public Diplomacy in Multilateral Relations

The goal of public diplomacy for international organisations is to ensure a positive

perception of their activities among opinion formers, the media, and members of the public
who will consequently support continued involvement by their governments in the

37
organisation’s activities. This will involve persuading their audiences that the activities they
undertake are relevant and yield positive benefits.

In order to implement a successful communication or public diplomacy strategy, an

international organisation must be clear and unanimous about its goals and the message it
wants to convey. Organisation secretariats should embrace new technology and imaginative
methods of spreading their messages, identify ways to accommodate the circumstances of
the membership. All member states should promote the objectives and values of the
organisation in question and should play their part by providing the necessary financial
resources, expertise, information, and technology to allow the staff to project the right image
and message.

But several questions remain. Who should bear the principal burden of responsibility for
explaining and promoting the organisation to the national populations within the member
states? Should the secretariat of the organisation take the principal role, or should it be the
respective governments? How far can an international secretariat go in identifying
shortcomings within the membership to uphold the goals of the organisation in order to
preserve overall credibility? Who is best placed to assess public perceptions through
opinion surveys and other instruments and who is best placed to respond to specific
concerns or questions? Should the role of the secretariats be limited to anodyne glossy
publications or web-based factual information or can they take on a more strategic role? The
institutions themselves should not be subject to the vagaries and unpredictability of national
politics and can in principle take a long-term approach to public diplomacy which is often
beyond national governments. Few regional or international organisations can yet be said to
do this effectively.

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Digital diplomacy
How to handle terminological confusion regarding digital (and) diplomacy?

Before you embark on the digital (and) diplomacy journey, make sure you clarify any
terminological ambiguities……

Should it be ‘digital’, ‘cyber’, ‘tech’, ‘net’, ‘virtual’, or ‘e-‘ diplomacy?

The use of different adjectives and prefixes to describe the digitalisation of diplomacy tends
to create confusion in discussions and policies in this field. This confusion could be reduced
by having clearer instructions on what certain terms, such as ‘cyber’, ‘digital’, and ‘tech’
diplomacy cover.

For example, does ‘digital diplomacy’ refer to negotiations about digital policy issues or the
use of Twitter and Facebook for public diplomacy?

What are the three fields of digital transformation of diplomacy?

Digital transformation of diplomacy happens in three main areas:

39
Changes in the political, social, and economic ENVIRONMENT in which diplomacy is
conducted: digital and redistribution of power in international relations, new types of
conflicts, digital interdependence and sovereignty, etc.

The emergence of new policy TOPICS in diplomatic negotiations: more than 50 digital
governance topics including cybersecurity, privacy, data governance, e-commerce,
cybercrime, and AI governance.

The use of digital TOOLS in the practice of diplomacy: social media, online conferencing, big
data and AI analysis, etc.

Digital geopolitics: new ENVIRONMENT for diplomatic activities

Digital dependence makes countries highly vulnerable to any disruption of data flows.
Maintaining data flows worldwide is vital to the social stability, economic well-being, and
growth of countries. For example, the disruption of e-commerce, e-banking, and platform
services such as Airbnb and Uber, could cause great economic disruption.

Global geopolitics depends heavily on access to the main internet cables carrying internet
traffic between countries and continents. Presently, more than 90% of all global internet
traffic flows through submarine cables which mostly follow the old geographical routes used
by telegraph cables in the nineteenth century.

Internet cables are a tangible aspect of data geopolitics. Damage to cables can disconnect
an entire country from the internet, which can have profound economic and political
consequences. In 2008, the cutting of the main internet cables near Alexandria (Egypt) gave
us the first glimpse of the consequences for users and businesses in the Gulf region and
India.

Key strategic points, such as the Suez Canal and Melaka (Malaysia), remain as relevant today
as they were in the past. For example, most of the data traffic between Asia and Europe goes
via Egypt (Alexandria, the Suez Canal). Other critical points include Luzon Island
(Philippines) and Hormuz Island (Irania).

The diversity of data traffic routes has increased via terrestrial cables. Terrestrial cables are
increasingly supplanting submarine ones. The Digital Silk Road (DSR), part of China’s One
Belt – One Road initiative, aims to span Eurasia with fibre-optic cables laid along newly built
railroads and energy pipelines.

40
Digital geoeconomics

Digitalisation triggers a new distribution of economic and societal power. For example,
Apple’s market capitalisation at the end of 2020 (US$2.23 trillion) was similar to the total
2019 GDP of the entire African continent (US$2.33 trillion), and is close to the GDPs of the
UK (US$2.81 trillion), France (US$2.79 trillion), and India (US$2.69 trillion).

Following tech companies’ increasing economic and social power, many countries have
started establishing representation in tech hubs, such as Silicon Valley.

Diplomacy in the tech hubs

New digital policy centres have emerged around the fast-growing tech industry. In the USA,
digital economic dynamism is based in the San Francisco Bay Area which hosts most leading
tech companies. As the Diplo study The rise of TechPlomacy in the Bay Area shows, more
than 50 countries have been developing their representation in the Bay Area either via
traditional consulates in San Francisco or via new types of representation such as the
Swissnex hub. While the presence in the Bay Area is important for understanding what is
coming next and attracting investment, tech companies, on the other hand, station most of
their governance units in Washington DC or Boston, highlighting the growing
interdependence between governments and Big Tech.

In China, most of the digital dynamism is happening in the Shenzhen area, while Beijing acts
as the regulatory and policy centre for digital issues.

A new digital TOPIC on the diplomatic agenda & Digital foreign policy

Diplomats have to deal with a new set of digital policy issues when promoting the interests
of their countries. In many countries, digital foreign policy is emerging. Digital foreign policy
has to address – according to Diplo’s taxonomy – more than 50 digital policy
issues organised in 7 baskets: Technology, Security, Human rights, Economy, Development,
Legal, and Sociocultural.

Most of these issues are addressed in the context of the internet and digital governance.
Anyone navigating this field should be aware of potential terminological confusion.

In our illustration on digital governance below, you can find a mapping of digital policy issues
where each basket is presented as one subway line, while the issues are displayed as stops.
The map also depicts the various interplays between them.

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As visualised above, Diplo’s digital governance taxonomy has been developed through
iterative processes over the last 20 years, relying on inputs from policy processes (such as
the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) and the Internet Governance Forum
(IGF)), and research and teaching activities. Diplo’s taxonomy is a classification of internet
governance adopted in the only official classification of digital policy that was prepared by
the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (UN CSTD) in
2014: The Mapping of International Internet Public Policy Issues.

Digital policy and the UN

The UN Secretary-General’s Roadmap for Digital Cooperation (June 2020) provides an

entry point to digital policy at the United Nations.

The Roadmap builds on the report of the UN Secretary-General’s High-level Panel on Digital
Cooperation (Panel) titled ‘The Age of Digital Interdependence’.

The report, published in June 2019, provides five sets of recommendations:

▪ build an inclusive digital economy and society

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 ▪ develop human and institutional capacity

▪ protect human rights and human agency

▪ promote digital trust, security, and stability

▪ foster global digital cooperation

One of the key recommendations on digital governance outlines three proposed models for
digital governance: co-governance, IGF Plus, and Digital Commons.

A new digital TOOL for diplomacy

Diplomats use digital tools in their daily work, from negotiations and representation to
communication and policy analysis. Although the most focused is the use of social media
for public diplomacy (e.g. Twitter diplomacy, Facebook diplomacy), digital tools have a much
more substantial impact on other functions of diplomacy, as described below.

‘Zoom diplomacy’: Online meetings and e-participation

During the COVID-19 pandemic, diplomacy has shifted online to conferencing platforms
such as Zoom. However, online meetings are not as new as one might think.

The first online participation session in multilateral diplomacy was held by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) in 1963. Since then, the availability of the internet in
conference rooms has made remote participation a reality for more inclusive and open
international negotiations.

Online meetings come with many pros and cons. As the pandemic crisis has shown, they
provide business continuity. They also increase inclusion by allowing participation without
being physically present, which is often conditioned by travel and other expenses. Among
the major cons of online meetings is the lack of physical contact, which is important for
building trust and empathy that are essential for dealing with, in particular, controversial and
political issues.

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As the illustration shows, in addition to traditional physical and remote meetings, there will
be the emergence of ‘hybrid (blended)’ meetings that will combine in situ and online
participation. Hybrid meetings will require new techniques for planning and running
meetings.

Social media for public diplomacy

Currently, the most widely used e-tools by diplomatic services are X (former Twitter),
Instagram, and Facebook.

Twitter is used as a tool for public diplomacy in many countries. It remains to be seen if and
how the current controversies around Twitter will affect diplomacy.

Other social media tools used in public diplomacy include Facebook, YouTube, FlickR,
LinkedIn, Pinterest, and Instagram.

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The 5 core e-competences

The specific value of e-tools lies in the set of core skills, i.e., the five core e-competences
(5Cs) that diplomats need to harness:

1. Curate: Listening is the first step. It is done by curating information and knowledge.

2. Collaborate: While you curate, you gradually start collaborating both within your
organisation and with outside communities. You start developing your community by
sharing resources, asking questions, etc.

3. Communicate: It is time to start communicating. This skill represents the ability and
knowledge to extend your outreach and visibility.

4. Create: After curating, collaborating, and communicating, you are much more
comfortable with social media. You have a solid following. It is time to focus more on
creating your online content.

5. Critique: By now, you should have gained more social visibility. This also exposes you
to more critical comments and discussions. You need to engage in critical
discussions and learn how to manage criticism.

In the context of digital diplomacy, these competencies represent the skills and knowledge
professionals need to perform optimally in the digital world. Effective social media
campaigns are also based on these core skills. Nevertheless, the development of
competencies in digital diplomacy requires time.

On social media, we estimate that a practitioner requires:

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 ▪ One day to get acquainted with e-tools for digital diplomacy

▪ One month to become a good e-listener and to actively follow the core resources

▪ One year to become an active e-diplomat, i.e., to contribute and develop a stable
following.

These timeframes are not fixed, but they do demonstrate the ratio and proportion of time
needed for an e-diplomat to acquire and employ core e-competences.

Geneva Engage

Geneva Engage is an initiative of the Geneva Internet Platform (GIP), supported by the
Republic and State of Geneva and DiploFoundation. Through its annual event, Geneva
Engage awards the most engaging use of social media and online meetings by international
organisations, non-governmental, and non-profit organisations, as well as permanent
representations to the United Nations Office in Geneva.

AI and big data for policy analysis

Data has a lot of potential for diplomacy and evidence-based policymaking, as analysed in
the report Data Diplomacy: Updating Diplomacy to the Big Data Era (2018). The report maps
the main opportunities of big data and lists their practical applications.

20+ years of digital diplomacy

Back in 1992, there were two early digital diplomacy developments. At the Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro, civil society activists used emails and mailing lists for the first time to
coordinate their positions in lobbying and negotiations. At the same time, in Malta, the first
Unit for Computer Applications in Diplomacy was established at the Mediterranean
Academy of Diplomatic Studies. The unit later evolved into DiploFoundation, which, over the
last 20+ years, has conducted research and trained thousands of diplomats on how
computers and the internet impact diplomacy.

A summary of 20+ years of e-diplomacy would include the introduction of email, the use of
websites by diplomatic services and international organisations, the arrival of computers in
conference rooms (with the introduction of notebooks and Wi-Fi) and, most recently, the

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intensive use of social media such as blogs, Facebook, and Twitter. The introduction of each
new e-tool challenged how things were done traditionally and opened up new opportunities
for diplomats and diplomacy.

In 2010, Diplo launched the 2010 E-diplomacy Initiative, consisting of awareness building
and launching events in main diplomatic centres, including the International Conference on
E-diplomacy (June 2010, Malta). The E-diplomacy Initiative created momentum for courses,
research, and community discussions on e-diplomacy. Many issues discussed during the
events and the conference (social media, security, openness vs discretion in diplomacy)
became quite topical during the public discussions on WikiLeaks and diplomacy.

Digital diplomacy meaning: definitions and diplomatic synonyms

This table lists the main ways to define diplomatic changes brought about by technological
advancements.

NATURE OF Diplomacy Diplomatic Topics

IMPACT OF and Diplomatic
TECHNOLOGY Geopolitics Methods and Tools

Technology's The topics that

impact on diplomats debate in
supply chains, international,
the global bilateral and regional
economy, and forums include
power cybersecurity, data
distribution security, AI (artificial Diplomats use
that shapes intelligence), and digital tools such
environment ecommerce. as social media.
in which AI, data analysis,
TYPES OF diplomacy and web
DIPLOMACY operates. conferencing.

AI diplomacy Yes Yes Yes

Blockchain
Yes
diplomacy

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 NATURE OF Diplomacy Diplomatic Topics
IMPACT OF and Diplomatic
TECHNOLOGY Geopolitics Methods and Tools

Technology's The topics that

impact on diplomats debate in
supply chains, international,
the global bilateral and regional
economy, and forums include
power cybersecurity, data
distribution security, AI (artificial Diplomats use
that shapes intelligence), and digital tools such
environment ecommerce. as social media.
in which AI, data analysis,
TYPES OF diplomacy and web
DIPLOMACY operates. conferencing.

Cable diplomacy Yes Yes Yes

Chip diplomacy Yes Yes

Crypto diplomacy Yes Yes

Cyber diplomacy Yes

Data diplomacy Yes Yes

Facebook diplomacy Yes

ICT diplomacy Yes

Instagram diplomacy Yes

Internet diplomacy Yes

Metaverse
Yes
diplomacy

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 NATURE OF Diplomacy Diplomatic Topics
IMPACT OF and Diplomatic
TECHNOLOGY Geopolitics Methods and Tools

Technology's The topics that

impact on diplomats debate in
supply chains, international,
the global bilateral and regional
economy, and forums include
power cybersecurity, data
distribution security, AI (artificial Diplomats use
that shapes intelligence), and digital tools such
environment ecommerce. as social media.
in which AI, data analysis,
TYPES OF diplomacy and web
DIPLOMACY operates. conferencing.

Online diplomacy Yes Yes

Quantum diplomacy Yes Yes

Real-time diplomacy Yes

Satellite diplomacy Yes Yes

Science diplomacy Yes Yes Yes

Semiconductor
Yes Yes
diplomacy

Space diplomacy Yes Yes

Tech diplomacy Yes Yes Yes

Telegraph diplomacy Yes Yes Yes

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 NATURE OF Diplomacy Diplomatic Topics
IMPACT OF and Diplomatic
TECHNOLOGY Geopolitics Methods and Tools

Technology's The topics that

impact on diplomats debate in
supply chains, international,
the global bilateral and regional
economy, and forums include
power cybersecurity, data
distribution security, AI (artificial Diplomats use
that shapes intelligence), and digital tools such
environment ecommerce. as social media.
in which AI, data analysis,
TYPES OF diplomacy and web
DIPLOMACY operates. conferencing.

Telephone
Yes Yes Yes
diplomacy

Twitter diplomacy Yes

Virtual diplomacy Yes

Blog diplomacy Yes

Source: Jovan Kurbalija, ‘Digital Diplomacy: Issues, Actors, and Processes’ (forthcoming
publication in 2023)

What is cyber diplomacy?

Cyber diplomacy refers to using diplomatic methods – negotiations, international law, and
confidence building – to deal with cyber threats in international relations.

Sometimes cyber diplomacy is used interchangeably with digital diplomacy. The emerging
practice is that the prefix cyber, is used for dealing with cybersecurity issues, while the

50
prefix digital is used for diplomatic coverage of other policy issues such as human rights
online, data, e-commerce, and content.

Overall, cyber diplomacy is an important tool for promoting international cooperation and
addressing the challenges and opportunities presented by cyberspace. Cyberdiplomacy
includes negotiations on cybercrime and cybersecurity in the UN and regional organisations.

What is tech diplomacy?

Tech diplomacy is the practice of diplomacy engaging with the private tech sector on digital
policy and emerging technology issues. Denmark introduced the term tech diplomacy in
2017 when they appointed the first tech ambassador based in the Bay Area with the main
task of engaging with the tech sector in the Bay Area and other tech hubs worldwide.

However, tech diplomacy has also been used in some cases to describe the wider impact of
digital technologies, including digital geopolitics and negotiations on digital policy issues.

Denmark uses the name TechPlomacy to describe tech diplomacy.

12 AI and Digital Predictions for 2024

1. Artificial Intelligence

2. Geopolitics

3. Governance

4. Diplomacy

5. Security

6. Human Rights

7. Economy

8. Standards

9. Encryption

10. Identity

11. Content

12. Inclusion

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Manuals and guidelines

The e-diplomacy series of illustrations – a concept of the Digital Diplomacy team,

designed by Diplo’s CreativeLab – highlights the impact of e-diplomacy on various
diplomatic functions. The Internet has affected the way we curate information, the tools we
use to communicate, the speed at which we communicate, and the formality of
communications – among many other aspects.

FAQs on Digital Diplomacy

These FAQs were created using both human and artificial intelligence. Jovan represents
humans. He is a pioneer in digital diplomacy, education & research. In 1996, he invented the
three-part methodology for digital diplomacy, consisting of: Digital Geopolitics shaping the
environment for diplomacy, Digital Topics on diplomatic agenda and Digital Tools for
diplomatic activities.

Following this methodology, he has published dozens of publications and led Diplo’s training
on digital diplomacy and diplomacy. The training has involved more than 7000 diplomats and
other officials representing 202 territories and countries since 1996.

Artificial intelligence uses machine learning to process thousands of pages on digital

diplomacy and distil answers to your question. Jovan (expert), and AI will provide new
insights and nurture enhanced intelligence, as you can follow here.

Are cyber diplomacy and digital diplomacy equivalent terms?

Cyber diplomacy and digital diplomacy can be interchangeable, with cyber diplomacy
focusing more on security issues. Digital diplomacy involves implementing digital foreign
policy and using tools like social media. Geopolitical changes impact diplomacy, with new
topics like cybersecurity and tools such as social media being incorporated.

How should governments prepare for the metaverse?

Governments must prepare for the evolving metaverse, focusing on data protection,
cybersecurity, digital identity, and digital policy issues. Balancing physical, virtual, and
augmented realities is crucial in readiness for the metaverse.

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Is digital diplomacy different from cyber/e/net/tech/online diplomacy?

The text discusses how terms like cyber, digital, e, net, tech, and online are often used
interchangeably in diplomacy, emphasizing the importance of understanding their specific
nuances in the context of digital geopolitics.

Is online diplomatic representation permitted?

The Vienna Convention does not dictate specific forms of diplomatic representation,
allowing for various options like online diplomacy. Its legality is acknowledged, and the
trend’s future prevalence remains uncertain.

What are hybrid meetings?

Hybrid meetings allow participants to attend either in person or remotely, ensuring equal
opportunities for everyone to engage in discussions.

What is cybersecurity?

Cybersecurity entails safeguarding information systems from threats through policies,

procedures, and technical solutions, protecting against cyberwar, terrorism, and
cybercrime.

What is digital diplomacy?

Digital diplomacy encompasses the influence of digital technology on diplomatic activities

in terms of changing geopolitical and geoconomic landscapes, new items on the diplomatic
agenda, and innovative tools for diplomatic endeavors such as social media and big data.

What is digital divide?

The digital divide refers to social inequalities stemming from varying access to computers
and the Internet, evident between developed and developing countries, as well as within
different demographics and professions.

What is e-polite language?

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Online politeness is dwindling as language becomes more divisive and offensive. To
maintain e-politeness, use language carefully and avoid sarcasm to prevent causing offense.

What is internet governance?

Internet governance encompasses the collaborative efforts of governments, the private

sector, and civil society to establish shared principles, norms, rules, decision-making
processes, and programs that influence the development and utilization of the Internet, as
outlined by the World Summit on Information Society in 2005.

What is online diplomacy?

The use and importance of online diplomacy are decreasing.

What is the definition of e-politeness

E-politeness refers to demonstrating respect and courtesy in online interactions, mirroring

proper behavior expected in face-to-face communication.

What is the difference between digital diplomacy and public diplomacy?

Digital diplomacy encompasses more than just social media platforms like Twitter and
Facebook, including new technology, agenda-setting, and geopolitical shifts. Despite this
broad scope, it is often mistaken for public diplomacy due to the emphasis on these
platforms in international relations.

What are the related fields to digital diplomacy?

Digital foreign policy | Social media and public diplomacy | Online meetings and
conferences | Digital geopolitics | Diplomacy in tech hubs | Literature and
research | Courses and training | Data and diplomacy | AI and
diplomacy | Cybermediation | History of technology and diplomacy

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Science diplomacy
What is science diplomacy?

There are three types of science diplomacy (AAAS and Royal Society, 2010):

▪ Science in diplomacy is about the use of scientific advice for foreign policy decision-
making. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the United
Nations is an important example. Established in 1988, the IPCC brings together the
latest scientific advice on climate change.

▪ Diplomacy for science often include large-scale research facilities, which given their
cost and resource intensity can only be built through collaboration among a number
of countries. The most example of diplomacy for science is the European
Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), which was established in 1954 after
negotiations between 12 founding member states.

▪ Science for diplomacy is the promotion of a more peaceful world through scientific
cooperation. CERN is also an example of science for diplomacy. A commonly cited
recent example of science for diplomacy is the Synchrotron-light for Experimental
Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME), a research facility based in
Jordan. It’s members are Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Pakistan,
Palestine, and Turkey. This is very notable as the diplomatic relationships between
some of the members are very strained. Iran54 and Israel, for example, have not had
direct diplomatic relationships since 1979.

How is science diplomacy conducted?

▪ Development and management of international cooperation

▪ Negotiations

▪ Diplomatic reporting

A good example of the practice of science diplomacy is CERN, the European Organization
for Nuclear Research CERN. Its founding reveals two different aspects of practising science
diplomacy. Have a sneak peak into our science diplomacy online course and learn more
about CERN’s origin story.

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Why does science diplomacy matter?

Science diplomacy matters because it provides a vital mechanism for addressing global
challenges, promoting international cooperation, and advancing national interests. Its
historical roots and current relevance underscore its importance in the modern world.

As we face increasingly complex global issues, science diplomacy offers a pathway to

collaborative solutions that benefit all of humanity. By fostering scientific collaboration and
integrating scientific expertise into foreign policy, science diplomacy can help create a more
peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world.

Who are science diplomats?

States and their representatives

The main actors are states. According to Flink and Schreiterer (2010) they are motivated to
participate in science diplomacy by the following main goals:

▪ Access: Ensure access to ‘researchers, research findings and research facilities

natural resources and capital’ (Flink and Schreiterer, 2010, p. 669)

▪ Promotion: Promote the country’s research and development achievements

▪ Influence: Impact public opinions abroad and the opinion of foreign decisionmakers

▪ Research cooperation: Support participation in large-scale research efforts that

would otherwise not be realistic or possible

▪ Addressing global challenges: Work towards addressing global challenges such as

climate change

When it comes to putting these goals into practice, diplomats and official representatives
are called upon.

Scientists serving as science attachés

Some of the first science attachés were scientists who were sent abroad to represent their
country. We already mentioned the zoologist Charles Wardell Stiles, the US science attaché
in the 19th century. The USA maintained one of the biggest networks of science attachés,
including 24 attachés at the height of the science attachés programme in 1987 (Linkov et al.,
2014).

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The appointment of science attachés often follows broader strategic interests.77 In 2009,
former US president Obama appointed three science attachés to Muslim-majority countries
following his outreach efforts to the Muslim world (El-Baz, 2010).

Many examples of science attachés come from the Global North.78 However, looking more
closely, we can identify cases of scientists acting as state representatives from the Global
South. The term ‘science attaché’ is often not used in these cases, and does not strictly
apply, but parts of the practice of these individuals do fit within a broader understanding of
the work of science attachés. Hornsby and Parshotam (2018) looked at the participation of
states from sub-Saharan Africa in international food standard-setting. They found that some
‘scientists act as state representatives, advancing an interest-based position in negotiations
around scientifically based international standards’.

Scientists who serve in this role need to have a good understanding of diplomacy and
international relations. More often than not, their science communication skills are called
upon. They also need to navigate a fine line between their role as scientists and their role as
envoys. Science advisors working with foreign ministries have a global network called
the Foreign Ministries S&T Advice Network (FMSTAN).

Officials from other ministries and national institutions

If we look at current case studies, we see that some science attachés are seconded from
other ministries, national scientific institutions, and other relevant domestic stakeholders.
Looking at the case of France, for example, Flink and Schreiterer (2010) found that science
attachés ‘are seconded from different institutional stakeholders according to their individual
agenda with respect to the region’ that they are sent to.

It is also worth noting that in some cases, other ministries, such as the ministry for the
economy or science and innovation, take the lead on science diplomacy efforts. For
example, South Africa created the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology,
which became the Department of Science and Technology in 2002, and was later renamed
the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI). It aims to pursue a ‘concerted science
diplomacy strategy’ (Pandor, 2012). Different institutional cultures and perspectives on the
main goals of science diplomacy can, in these cases, complicate finding a coherent and
sustained approach.

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Diplomats with a portfolio that includes science and technology

Diplomats who serve as official representatives of their countries also practice science
diplomacy. Some simply touch upon science diplomacy practices as part of their work. For
example, trade negotiators might need to liaise and collaborate with scientists back home
on specialised questions. Diplomats based in Geneva might find themself in meetings at
CERN regarding their countries’ membership.

In addition, career diplomats are also appointed to specific roles that give their practice a
clear focus on science diplomacy. These include: special ambassadors or envoys for
science diplomacy, scientific counsellors, and tech ambassadors.

Networks abroad

There are also outreach posts of states or groups of states for diplomatic and scientific
interactions. They engage in science diplomacy, but do not have the status of an embassy.
Sometimes they have the status of a consulate85, but only perform consular work in major
emergency situations. Examples include:

▪ Switzerland’s Swissnex network

▪ The Ibero-American Programme for Science, Technology and Development

(CYTED) (Gual Soler, 2014)

▪ The UK Science and Innovation Network (SIN)

▪ Open Austria in Silicon Valley

Where is science diplomacy performed?

Science diplomacy is performed in various contexts, including international agreements,

collaborative research projects, and multilateral forums. It often takes place in settings such
as:

International organisations: Institutions like the United Nations (UN), World Health
Organisation (WHO), and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) facilitate science diplomacy by bringing together countries to address global
challenges through scientific collaboration. Here are a few examples of science diplomacy
at international organisations:

▪ The UNESCO Science Report (every five years)

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 ▪ The World Science Forum (every two years)

▪ A number of international science programmes

Bilateral and multilateral relations: Countries may enter agreements to collaborate on

scientific research, share data, or address issues like climate change, health crises, or
technological advancements. For example, the Paris Agreement on climate change involves
scientific input to formulate strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Scientific conferences and workshops: These events allow scientists and policymakers from
different countries to exchange knowledge, discuss research findings, and build networks
that can lead to collaborative efforts in addressing global issues.

Research institutions and universities: Many universities and research institutions engage in
international partnerships that promote science diplomacy. Collaborative projects can lead
to shared knowledge and innovations that benefit multiple countries.The World Academy of
Sciences (TWAS) is highly active academic actor in science diplomacy.

Public engagement and outreach: Science diplomacy can also occur through public
engagement initiatives, where scientists communicate their research to policymakers and
the public, fostering understanding and support for scientific approaches to global
challenges.

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Climate diplomacy
Climate diplomacy refers to the use of diplomatic channels and strategies to address global
climate change and its impact on international relations. It involves negotiating and
implementing climate-related policies, treaties, and agreements at the international level,
as well as cooperation between countries and other stakeholders to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, adapt to the impacts of climate change, and promote sustainable development.

The European Commission defines four strands of climate diplomacy at the political level:

▪ committing to multilateralism in climate policy, particularly to the implementation of

the Paris Agreement;

▪ addressing implications of climate change on peace and security

Accelerating domestic action and raising global ambition;

▪ enhancing international climate cooperation through advocacy and outreach

Climate diplomacy also includes emphasizing climate action with global partners through
diplomatic talks, public diplomacy, and external policy tools.

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Climate Building Illustration

This is how DiploFoundation illustrates the complexity of climate change.

The first version of the Climate building was released at the time of the Copenhagen Summit
in 2009. Since then, it has been regularly upgraded based on comments from diplomats,
experts, and the general public. You can also find climate change buildings in multiple
languages.

International processes on climate diplomacy

The Cartagena Dialogue aimes to reduce divide division between developed and
developing countries in climate negotiations. It is an informal grouping of countries.

The “Friends of Fossil Fuel Subsidies Reform” (FFFSR) gathers countries that work on
search for subsidies for traditional fossil fuels. This interplay brings in closer nexus global
energy geopolitics, national interests, and climate actions.

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