Exercises

Basic level

Exercise 1.1.

Explain the notions of grammatical word, orthographic word, word-form and

lexeme. Use the italicised words in the following examples to show the
differences

between these notions.

(19) a. Franky walked to Hollywood every morning.

b. You’ll never walk alone.

c. Patricia had a new walking stick.

Grammatical word: A grammatical word is a unit of language that

carries meaning and functions within a sentence. It encompasses various
parts of speech such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. In the
examples provided, the italicized words "walked," "walk," and "walking" are
grammatical words as they convey actions (verbs) within the sentences.

Orthographic word: An orthographic word refers to a word as it appears

in written form, typically separated by spaces or punctuation marks. It is
based on the conventions of spelling and punctuation. In the examples, each
italicized word, such as "walked," "walk," and "walking," represents an
orthographic word.

Word-form: Word-form refers to the inflected or modified versions of a

word that indicate grammatical features such as tense, number, person, etc.
It includes variations of a word that result from morphological changes. In
the examples, "walked" is the past tense form of the verb "walk," "walk" is
the base form, and "walking" is the present participle form. Each of these
variations represents a different word-form derived from the same lexeme.

Lexeme: A lexeme is the abstract unit of meaning that underlies

various inflected forms of a word. It represents the base or dictionary form of
a word and encompasses all its inflected forms. In the examples, "walk"
serves as the lexeme, representing the core meaning of the action of
walking. "Walked" and "walking" are inflected forms derived from this
lexeme, each carrying a specific grammatical feature (past tense and
present participle, respectively).

Exercise 1.2.

Define the following terms and give three examples illustrating each term:
morpheme, prefix, suffix, affix, compound, root, truncation

Morpheme:

- Definition: The smallest unit of meaning in a language.

- Examples:

1. "Un-" in "unhappiness" (denoting negation)

2. "-s" in "cats" (denoting plural)

3. "Jump-" in "jumping" (denoting action)

Prefix:

- Definition: An affix attached to the beginning of a word to modify its

meaning.

- Examples:

1. "Un-" in "unhappy" (meaning not)

2. "Pre-" in "preview" (meaning before)

3. "Dis-" in "disagree" (meaning not)

Suffix:

- Definition: An affix attached to the end of a word to modify its meaning.

- Examples:

1. "-ness" in "happiness" (forming a noun from an adjective)

2. "-able" in "comfortable" (forming an adjective)

3. "-ly" in "quickly" (forming an adverb)

Affix:

- Definition: A morpheme attached to a word to modify its meaning,

including both prefixes and suffixes.

- Examples:
 1. "Un-" and "-able" in "uncomfortable"

2. "Re-" and "-ed" in "restarted"

3. "Pre-" and "-tion" in "pretension"

Compound:

- Definition: A word formed by combining two or more words.

- Examples:

1. "Firefly" (fire + fly)

2. "Blackboard" (black + board)

3. "Lighthouse" (light + house)

Root:

- Definition: The main morpheme of a word, typically conveying its core

meaning and around which other morphemes are attached.

- Examples:

1. "Play" in "playful"

2. "Think" in "thoughtful"

3. "Sleep" in "sleeping"

Truncation:

- Definition: The process of shortening a word by removing one or more

syllables.

- Examples:

1. "Phone" from "telephone"

2. "Ad" from "advertisement"

3. "Hypo" from "hypothetical"

3. Identify the individual morphemes in the words given below and

determine

whether they are free or bound morphemes, suffixes, prefixes or roots.

Computerize, bathroom, unthinkable, numerous, intersperse, actors

Computerize:

- Morphemes:

- "com-" (prefix)

- "puter" (root)

- "-ize" (suffix)

- Classification:

- "com-" is a prefix (bound morpheme).

- "puter" is a root (free morpheme).

- "-ize" is a suffix (bound morpheme).

Bathroom:

- Morphemes:

- "bath" (root)

- "-room" (suffix)

- Classification:

- "bath" is a root (free morpheme).

- "-room" is a suffix (bound morpheme).

Unthinkable:

- Morphemes:

- "un-" (prefix)

- "think" (root)

- "-able" (suffix)

- Classification:

- "un-" is a prefix (bound morpheme).

- "think" is a root (free morpheme).

- "-able" is a suffix (bound morpheme).

Numerous:

- Morphemes:
 - "numer" (root)

- "-ous" (suffix)

- Classification:

- "numer" is a root (free morpheme).

- "-ous" is a suffix (bound morpheme).

Intersperse:

- Morphemes:

- "inter-" (prefix)

- "sperse" (root)

- Classification:

- "inter-" is a prefix (bound morpheme).

- "sperse" is a root (free morpheme).

Actors:

- Morphemes:

- "act" (root)

- "-or" (suffix)

- "-s" (suffix)

- Classification:

- "act" is a root (free morpheme).

- "-or" is a suffix (bound morpheme).

- "-s" is a suffix (bound morpheme).

Exercise 1.4.

Consider the following sentence:

Textbook writers are sometimes grateful for comments and scholarly advice.

a. List all morphemes in (4). How many morphemes can you detect?

b. List all complex words and state which type of morphological process
(inflection, derivation, or compounding) it is an example of.

a. List of all morphemes in the sentence:

- Textbook (morphemes: text + book)

- writers (morpheme: writer + s)

- are (morpheme: are)

- sometimes (morpheme: some + time + s)

- grateful (morpheme: grate + ful)

- for (morpheme: for)

- comments (morphemes: comment + s)

- and (morpheme: and)

- scholarly (morphemes: scholar + ly)

- advice (morpheme: advis + e)

Total number of morphemes detected: 14

b. List of all complex words and their morphological processes:

1. Textbook - Compounding (combining "text" and "book").

2. Writers - Inflection (adding the plural marker "-s" to "writer").

3. Sometimes - Compounding (combining "some" and "time") and Inflection

(adding the plural marker "-s").

4. Grateful - Derivation (adding the suffix "-ful" to "grate").

5. Comments - Inflection (adding the plural marker "-s" to "comment").

6. Scholarly - Derivation (adding the suffix "-ly" to "scholar").

7. Advice - Derivation (adding the suffix "-e" to "advis").

Basic level 2 – pag. 55

Exercise 2.1.
Describe three major problems involved in the notion of morpheme. Use the

following word pairs for illustration

a. (to) father - (a) father

(to) face - (a) face

b. David - Dave

Patricia - Trish

c. bring - brought

keep – kept

The notion of morpheme, while essential in linguistic analysis, presents

several challenges due to its complexity and variability.

1. Lack of One-to-One Correspondence:

- In the pairs:

- "father" vs. "a father"

- "face" vs. "a face"

- Problem:

- The morpheme "a" doesn't have a clear one-to-one correspondence with

a specific meaning or function. It's a determiner in English grammar, but its
relationship with the nouns "father" and "face" varies. While "a" indicates
singularity, it doesn't carry a distinct semantic meaning on its own. This lack
of correspondence complicates the analysis of morphemes because not
every word or form can be neatly segmented into discrete morphemes.

2. Variability in Morphological Processes:

- In the pairs:

- "David" vs. "Dave"

- "Patricia" vs. "Trish"

- Problem:

- The morphological processes involved in forming diminutives or

nicknames, such as truncation or abbreviation, can vary widely across
languages and even within dialects of the same language. For instance,
"David" can be shortened to "Dave," but "Patricia" can be abbreviated to
"Trish." The variability in morphological processes makes it challenging to
establish consistent rules for identifying morphemes, especially in cases
where multiple forms can derive from a single base word.

3. Irregular Morphological Patterns:

- In the pairs:

- "bring" vs. "brought"

- "keep" vs. "kept"

- Problem:

- English, like many languages, contains irregular morphological patterns

where the formation of certain words doesn't follow regular rules or patterns.
For example, "bring" transforms into "brought" in the past tense, and "keep"
becomes "kept." These irregularities can complicate morpheme analysis
because they defy predictable patterns and require memorization or
familiarity with the language's lexicon. Irregularities add another layer of
complexity when attempting to segment words into morphemes, as they
don't conform to standard morphological rules.

Exercise 2.2.

Discuss the morphological structure of the following words. Are they

morphologically complex? How many morphemes do they contain? Provide a
meaning for each morpheme that you detect.

Report, refrain, regard, retry, rest, rephrase, reformat, retain, remain, restate

1. Report:

- Morphologically complex: Yes

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "port" (meaning carry)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:
 - "re-" signifies repetition or reversal.

- "port" denotes carrying or conveying information.

2. Refrain:

- Morphologically complex: Yes

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "frain" (meaning hold back or abstain)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" indicates repetition or reversal.

- "frain" implies holding back or abstaining from something.

3. Regard:

- Morphologically complex: No

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "gard" (meaning look or consider)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" signifies repetition or reversal.

- "gard" denotes looking at or considering something.

4. Retry:

- Morphologically complex: Yes

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

 - "try" (meaning attempt)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" indicates repetition or reversal.

- "try" signifies making an attempt or effort.

5. Rest:

- Morphologically complex: No

- Morphemes:

- "rest" (meaning relax or cease activity)

- Total morphemes: 1

- Meaning:

- "rest" implies relaxation or ceasing activity.

6. Rephrase:

- Morphologically complex: Yes

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "phrase" (meaning group of words expressing an idea)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" indicates repetition or reversal.

- "phrase" denotes a group of words expressing an idea.

7. Reformat:

- Morphologically complex: Yes

- Morphemes:
 - "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "format" (meaning arrangement or layout)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" signifies repetition or reversal.

- "format" denotes the arrangement or layout of something.

8. Retain:

- Morphologically complex: No

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "tain" (meaning hold)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" signifies repetition or reversal.

- "tain" implies holding onto something.

9. Remain:

- Morphologically complex: No

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "main" (meaning stay or continue)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" signifies repetition or reversal.

- "main" denotes staying or continuing.

10. Restate:

- Morphologically complex: Yes

- Morphemes:

- "re-" (meaning again or back)

- "state" (meaning express or declare)

- Total morphemes: 2

- Meaning:

- "re-" indicates repetition or reversal.

- "state" denotes expressing or declaring something.

Exercise 2.3.

Explain the notion of stem allomorphy using the following words for
illustration.

Transcribe the words in phonetic transcription and compare the phonetic

forms.

active – activity
curious - curiosity
affect - affection
possess – possession

The notion of stem allomorphy refers to variations in the base or stem form
of a word due to changes in its morphological context or inflectional
patterns. Stem allomorphy typically occurs when a word undergoes
morphological changes, such as when adding affixes or forming different
grammatical forms.
Active - Activity:

- Stem: "activ-"

- Allomorphs: "active" and "activity"

- Phonetic Transcription:

- "active": /ˈæktɪv/

- "activity": /ækˈtɪvɪti/
 - Comparison:

- The stem "activ-" undergoes a phonological change when forming the

noun "activity." The vowel sound in the first syllable changes from /æ/ in
"active" to /æk/ in "activity," demonstrating stem allomorphy.

Curious - Curiosity:

- Stem: "curios-"

- Allomorphs: "curious" and "curiosity"

- Phonetic Transcription:

- "curious": /ˈkjʊriəs/

- "curiosity": /ˌkjʊriˈɒsɪti/

- Comparison:

- The stem "curios-" undergoes a phonological change when forming the

noun "curiosity." The vowel sound in the second syllable changes from /iəs/
in "curious" to /ɒsɪti/ in "curiosity," indicating stem allomorphy.

Affect - Affection:

- Stem: "affect-"

- Allomorphs: "affect" and "affection"

- Phonetic Transcription:

- "affect": /əˈfɛkt/

- "affection": /əˈfɛkʃən/

- Comparison:

- The stem "affect-" undergoes a phonological change when forming the

noun "affection." The final consonant sound changes from /t/ in "affect" to /ʃ/
in "affection," illustrating stem allomorphy.

Possess - Possession:

- Stem: "possess-"

- Allomorphs: "possess" and "possession"

- Phonetic Transcription:
 - "possess": /pəˈzɛs/

- "possession": /pəˈzɛʃən/

- Comparison:

- The stem "possess-" undergoes a phonological change when forming the

noun "possession." The final consonant sound changes from /s/ in "possess"
to /ʃ/ in "possession," demonstrating stem allomorphy.

The examples provided illustrate how the phonetic forms of words

change as a result of morphological processes, highlighting the concept of
stem allomorphy in linguistics.

Basic level 3 – 85-89

Exercise 3.1.

This exercise is to test the hypothesis that among hapaxes there is a large
proportion of

neologisms. We will use derivatives in -ize as they occur in the 20 million

word Cobuild

Corpus (as given in Plag 1999:279). The data below are the first 16 items
from the

alphabetical list of hapaxes in -ize.

Academicize, aerobicize, aerolize, aluminiumize, anthologize,

anthropomorphize, apostasized, arabize, archaize, astrologize, attitudinize,
austrianize, bilingualize, botanize, canadianize, carbonize

Check these hapaxes in one or two large dictionaries for verification of their
status as neologisms. How many of them are listed? Does your result support
the hypothesis?

I search the words from the Cambridge Dictionary

NOT DONE

3.2

Calculate the missing P measures for the following suffixes on the basis of
the figures

given in the following table:

Frequency of affixes in the BNC (from Plag et al. 1999) and OED (from Plag
2002)

V N n1 P OED
neologism
-able 933 140627 311 0.0022 185
-ful 136 2615 60 0.023 22
’’measure’
’
-ful 154 77316 22 0.00028 14
‘’property’’
-ion 2392 1369116 524 1.144 625
-ish 491 7745 262 0.0173 101
-ist 1207 98823 354 552
-ity 1372 371747 341 0.177 487
-ize 658 100496 212 0.0021 273
-less 681 28340 272 3.211 103
-ness 2466 106957 943 0.0088 279
-wise 183 2091 128 0.061 12

3.3

The nominal suffixes -ation, -ication, -ion, -ance, -al, -age, -y and -ment are
roughly

synonymous. The obvious question is which mechanisms govern their

distribution, i.e.

which verb takes which suffix. We will try to answer this question only for a
subset of verbs, namely those derived by the suffixation of -ify, -ize, and -
ate. Consider the data below, which exemplify the nominalization of the
pertinent verbs magnify, verbalize and concentrate as examples. State the
restrictions that constrain the selection of nominalizing suffixes with derived
verbs of these types.

magnification verbalization concentration

*magnify-ation *verbalize-cation *concentrate-ation

*magnify-ion *verbalize-ion *concentrate-cation

*magnify-ance *verbalize-ance *concentrate-ance

*magnify-al *verbalize-al *concentrate-al

*magnify-age *verbalize-age *concentrate-age

*magnify-ment *verbalize-ment *concentrate-ment

The data provided shows the attempted nominalization of the verbs

"magnify," "verbalize," and "concentrate" using various suffixes such as -
ation, -ion, -ance, -al, -age, and -ment. However, not all combinations result
in grammatical or commonly accepted forms. From the data, we can deduce
certain restrictions or patterns governing the selection of nominalizing
suffixes with derived verbs of these types:

1. -ation suffix: It appears that this suffix is not generally compatible with
verbs derived from -ify, -ize, and -ate. None of the combinations (*magnify-
ation, *verbalize-ation, *concentrate-ation) result in acceptable nominalized
forms.

2. -ion suffix: Similarly, the -ion suffix does not seem to be a preferred option
for nominalizing verbs derived from -ify, -ize, and -ate. None of the
combinations (*magnify-ion, *verbalize-ion, *concentrate-ion) result in
acceptable forms.

3. -ance suffix: The -ance suffix is also not a common choice for nominalizing
these types of verbs. None of the combinations (*magnify-ance, *verbalize-
ance, *concentrate-ance) result in acceptable forms.

4. -al suffix: There is a potential pattern where the -al suffix can be appended
to these derived verbs to form acceptable nominalized forms. However, this
pattern is not consistent across all verbs. For example, "magnification" and
"verbalization" are acceptable, but "concentration" (not *concentratal) is
preferred.
5. -age suffix:The -age suffix is not a common choice for nominalizing these
derived verbs. None of the combinations (*magnify-age, *verbalize-age,
*concentrate-age) result in acceptable forms.

6. -ment suffix: The -ment suffix is another option for nominalizing these
derived verbs. All three combinations (magnify-ment, verbalize-ment,
concentrate-ment) result in acceptable forms.

Overall, it appears that the nominalization of verbs derived from -ify, -

ize, and -ate is more commonly achieved using the -al and -ment suffixes,
while other suffixes such as -ation, -ion, -ance, and -age are less commonly
used or not preferred at all. However, there may be exceptions and
variations depending on specific words and contexts.

III – 131-132

Exercise 4.1

This exercise is designed to train your methodological skills. The aim is to

extract data from the OED for the suffix -able. Do so separately for the 17th
century, the 18th century and for the second half of the 20th century. Choose
the file with the smallest amount of words and clean the raw data. Take note
of those forms where it was problematic to decide whether to include or
exclude the form in question. On which basis did you include or exclude
items? Try to formulate your methodology and justify your decisions as
accurately as possible.

NOT DONE

4.2

Part 1:

What do the suffixes -ion and -ure have in common, apart from their being
nominalizing suffixes? Examine the following data and state your
generalization as accurately as possible. Focus on the morpho-phonological
side of the matter. You may formulate your generalizations in the form of a
morpho-phonological rule similar to the one for -al/-ar discussed in Chapter
2, section 2.
a. erode ® erosion

compose ® composure

conclude ® conclusion

erase ® erasure

confuse ® confusion

close ® closure

persuade ® persuasion

dipose ® disposure

The suffixes "-ion" and "-ure" have several morpho-phonological similarities:

1. Vowel Quality Preservation: When attaching either suffix to a base word

ending in a consonant, the quality of the vowel in the base word is generally
preserved in the derived noun.

2. Consonant Alteration: The final consonant of the base word may undergo
alteration before the addition of the suffix. In particular, voiced consonants
may become voiceless or undergo other phonetic changes.

Based on the provided data, we can formulate a morpho-phonological rule

similar to the one for "-al/-ar":

Rule: When attaching the suffixes "-ion" and "-ure" to a base word ending in
a consonant, the vowel quality is generally preserved, while the final
consonant of the base word may undergo alteration.

NOT DONE

Part 2:

Do the same for the suffixes -ity, -ize, -ify, -ism on the bases of the following
data:

b. atomic ® atomicity classic ® classicize

iambic ® iambicity erotic ® eroticize

historic ® historicity opaque ® opacify

opaque ® opacity classic ® classicism

historic ® historicize romantic ® romanticism

Still not done

IV – 166

5.1

Exercise 5.1

The following words are the products of non-affixational derivation. Find the
base

words from which they are derived and name the type of non-affixational
process by

which the derivative was formed. Consult a dictionary, if necessary.

Greg UFO boycott deli OED

Caltech Amerindian frogurt laser intro

Here are the base words and the type of non-affixational process by which
each derivative was formed:

1. **Greg:**

- Base word: Gregory

- Type of non-affixational process: Clipping (shortening of Gregory)

2. **UFO:**

- Base word: Unidentified Flying Object

 - Type of non-affixational process: Acronym formation (UFO stands for
Unidentified Flying Object)

3. **boycott:**

- Base word: Boy

- Type of non-affixational process: Eponymy (derived from the name of

Charles C. Boycott, an English land agent)

4. **deli:**

- Base word: Delicatessen

- Type of non-affixational process: Clipping (shortening of Delicatessen)

5. **OED:**

- Base word: Oxford English Dictionary

- Type of non-affixational process: Acronym formation (OED stands for

Oxford English Dictionary)

6. **Caltech:**

- Base word: California Institute of Technology

- Type of non-affixational process: Acronym formation (Caltech stands for

California Institute of Technology)

7. **Amerindian:**

- Base word: American Indian

- Type of non-affixational process: Blend (combination of American and

Indian)

8. **frogurt:**
 - Base word: Frozen Yogurt

- Type of non-affixational process: Blend (combination of Frozen and

Yogurt)

9. **laser:**

- Base word: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

- Type of non-affixational process: Acronym formation (laser stands for

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

10. **intro:**

- Base word: Introduction

- Type of non-affixational process: Clipping (shortening of Introduction)

These derivations showcase various non-affixational processes such as

clipping, acronym formation, and blending, which are common methods of
word formation in English.

5.2

What are the three main theoretical problems concerning conversion?

Illustrate each

problem with an example.

Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is a word formation process

where a word changes its syntactic category without adding any affixes.
Despite its apparent simplicity, conversion presents several theoretical
problems in linguistic analysis. Here are three main theoretical problems
concerning conversion, along with examples illustrating each problem:

1. **Lexical Ambiguity:**
 The process of conversion can lead to lexical ambiguity, where the same
word form can belong to multiple syntactic categories, resulting in different
meanings or interpretations.

Example:

- "She will ring the bell." (Verb: ring - to produce a sound by striking a bell)

- "She wore a ring on her finger." (Noun: ring - a piece of jewelry worn on
the finger)

In the first sentence, "ring" functions as a verb, indicating the action of

producing a sound by striking a bell. In the second sentence, "ring" functions
as a noun, referring to a piece of jewelry. The same word form can belong to
different syntactic categories, leading to lexical ambiguity.

2. **Semantic Transparency:**

Conversion sometimes leads to words whose meanings are not

transparently related to their base forms, making it difficult to predict the
meaning of the derived word based solely on its form.

Example:

- "The dog will bark at the stranger." (Verb: bark - to emit a loud, sharp
sound)

- "The tree has a rough bark." (Noun: bark - the protective outer covering
of a tree)

In the first sentence, "bark" functions as a verb, indicating the action of

emitting a loud, sharp sound. In the second sentence, "bark" functions as a
noun, referring to the protective outer covering of a tree. The semantic
relationship between the two meanings is not immediately transparent
based solely on the word form.

3. Syntactic Ambiguity:

Conversion can sometimes create syntactic ambiguity, where the same

word form can be interpreted differently in terms of its syntactic function
within a sentence.
Example:

- "I will present the project." (Verb: present - to show or introduce

something)

- "She received many presents on her birthday." (Noun: present - a gift

given to someone)

In the first sentence, "present" functions as a verb, indicating the action of

showing or introducing something. In the second sentence, "presents"
functions as a noun, referring to gifts given to someone. The same word form
can be interpreted differently in terms of its syntactic role within a sentence,
leading to syntactic ambiguity.

5.3

What is ‘prosodic’ in prosodic morphology? What distinguishes prosodic

morphology from other types of morphology? Choose name truncations
versus –ness suffixation for illustration.

In prosodic morphology, "prosodic" refers to the patterns of stress,

tone, and rhythm in language. It involves the study of how these prosodic
features interact with the morphological structure of words.

What distinguishes prosodic morphology from other types of

morphology is that it focuses on the role of prosody in shaping the structure
and formation of words. Unlike other types of morphology that primarily deal
with the internal structure of words (such as affixation, compounding, and
derivation), prosodic morphology considers how prosodic features influence
morphological processes and patterns. To illustrate the distinction between
prosodic morphology and other types of morphology, let's compare two
processes: name truncations and -ness suffixation.

1. Name Truncations:

- In name truncations, part of a word (typically a proper name) is shortened

or truncated to create a new word or form.

- Example: "Mike" (shortened form of "Michael"), "Tom" (shortened form of

"Thomas").
 - This process primarily involves changes in the segmental structure of
words, without significant consideration of prosodic features.

2. -ness Suffixation:

- In -ness suffixation, the suffix "-ness" is added to a base word to form a

noun denoting a state, quality, or condition associated with the base word.

- Example: "happiness" (state of being happy), "sadness" (state of being

sad).

- While -ness suffixation primarily involves changes in the morphological

structure of words, prosodic factors can influence the placement of stress
within the derived words. For example, in "happiness," the stress falls on the
first syllable ("-hap-"), whereas in "sadness," the stress falls on the second
syllable ("-sad-"). This stress placement can be influenced by prosodic
considerations.

The distinction lies in the fact that prosodic morphology considers how
stress, tone, and rhythm interact with morphological processes, such as
suffixation, truncation, compounding, and derivation, whereas other types of
morphology primarily focus on the internal structure and composition of
words.

V – 209

Exercise 6.1.

Classify the words as being products of either inflection, derivation or

compounding.

Justify your analysis in the potentially problematic cases.

blackboard eraser unacceptability flowerpots movie monster

broad-shouldered hard-working speaking developmental

To classify the words provided as products of inflection, derivation, or

compounding, let's analyze each word and justify our analysis:

1. **blackboard:**
 - Classification: Compounding

- Justification: "blackboard" is formed by combining the two nouns "black"

and "board" to create a new word referring to a surface for writing or
drawing, typically in a classroom setting.

2. **eraser:**

- Classification: Derivation

- Justification: "eraser" is derived from the verb "erase" by adding the suffix
"-er," which indicates a person or thing that performs an action. In this case,
an "eraser" is a tool used to erase or remove marks.

3. **unacceptability:**

- Classification: Derivation

- Justification: "unacceptability" is formed by adding the prefix "un-"

(indicating negation) to the base word "accept," followed by the suffix "-
ability" (indicating the state or quality of being). This process results in the
formation of a noun indicating the quality of not being acceptable.

4. **flowerpots:**

- Classification: Compounding

- Justification: "flowerpots" is a compound word formed by combining the

two nouns "flower" and "pots." It refers to pots used for planting flowers.

5. **movie:**

- Classification: Derivation

- Justification: "movie" is derived from the word "move" by adding the

suffix "-ie," which is a diminutive suffix. It denotes a smaller or informal
version of something, in this case, a shortened form of "moving picture."

6. **monster:**
 - Classification: Derivation

- Justification: "monster" is derived from the Latin word "monstrum" via Old
French "monstre." It is a noun indicating a large, ugly, and frightening
imaginary creature.

7. **broad-shouldered:**

- Classification: Compounding

- Justification: "broad-shouldered" is a compound adjective formed by

combining the adjective "broad" with the noun "shouldered." It describes
someone with broad shoulders.

8. **hard-working:**

- Classification: Compounding

- Justification: "hard-working" is a compound adjective formed by

combining the adjective "hard" with the present participle of the verb "work."
It describes someone who works diligently or industriously.

9. **speaking:**

- Classification: Derivation

- Justification: "speaking" is derived from the verb "speak" by adding the

suffix "-ing," which forms the present participle or gerund form of the verb. In
this case, "speaking" functions as a gerund or verbal noun.

10. **developmental:**

- Classification: Derivation

- Justification: "developmental" is derived from the noun "development" by

adding the suffix "-al," which indicates relating to or characterized by
something. In this case, "developmental" pertains to or involves
development.
6.2

Name three general characteristics of English compounds. Use the data

below for illustration.

oak-tree

drawbridge

sky-blue

mind-boggling

Three general characteristics of English compounds are:

1. **Compositionality:** The meaning of a compound can be understood

based on the meanings of its constituent parts.

2. **Orthographic Integration:** Compounds are often written as single

words or with hyphens to visually represent their unity.

3. **Semantic Transparency:** The meaning of the compound is transparent

or predictable based on the meanings of its individual components.

Now, let's use the provided data to illustrate these characteristics:

1. **Oak-tree:**

- Compositionality: The compound "oak-tree" consists of two nouns, "oak"

and "tree," and the meaning of the compound refers to a specific type of
tree, namely an oak tree.

- Orthographic Integration: The compound is written as a single word

without spaces or hyphens, demonstrating its integration.

- Semantic Transparency: The meaning of "oak-tree" is transparent; it

refers to a tree that is specifically an oak.
2. **Drawbridge:**

- Compositionality: The compound "drawbridge" combines the verb "draw"

with the noun "bridge," indicating a type of bridge that can be drawn up or
raised to allow passage.

- Orthographic Integration: The compound is written as a single word,

indicating its integration.

- Semantic Transparency: The meaning of "drawbridge" is transparent; it

refers to a type of bridge that can be drawn or raised.

3. **Sky-blue:**

- Compositionality: The compound "sky-blue" combines the noun "sky" with

the adjective "blue," indicating a shade of blue that resembles the color of
the sky.

- Orthographic Integration: The compound is written with a hyphen,

demonstrating its integration.

- Semantic Transparency: The meaning of "sky-blue" is transparent; it

refers to a shade of blue that is similar to the color of the sky.

4. **Mind-boggling:**

- Compositionality: The compound "mind-boggling" combines the noun

"mind" with the present participle of the verb "boggle," indicating something
that is bewildering or astonishing.

- Orthographic Integration: The compound is written with a hyphen,

demonstrating its integration.

- Semantic Transparency: The meaning of "mind-boggling" may not be fully

transparent based solely on the meanings of its individual components, but it
still conveys the idea of something that is extremely difficult to comprehend
or believe.

Exercise 6.3.

Classify the following compounds as exocentric, endocentric, possessive,

appositional, or coordinative.

frying pan redhead maidservant author-reader (exchange)

Austria-Hungary hardtop silk worm man-machine (interaction)

bootblack German-English actor-manager gas-light

Let's classify each of the compounds provided according to the categories

specified:

1. **frying pan:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "frying pan" is endocentric because the first

element ("frying") acts as the head, and the second element ("pan") serves
as a modifier specifying the type of pan used for frying.

2. **redhead:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "redhead" is endocentric because the first

element ("red") serves as the modifier specifying the color, and the second
element ("head") serves as the head, denoting a person with red hair.

3. **maidservant:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "maidservant" is endocentric because the

first element ("maid") serves as the modifier specifying the type of servant,
and the second element ("servant") serves as the head, denoting a female
servant.

4. **author-reader (exchange):**

- Classification: Appositional
 - Explanation: The compound "author-reader" is appositional because both
elements ("author" and "reader") have equal status and refer to the same
person or entity. The term "exchange" further clarifies the relationship
between the two roles.

5. **Austria-Hungary:**

- Classification: Coordinative

- Explanation: The compound "Austria-Hungary" is coordinative because it

combines two entities ("Austria" and "Hungary") on equal footing, indicating
a union or alliance between the two countries.

6. **hardtop:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "hardtop" is endocentric because the first

element ("hard") serves as the modifier specifying the quality of the top, and
the second element ("top") serves as the head, denoting a type of
automobile roof.

7. **silk worm:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "silk worm" is endocentric because the first

element ("silk") serves as the modifier specifying the type of worm, and the
second element ("worm") serves as the head, denoting a type of caterpillar
that produces silk.

8. **man-machine (interaction):**

- Classification: Possessive

- Explanation: The compound "man-machine" is possessive because it

indicates a relationship between a man and a machine, where the man
possesses or controls the machine. The term "interaction" further specifies
the nature of the relationship between the two entities.
9. **bootblack:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "bootblack" is endocentric because the first

element ("boot") serves as the modifier specifying the type of blackening
performed, and the second element ("black") serves as the head, denoting a
person who blackens boots.

10. **German-English:**

- Classification: Coordinative

- Explanation: The compound "German-English" is coordinative because it

combines two languages ("German" and "English") on equal footing,
indicating proficiency or usage in both languages.

11. **actor-manager:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "actor-manager" is endocentric because the

first element ("actor") serves as the modifier specifying the type of manager,
and the second element ("manager") serves as the head, denoting a person
who both acts and manages theatrical productions.

12. **gas-light:**

- Classification: Endocentric

- Explanation: The compound "gas-light" is endocentric because the first

element ("gas") serves as the modifier specifying the type of light source,
and the second element ("light") serves as the head, denoting a source of
illumination powered by gas.