Lesson #1 FIVE STEPS

EARTH SCIENCE 1. Observation – use of senses to gather

information about the world.
Biological sciences - study of living things
2. Gather information – one must gather
Physical sciences - study of non-living things
information to investigate the problem.
The Nature of Science
3. Form a hypothesis – a possible solution to a
 Earth scientists use specific methods to problem (an educated guess).
investigate Earth and beyond a.k.a Scientific
Method. 4. Test the hypothesis (experimentation) –
procedure carried out to prove or disprove a
What Is Earth Science?
hypothesis
 Study of the earth and the universe around it.
 The study of earth systems and systems in a. Null hypothesis – negative result
space; including weather and climate b. Alternative hypothesis – positive result
systems, and the study of nonliving things
such as rocks, oceans, and planets. Independent variable – variable that change
(cause)

BRANCHES OF EARTH SCIENCE Dependent variable – variable affected by the

changes in the independent variable; factor
Astronomy – the study of objects beyond earth’s
being measures (depends on the
atmosphere; oldest branch of Earth Science.
independent variable.)
Meteorology – the study of Earth’s atmosphere
Constants – things that never change during
Geology – study of the origin, history, and structure the experiment
of Earth
5. State a conclusion – this is where the
Oceanography – study of the life and properties of
hypothesis is approved or disproved.
the oceans.

Environmental Science - study of the interactions of

Scientific Facts – a controlled, repeatable and
organisms and their surroundings.
rigorously verified observation.

Scientific Theory
EARTH SYSTEMS
 An explanation based on many observations
Geosphere – the area from the surface of the Earth during repeated investigations.
down to the center.  The best available explanation of a
phenomenon.
Three main parts: crust, mantle, core (inner & outer)  A hypothesis that is supported by the
experiments.
Atmosphere – the blanket of gases that surrounds
 May change with the discovery of new data.
our planet; shows the temperature of our planet.
Scientific Law
Four main parts: troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere.  A theory that is proven every time it is tested.
 Desires the behavior of a natural
Hydrosphere – all the bodies of water on Earth.
phenomenon.
Biosphere – all organisms on Earth and the  A “rule of nature”.
environment in which they live.  Accepted based on observations.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD Meteorite Impact Theory

Series of organized problem solving  Explains the extinction of dinosaurs

procedures that help scientists conduct  Happened 65 million years ago
experiments.
  The impact created so much dust it blocked  Big Bang Theory – the currently accepted
out the sun. theory of the origin and evolution of the
 No sun, no plants, almost everything died. universe. Postulates that 13.8 billion years
ago, the universe expanded from a tiny
Proof: Computer models, deformed quartz, iridium dense and hot mass to its present size and
around the impact site. much cooler state.

 Steady State Theory – states that the

Communication in Science – process of presenting universe is always expanding in a constant
proofs to back up the theories. average density. Proposed in 1948 by Bondi
and Gould by Hoyle. Matter is continuously
 Lab reports
created to form cosmic or celestial bodies as
 Graphs
stars and galaxies. Claims that the universe
 Models
has no beginning and no end and even
though its expanding, its appearance
remains the same overtime.
Lesson #2
 Capture Theory – planets and moons were
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE wandering around and captured by the sun.
Ancient Theories of the Origin of the Universe
 Planetary Collision Theory – earth collided
 Book of Genesis – describes how God with a small planet, producing the moon.
separated light from darkness, created the
sky, land, sea, moon, stars, and every living  Stellar Collision Theory – two stars collide
creature this galaxy states. and formed the planets and the moon.

 Rigveda – a Hindu text stating the cosmic  Planetisimal and Tidal Theories – developed
egg or Brahmanda that contains the by Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton
universe. Expanded out at a single point in the early 20th century, along with James
called Bindu. Jeans and Harold Jeffreys in 1918. A star
supposedly passed close to the sun – the
 Leucippus and Democritus – believed in an gravitational pull of the passing sun raised
atomic universe. The universe was tides found on the surface of the sun. Some
composed of indivisible and indestructible of the smaller masses quickly cooled to
atoms. The Stoic philosophers also believed become solid bodies called planetisimal.
also believed the universe is like a giant These theories are backed up by old
living body. meteorites found on Earth, chemically dating
back 4.56 billion years ago.
 Aristotle and Ptolemy – proposed a
geocentric universe. Where Earth stayed a. Four Inner Planets (Mercury, Venus,
motionless in the heaven and everything Earth, Mars) known to be smaller
revolving around it. compared to outer planets; called
terrestrial planets; has solid surfaces and
 Nicolaus Copernicus – in 1543 which the silicate rocks and metals.
heliocentrism theory. Demonstrated that the
motions of celestial objects can be explained b. Four Outer Planets (Jupiter, Saturn,
without putting the Earth in the center of the Uranus, Neptune) called gas planets
universe. because they are made up of primary
materials: helium and hydrogen.
 Giordano Bruno – in 1584, the Italian
philosopher suggested that even the solar
system is not in the center of the universe. UNIVERSE
Is defined as all space and time (collectively
referred to as space-time) and their contents,
Modern Theories of the Origin of the Universe including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms
of matter and energy. The universe is approximately
13,787+0.020 billion years. Its most abundant
elements are hydrogen, helium, and lithium. The matter must make up approximately 80%
estimated number of galaxies in the observable percent of the universe.
universe is 2 trillion. Meanwhile, its size is about 91
billion light years.  Dark Matter – is the name we give to all the
mass in the universe that remains invisible.
Light years is the unit of length used to Dark matter is composed of particles that do
express astronomical distances and measures about not absorb, reflect, or emit light, so they
9.46 trillion kilometers or 5.88 trillion miles. It is the cannot be detected by observing
distance that light can travel in one Earth year. electromagnetic radiation. Dark matter is
Example: a galaxy is found to be 20 million light material that cannot be seen directly.
years away. How far is that in meters?
 Dark Energy – is the name given to the
1 light year ¿ 9.46 x 10 15 meters mysterious force that's causing the rate of
expansion of our universe to accelerate over
time, rather than to slow down. Dark energy
is the far more dominant force.
Time = 1 year = 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 31,536,000s

1 light year ¿(3.0 x 1 08 m/s)(31,356,000 s) SMALL BODIES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

1 light year ¿ 9.46 x 10 15 m  Asteroids – are small which is usually more
than 100m in diameter. They are rocky
heavenly bodies that are located in an area
Answer: called the asteroid belt; rocky fragments left
over from the formation of the solar system
6 6 15 about 4.6 billion years ago.
20 x 1 0 light years=(20 x 1 0 )(9.46 x 10 m)
23  Comets – are celestial bodies that are
¿ 1.89 x 1 0 m
remnants of the formation of the solar
system. These are cosmic snowballs of
frozen gases, rock, and dust that orbit the
COMPOSITION OF THE UNIVERSE sun. Comets completely orbit the sun within
hundreds of years. One of the most famous
comets is the Halley’s comet.
Universe  Meteoroids – are debris and remnants of
5%
dust from comets and asteroids. Found
throughout the solar system and they glow
24% brightly when their movement causes friction
with the atmosphere.

 Dwarf Planets – are objects that orbit the sun

and have enough gravity to maintain a
spherical shape but not capable of clearing
smaller objects in the area of its own orbit.
71%

Sun – the power source of the Solar System which

may look solid but is actually made up of gases held
together by gravity. Helium is formed at the center of
the sun by hydrogen atoms. Nuclear fusion is a
Baryonic Matter Dark Matter Dark Energy
reaction by which higher atomic nuclei fuse to form
a bigger nucleus.
 Baryonic Matter – the familiar material of the
universe, known as baryonic matter, is Black Hole – is a region of space time where gravity
composed of protons, neutrons and is so strong that nothing – no particles even
electrons. Dark matter may be made of electromagnetic radiation such as light – can escape
baryonic or non-baryonic matter. To hold the from it.
elements of the universe together, dark
Lesson #3  This explain why all the planets revolve in
the same direction and why the inner planets
ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM are denser than the outer ones.
The universe may have begun with the big
bang, but it was only after one billion years that
galaxies began to form, thus the universe is
approximately 13,787+0.020 billion years. Our Solar
System and that of the planet Earth ages around 13.8
billion years.

The Solar System is located at the arm of the

Milky Way Galaxy. A huge disc and spiral- shaped
aggregation of about at least 100 billion stars and
other bodies. Its spiral arms rotate around a globular
cluster of many, many stars, at the center of which
lies a supermassive black hole. 100 million light
years = 9.4607 x 1012 km. It revolves around galactic
center once in about 240 million years.

Nebular Hypothesis

 Developed by Immanuel Kant and published

in his Universal Natural History and Theory
of Heavens (1755) and then modified in 1796
by Pierre Laplace.

 States that the entire Solar System started as

a large cloud of gas that contracted due to
self-gravity. Conservation of angular
momentum requires that a rotating disk form
with a large concentration at the center,
which would start as a protosun, while
planets would begin forming within disk.

 States the idea that a spinning cloud of dust

made of mostly light elements, called a
nebula, flattened into a protoplanetary disk,
and became a system consisting of a star
THREE MAJOR HYPOTHESES with orbiting planets.

Encounter Hypothesis

 About 5 billion years ago, a rogue star

passed close to the sun and stripped
materials (hot gases) from both the sun and
the rogue star. The hot gases continued to
spin in the same direction as the sun, and
coalesced into smaller lumps which formed
the planets.
Protoplanet Hypothesis (current hypothesis)

 In 1960, 1963, and 1978, W.H. McCrea

proposed the protoplanet hypothesis.

 According to this hypothesis, the Solar

System began with a fragment from an
interstellar cloud composed mainly of
hydrogen, helium, and trace amounts of the
light elements.

 The fragments of the interstellar cloud then

formed the dense central region of the solar
nebula, which collapsed more rapidly than its
outlying parts. As the solar nebula
contracted, it rotated more rapidly,
conserving its angular momentum. It also
grew by accretion as material continued to
fall inward from its surroundings. The solar
nebula eventually evolved into the sun.

Lesson #4
EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS
Geosphere

 Solid sphere of the Earth where different

geologic processes such as volcanic activity,
formation of mountains and other geologic
structure takes place.

 Includes the rocks of the crust and mantle,

the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid
metallic inner core.

 Plate tectonics is an important process

shaping the surface of the Earth.
 THREE MAIN LAYERS Lehmann Discontinuity – discovered in 1929 by a
Danish Seismologist Inge Lehmann, when a large
Crust earthquake occurred in New Zealand; boundary
 Consist of 5 to 70km layers of oceanic and between outer and inner core.
continental crusts.

 Mostly composed of 8 elements namely: Hydrosphere

oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium,
 Comes from a Latin word “hydro” meaning
sodium, potassium, magnesium.
water.
 These are the same elements that we
 This includes water in various forms whether
process to produce things we commonly
in ice, liquid or vapor found on and below the
used today such as glass (SiO2), concrete
surface of the Earth and in the atmosphere
(CaCO3) and steel.
(in gaseous forms).
Mohorovicic Discontinuity – it was discovered by
Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic. It is just  Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface and
above the upper mantle but still a part of the crust; most of it water that make up the ocean.
divides the crust from the mantle.
2 Main Types of Water

Mantle  Surface water – found on Earth’s surface.

May either be marine water or fresh water.
 The mantle is made up of silicate rocks and
is considered as the thickest layer of Earth.  Groundwater – is the water found beneath
the Earth’s surface where there are spaces in
 It holds almost 84% of the volume of the the soil or fractures in rocks. The
Earth. underground layer of water bearing rocks is
called an aquifer – acts as a reservoir for
 Asthenosphere is the sublayer of the mantle groundwater and may contain large amounts
where occurrence of earthquakes and of minerals such as magnesium, calcium,
seismic activities happen. and etc.
Gutenberg Discontinuity – boundary between lower
mantle and the outer core. Named after the
discovery of Beno Gutenberg in 1913.

Core

 The core of the Earth has a diameter of

approximately 7,000km. It is made up of
Nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe) and thus it is also
known as NIFE.

It is divided into:

a. outer core – the outer core is the third

layer of the Earth. It is the only liquid
layer, and is mainly made up of the
metals iron and nickel, as well as small
amounts of other substances. The outer
core is responsible for Earth's magnetic
field.

b. inner core – the inner core is a hot, dense

ball of (mostly) iron. Unlike the outer
core, the inner core is mostly solid.
Atmosphere d. Thermosphere

 Composition of the atmosphere: nitrogen - The hottest layer – because of its

(78%), oxygen (20%), carbon dioxide and absorption of highly energetic solar heat.
other gases (0.03%), inert gases mainly
argon (0.97%), and water vapor (1%). - The lover part is called ionosphere –
where particles of oxygen and nitrogen
are electrically charged by the solar
winds.

- As the excited ions of the oxygen and

nitrogen go back to their neutral state,
they release photons which cause the
spectacular display lights in the sky
called – aurora; aurora borealis (northern
lights) and aurora australis (southern
lights).

e. Exosphere

- The region above about 500km is called

a. Troposphere the exosphere.

- The lowest part of the atmosphere; the - It contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen
part we live in. It contains most of our atoms, but there are so few of them that
weather, the clouds, rain and snow. are rarely collide – they follow “ballistic”
trajectories under the influence of
- Contains about 75% of all the air in the gravity, and some of them escape right
atmosphere, and almost all of the water out into space.
vapor (which forms clouds and rain).
Biosphere
b. Stratosphere
 Comes from the Latin word “bio” which
- This extends upwards from the means “life”. Makes up all the living
tropopause to about 50km. It contains organisms on Earth.
much of the ozone in the atmosphere.
 Life exists in all the subsystem of the
- The ozone in the stratosphere protects Earth – land, in water and in air.
us from the skin cancer and other health
damage.
ORIGIN OF THE BIOSPHERE THEORIES
c. Mesosphere
Theory of Premordial Soup
- The region above the stratosphere is  Primordial soup, or prebiotic soup (also
called the mesosphere where the sometimes referred as prebiotic broth), is the
temperature reaches a minimum of 90 hypothetical set of conditions present on the
degrees Celsius and is considered the Earth around 4.0 to 3.7 billion years ago. It is
coldest layer. a fundamental aspect to the heterotrophic
theory of the origin of life, first proposed by
- This is where most of the space rocks, Alexander Oparin in 1924, and John Burdon
such as meteors, break down into Sanderson Haldane in 1929.
smaller pieces such that by the time they
reach Earth, they are already small  This theory states that life began from non-
pieces. living matter such as simple organic
compounds. It was believed that it contained
- Menopause – the coldest region in the chemicals such as methane, water, ammonia,
atmosphere
 and hydrogen gas that accumulate in a Lesson #5
“soup”.
MINERALS

Deep – Sea Vent Theory What are minerals?

 This theory presupposes that life began not  The building block of rocks.
on the surface of the earth but deep down in
the sea in areas known as marine  Is defined as naturally-occurring, inorganic
hydrothermal vents. Hydrothermal vents solid with a definite chemical composition
release boiling hot fluids mixed toxic and an ordered internal structure. Every
chemicals and heavy metals. mineral is unique, but they exhibit general
characteristics.
 A hydrothermal vent is a fissure on the
seafloor from which geothermally heated
water discharges. Hydrothermal vents are GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
commonly found near volcanically active
MINERALS
places, areas where tectonic plates are
moving apart at spreading centers, ocean
basins, and hotspots. Hydrothermal deposits A. Naturally-occurring – minerals exist
are rocks and mineral ore deposits formed naturally. Steel and synthetic diamonds are
by the action of hydrothermal vents. created artificially, and therefore, are not
minerals.

Panspermia B. Inorganic – minerals are limited to

substances formed through inorganic
 Means “seeds everywhere”. This hypothesis processes, and exclude materials derived
proposes that life on earth actually began from living organisms which involved
somewhere in the universe and life forms organic processes. Coal, which is composed
have been carried by meteorites, asteroids of remains of plants and other inorganic
and comet as they made cosmic impacts on compounds, is not a mineral.
Earth.
C. Solid – all liquids and gases – even those
a. Interstellar panspermia – the that are naturally formed such as petroleum
transportation of life between star – are not considered minerals. Ice formed in
systems the glaciers is considered a mineral but
water is not.
b. Interplanetary panspermia – the
transportation of life from the D. Definite chemical composition – the chemical
neighboring planets and stars composition of minerals should express the
exact chemical formula with the elements
and compounds in specific ratios. The only
exception is the atomic substitution, which is
characteristics of certain minerals.
 E. Ordered internal structure – The atoms in economically important metals such as copper,
minerals are organized in a regular, repetitive lead, and zinc.
geometric patterns or crystal structure.

COMPOSITION OF MINERALS  Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate

(CO3)2-anion combined with other elements.
 Silicates – minerals containing the two most
abundant elements in the Earth’s crust,
namely, silicon and oxygen.

a. When linked together, these two elements

form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the
fundamental building block of silicate
minerals.

b. Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong

to this group.
 Native Elements – minerals that form as
 Oxides – minerals composed of oxygen anion individual elements.
(O2-) combined with one or more metal ions.
a. Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high
thermal and electrical conductivity,
typically with metallic luster, low hardness
(gold, lead)

b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more

fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)

c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur,

diamond)

 Sulfates – minerals containing sulfur and oxygen

in the form of the (SO4)-anion.

1. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements

combined with one or more metals. Halide
minerals are salts. They form when salt water
evaporates. This mineral class includes more
 Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur and a than just table salt. Halide minerals may contain
metal; some sulfides are sources of the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or
iodine.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Luster – is the quality and intensity of reflected
light. Brilliance of the mineral.

a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a

resplendent shine similar to polished
metal. 3. Crystal Form/Habit – is the natural shape of the
mineral before the development of any
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), cleavage or fracture. Examples includes
adamantine (brilliant/diamond like), prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and
resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy equant, a mineral that do not have a crystal
among others. structure is described as amorphous.

4. Cleavage – is the property of minerals to break

along specific planes of weakness to forms
smooth flat surfaces. These planes exist
because the bonding of atoms making up the
mineral happens to be weak in those areas.
When a mineral break in a direction where
there is no cleavage, it fractures instead.

2. Hardness – is the measure of resistance of a

mineral to abrasion.

Mohs Scale of Hardness measures the scratch

resistance of various minerals from a scale of 1 to
10, based on the ability of a harder material/mineral
to scratch a softer one.
 11. Tenacity – this is the minerals' level of
5. Color – a lot of minerals can exhibit same or resistance to stress such as crushing,
similar colors. bending, breaking, or tearing. It is helpful in
determining if the mineral is brittle, elastic
malleable, etc.

Common terms:

a. Brittleness – the mineral breaks or powders

easily. Most ionic-bonded minerals are
brittle.

b. Malleability – the mineral may be pounded

out into thin sheets. Metallic-bonded
minerals are usually malleable.

c. Ductility – the mineral may be drawn into a

wire. Ductile materials have to be malleable
as well as tough.

d. Sectility – may be cut smoothly with a knife.

6. Streak – is the mineral’s color in powdered
Relatively few minerals are sectile. Sectility
form.
is a form of tenacity and can be used to
distinguish minerals of similar appearance.
7. Special Gravity – is the ratio of the density of
Gold, for example, is sectile but pyrite
minerals to the density of water.
("fool's gold") is not.
SG = mass of mineral / mass of equal volume of
water e. Elasticity – if bent, will spring back to its
original position when the stress is
released.
8. Crystalline Structure – also called the crystal
lattice, it tells how a mineral's crystals are f. Plasticity – if bent, will not spring back to its
arranged. A mineral that forms a regular original position when the stress is
repeating three-dimensional crystal lattice is released. It stays bent. In contrast, flexibility
called a crystal solid, while a mineral with no is the ability of a material to deform
particular arrangement is an amorphous solid. elastically and return to its original shape
when the applied stress is removed.
9. Transparency/Diaphaneity – this refers to the
extent of light that can pass through the 12. Odor – the distinct smell of a mineral that was
mineral. The degree of transparency varies formed from a chemical reaction when
depending on the thickness of the mineral. The subjected to water, heat, air, or friction.
ability of a thin slice of mineral to transmit
light. a. Sulfur – in normal room conditions, give
off a mild odor resembling the smell of a
lighting match. However, if heated or
struck, they will give off a powerful odor
like rotten eggs.

b. Sulfides – such as Pyrite, also give off a

rotten-egg odor if heated or struck.

c. Arsenic – give off a very mild garlic smell

10. Magnetism – the mineral's ability to in normal room conditions. However, if
attract/repel other minerals. Only a variety of heated or struck, they give off a powerful
one mineral acts as a magnet, generating garlic odor. Some minerals containing
magnetic fields on its own. arsenic in their chemical formula, such as
Arsenopyrite, also give off a garlic odor if
struck or heated.
  Uplift – brought rocks to the surface through
d. Kaolinite – if wet or in moist conditions, uplift where they are exposed to weathering and
minerals of the clay group, such as erosion.
Kaolinite, give off an odor resembling
fresh clay.  Weathering and erosion – the process of
breaking the rocks into smaller pieces called
sediments.
Lesson #6
 Transportation – these sediments may undergo
ROCKS AND THE ROCK CYCLE transportation via agents such as wind, water,
What is a rock? glaciers, rivers, and oceans until they settle in an
area where they will undertake deposition. As
It is a naturally-occurring, coherent more materials settle on top of each other,
aggregate of minerals or solid materials such as temperature and pressure increases and the
natural glass or organic matter. Rocks are found in sediments at the bottom may undergo
the lithosphere, which is derived from the Greek lithification.
word “lithos” meaning “stone”. The lithosphere is
the rigid, rocky, outermost part of Earth, composed  Sediments – is a naturally occurring material that
of the crust and uppermost part of the upper mantle. is broken down by processes of weathering and
erosion, and is subsequently transported by the
What is the rock cycle? action of wind, water, or ice or by the force of
The rock cycle is a model that describes all gravity acting on the particles.
the processes by which rocks are formed, modified,
transported, decomposed, melted and reformed.  Lithification – transforms of sediments into
sedimentary rocks.
PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS OF THE ROCK
CYCLE  Metamorphism – as temperature and pressure
Process/es Product increase due to continuous burial and tectonic
Melting Magma activity the sedimentary rocks undergo the
Crystallization Igneous rocks process of metamorphism. Transforming them
Uplift and exposure into metamorphic rocks.
Weathering and erosion Sediments
Transportation
 Melting – if temperature continues to increase
Deposition Sedimentary rocks
and exceeds the melting point of the rocks, the
Lithification
rocks will undergo melting, turning into magma.
Metamorphism Metamorphic rocks

ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Igneous Rock – rocks that are formed from the
solidification of molten rock material (magma or
lava). There are two types of igneous rocks:

a. Plutonic/Intrusive Igneous Rock – from

solidified magma underneath the Earth.
Gradual lowering of the temperature
gradient at depth towards the surface
would cause slow cooling/crystallization.
Has phaneritic texture. (e.g. granite,
Magma – (molten rock beneath the surface) is diorite, gabbro)
exposed to lower temperature, minerals and
amorphous solids crystallize and solidify forming b. Volcanic/Extrusive Igneous Rock – from
igneous rocks. Found inside the Earth. solidified lava at or near the surface of the
Earth. Fast rate of cooling/crystallization.
Lava – is magma once it has been expelled from the
(e.g. rhyolite, andesite, basalt).
volcano or interior of a terrestrial planet or a moon
onto its surface. Igneous Rocks Silica Content
 a. Felsic – also called granitic; >65% silica, Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks
generally light-colored.
1. Platy or elongated – minerals align themselves
b. Intermediate – also called andesitic; 55-65% parallel to the axis of pressure, resulting in a
silica; generally medium colored (medium layered appearance or foliation. Minerals differ in
gray) foliation based on their composition:

c. Mafic – also called basaltic; 45-55% silica; a. Slaty – the minerals are microscopic; the
generally dark colored. rock may not appear foliated to the naked
eye.
d. Ultramafic – <45% silica; generally, very dark
colored; composed mainly of olivine and b. Phyllitic – the minerals are barely visible to
pyroxene which are the major constituents of the naked eye, their alignment results in an
the upper mantle. obvious but not clearly-defined foliation.

2. Sedimentary Rocks – rocks that formed through c. Schistose – the minerals are visible to the
the accumulation, compaction, and cementation naked eye; their layering is more distinct.
of sediments. They generally form at surface or
near surface conditions. Factors in sedimentary d. Gneissic – the minerals are visible and
processes: weathering and transport agents elongated, the rock exhibits a coarsely-
(water, wind, ice). Strata and fossils are common branded appearance.
sedimentary features.
2. Crystalline Textures – result when the parent
a. Non-clastic/Chemical/Biochemical – derived rock is exposed with enough heat that it induces
from sediments that precipitated from recrystallization of the existing minerals.
concentrated solutions (e.g. seawater) or
from the accumulation of biologic or organic
material (e.g. shells, plant material). They are Lesson #7
further classified on the basis of chemical
composition. MINERAL RESOURCES
Use of Minerals in Various Industries
b. Clastic/terrigenous – formed from the
accumulation and lithification of sediments There are thousands of identified minerals
derived from the breakdown of pre-existing that can be found on Earth, and we make use of the
rocks. They are further classified according most of them. All industries rely on minerals, be it
to dominant grain size. food industry or manufacturing. Below are some of
the minerals that are commonly used in various
Strata – >1cm is called bedding and anything less is
industries today. They are the minerals which are
called lamination; layering is the result of a change
essential to our daily living:
in grain size and composition; each layer represents
a distinct period of deposition.  Aluminum – it is the most abundant metal
element found in Earth's crust. It is used in
Fossils – remains and traces of plants and animals
automobiles, packaging, arid construction.
that are preserved in rocks.
 Copper – it is used in building construction,
electric and electronic products (cables and
3. Metamorphic Rocks – rocks that formed from the wires, switches, plumbing, heating), roofing,
transformation of pre-existing rocks (igneous, chemical and pharmaceutical machineries, and
sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks) through the more.
process of metamorphism. They are commonly
formed underneath the Earth.  Gold – it is used in jewelry and arts. It is also
used in medicine, as well as in making
medallions and coins. It is also essential for
Metamorphism can involve changes in the physical scientific and electronic instruments.
and chemical properties of rocks in response to
heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids.  Halite (salt) – used as food seasoning and for
food preservation. Halite is also used in ceramic
glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides, mineral
 waters, and in scientific equipment for optical openings from the surface to access deeply
parts. buried deposits for underground mining.

 Iron ore – used to manufacture steels of different 4. Exploitation – the fourth stage of mining, this is
kinds. It is also used in metallurgy, magnets, and where the actual recovery of minerals from the
auto parts. Radioactive iron is used in medicine Earth happens. Exploitation varies depending on
and research. the characteristics of the mineral deposit. Safety,
technology, environmental concerns, and
 Lead – used in lead-add batteries, X-ray and geologic conditions are other factors that are to
gamma radiation shielding, tanks, and solders, be considered at this stage.
seals or bearing; used in electrical and
electronic applications. 5. Reclamation – the final stage in the mining
operation. It is the process of closing a mine and
recon touring, revegetating, and restoring the
MINING AND ITS PROCESS water and land values. Mining engineers need to
What is mining? consider factors such as safety, restoration of
the environment, and the subsequent use of land
Mining is defined as the extraction and after completion of mining operations.
processing of minerals and other valuable
geological materials from the Earth, either from an
orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef, or placer deposit, for MINING TECHNIQUES
commercial use. Metals, coal, rock salt, gemstones,
gravel, and clay are some of the Earth materials Mining techniques are classified into two: surface
which humans extract. In a more general sense of mining and underground mining:
the word, mining refers to the extraction of non-
renewable resources, which include petroleum,  Surface Mining – refers to the process of mining
natural gas, and sometimes even water. mineral ores that are close to Earth's surface.
The soil and rocks over the ore are removed by
blasting. Remaining ore is either drilled or
blasted in so that trucks can carry large amount
The Process of Modern Mining of rocks, which will be brought to factories in
The overall sequence of activities in modern order to separate the ore from the rest of the
mining is often based on the five stages in the life of rock. There are five types of surface mining:
a mine: prospecting, exploration, development,
exploitation, and reclamation. a. Strip Mining – a process that involves the
method of extracting the mineral by
1. Prospecting – is the first stage in mining. It is the removing soil and rock which are deposited
search for ores or other valuable mineral on the surface. Coal and lignite are the
deposits. A geologist or mining engineer is principle minerals that can be extracted
commonly employed to locate mineral deposits through this technique.
at or below the surface of the Earth.

2. Exploration – this is the second stage in the life

of a mine. The size and value of a mineral
deposit is being determined as accurate as
possible. Here the geologist or mining engineer
will have to evaluate samples which will enable
them to calculate the tonnage and grade, or
richness, of the mineral deposit. This stage also
includes estimating the mining costs,
environmental costs, and assess other factors.
b. Open-pit Mining – this mining technique
3. Development – this is the third stage, the work of involves the extraction of geologic materials
opening a mineral deposit for exploitation. This by forming an open pit. It is the ideal method
is where the mining of the ore begins. Access to if the surface material covering the valuable
the deposit is done either by stripping the mineral is relatively thin.
soil/rock covering the deposit, or by excavating
 b. Supported Method – often used in mines with
weak rock structure. They require substantial
support in order to keep the mines stable.

c. Mountaintop Removal – involves mining the

summit or the long and narrow edge of a
mountain. Environmental studies warn that
this type of mining technique is harmful to
the environment and health of human beings.
c. Caving Method – these are versatile
underground mining methods that involve
caving the ore. This method is used when
there is an intention for the mine to collapse.

d. Dredging – a method used for extracting

underwater minerals. Oil refining is done
mainly through this method.

e. High-wall Mining – involves the use of the d. Innovative Method – used on mineral
Hydraulic Push — Beam Transfer Mechanism deposits that may require unusual
to cut across the earth’s surface and extract techniques or equipment.
large amounts of coal.

 Underground Mining – is usually done when the

valuable mineral is found on the side of a
mountain. This is an easy and cheaper mining
technique compared to surface mining because
there is less need for blasting and drilling. There
are four methods used in underground mining:

a. Unsupported Method – these are used for

extraction of mineral deposits that are
roughly tabular. They are called unsupported
since they do not use any artificial pillars to
assist in the support of the mine openings.
Lesson #8
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy resources are essentially obtained in
order to sustain our daily living. They are used to
provide heat, light, and power — things which are
necessary for the development of humankind.
Energy sources come in a variety of forms: fossil
fuels, geothermal, hydroelectric, and bio-fuel energy.

Energy sources are classified into two:

renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Non-renewable energy sources are energy
sources which cannot be replenished in our lifetime
and are likely to run out. Fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum, and natural gas are some examples of
nonrenewable energy source.

1. Fossil Fuels – presently the world’s primary  Oil – is a liquid fossil fuel which is commonly
energy source. It provides most of the energy called petroleum or crude oil since it is a mixture
that supports transportation, electricity of different hydrocarbons. It is formed from tiny
production, heating and cooling of buildings, organisms that lived on the surface of the sea
and various industrial activities. Fossil fuels and sunk on the seafloor where they died. The
include coal, oil, petroleum, and gas, which are dead organisms were kept away from the oxygen
nonrenewable sources of energy. They are layers of sediments and other creatures. As
formed from living plants and animals that layers pile up the heat and pressure increase
existed 500 million years ago. Intense heat and and turn the remains of the organisms into liquid
pressure and chemical reactions cause the oil through millions of years.
remains of plants and animals to turn into
hydrocarbons.  Natural Gas – is composed of hydrocarbons
called methane. Formation of natural gas is
 Coal – coal is a solid fossil fuel which is mostly similar to the formation of oil. Since it is less
composed of carbon. Due to the absence of dense than oil, it rises above the oil. Natural gas
oxygen, the organic material in the dead plants deposits are usually found above oil deposits.
fossilized. Clean coal can be produced through Methane is used for cooking and heating. It is
carbon capture technology wherein carbon is also burned to generate heat in power plants.
separated from coal and injected underground to
be stored permanently. Clean coal technology 2. Hydrocarbons – can be in the form of solid,
makes use of different processes to eliminate liquid or gas. The solid form is what is called
carbon and reduce its effect on the environment. coal, the liquid form is called petroleum or crude
oil, and the gaseous form is called natural gas.

Four Types of Coal (Stages of Development): 3. Nuclear Energy – is usually considered another
a. Peat – is the first stage; it is soft substance non-renewable energy source. Although nuclear
that is made of decayed plant fiber. energy itself is a renewable energy source, the
material used in nuclear power plant is not
b. Lignite – is the second stage, called the renewable. Nuclear energy harvests the powerful
brown coal that is soft and has a woody energy in the nucleus of an atom. Nuclear
texture and also produces low heat energy. reactions occur when atoms of one species of
chemical element are transformed into atoms of
c. Bituminous Coal – is a sedimentary rock that another species by nuclear change. This could
contains impurities like sulfur. It is dark occur in two ways:
brown or black and soft and the most
common type of coal. a. Fission – splitting of heavy atoms into
lighter atoms.
d. Anthracite Coal – has metamorphosed into
almost pure carbon, it is extremely hard and b. Fusion – combination of two light atoms
brittle. to form a heavier atom; these create heat
energy called nuclear energy.
 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES 2. Wind – source of wind power. It has been used
for power many centuries ago. Windmills have
Renewable energy comes from resources
been used to grind grains and pump water.
which are naturally replenished. The sun, the wind,
Sailing ships have travelled by wind power long
the water, the Earth's heat, and plants are some of
before they were powered with fossil fuels. It is
these sources. Renewable energy technologies turn
used to generate electricity as its kinetic energy
these fuels into usable forms of energy which we
turns the turbine to create electricity.
utilize in our daily lives — be it electricity, heat,
chemicals, or mechanical power.

1. Sun – energy coming from the sun is called solar

energy. Converting solar energy into electricity
requires solar collector. One example of solar
collector is called concentrated solar power. It
involves mirrors, lenses, and tracking system
that focuses light into a receiver and generates
heat. The heat is used to generate electricity
from conventional stream-driven turbines.

3. Geothermal Energy – extracted from inside the

Earth in the form of hot water or steam. The word
“geo” means “Earth” and “thermal” means
energy – energy of the Earth. One source of
energy in Earth’s system is its internal heat,
Photovoltaic or solar cell – refers to the direct
which is referred to as geothermal energy. The
conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level.
temperature of Earth gets warmer as you go
A solar cell consists of semiconductor materials
deeper towards the core.
(usually silicon) made into thin sheets called wafer.
They are treated to form an electric field – positive Geothermal gradient – the rate of change in
on one side and negative on the other. The solar temperature with depth.
energy releases electrons from the atoms of the
semiconductor material when it is exposed to the
sun. The electrical conductor attached to the
positive and negative sides of the solar cell capture
the electron and generate electric current. Individual
solar cells are connected together to form a module.
Interconnected modules form an array. The larger
the area of an array, the more electricity produced.
 reservoir. The hot water warms a refrigerant
which evaporates to the steam and runs
turbines.

Types of Geothermal Plants

a. Dry Steam Power Plant – are the most common

types of geothermal power plant, accounting for
about half of the installed geothermal plants.
They work by piping hot steam from
underground reservoirs directly into turbines
from geothermal reservoir, which power the
4. Hydroelectric Power – comes from flowing water.
generators to provide electricity. After powering
The movement of water is used to turn turbines
the turbines, the steam condenses into water
and generators which produce energy. Energy is
and is piped back into earth via ejection well.
neither created nor destroyed — it only changes
its form. To generate hydroelectric power, we
b. Flash-Steam Power Plant – different from dry
make use of water motion — a form of kinetic
steam because they pump hot water rather than
energy — to turn blades in a turbine, thus
steam, directly to the surface. These flash steam
converting mechanical energy into electricity.
plants pump hot water at high pressure from
below the earth into a “flash tank” on the
surface. The flash tank is at a much lower
temperature, causing the fluid to quickly “flash”
into steam. The steam produced powers the
turbines. The steam is cooled and condenses
into water, where it is pumped back into the
ground through the ejection wall.

c. Binary Cycle Power Plant – the main difference

is that the water or steam from below the earth
never comes in direct contact with the turbines.
Instead, water from geothermal reservoir is
pumped through a heat exchanger where it heats 5. Dendrothermal Energy (Biomass) – is the oldest
a second liquid – like isobutene (which boils at a source of energy ever since prehistoric man
lower temperature than water). This second discovered fire. Biomass is a renewable energy
liquid is heated into steam, which powers the because it can be replenished or regenerated on
turbines that drives a generator. The hot water a human scale as compared to fossils fuels
from the earth is recycled into the earth through whose formation extends through geologic time.
the injection well, and the second liquid is It is energy formed from things such as wood
recycled through the turbine and back into the wastes, agricultural residues and other forms of
exchanger where it can be used again. garbage.

d. Enhanced Geothermal System – is dome in areas

with hot and dry underground rocks. A well is
drilled deep into the ground and very cold water
is poured into it to force the rock layers to create
new fractures as reservoir for underground
water. Water is pumped to the well and absorbs
the heat from the rocks as it flows to the
Lesson #9 underlying rock layers. It is through this process
that groundwater is formed.
WATER RESOURCES
 Runoff – this refers to the movement of land
Earth and Its Water Sources
water to the oceans. This can be in the form of
Earth’s surface consists of about 71% water. rivers, lakes, and streams. It consists of
Water is everywhere around us: the oceans, the precipitation that neither evaporates, transpires,
rivers and lakes, the water we drink, the vapor in the penetrates the Earth to become groundwater.
air, even the sweat and moisture found on living
organisms, are all part of the Earth’s water.  Transpiration – it is essentially the evaporation
of water from plant leaves. Moisture is carried
Water is among Earth's materials which are through plants from roots to small pores on the
essential to sustain all life on the planet. The oceans underside of the leaves, and then it changes to
hold about 96.5% of the planet's water. And out of vapor and is released to the atmosphere.
the 3.5% freshwater on Earth, humans can only
make use of about 1% fresh water. It is surprising
how humans and other living organisms manage to
sustain with such a small amount of usable water on
the planet.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The hydrologic cycle describes the storage
and movement of water between the biosphere,
atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere.
Water on earth can be stored in any one of the
following reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, lakes,
rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater.

Water moves from one reservoir to another,

undergoing the following processes:
WATER SOURCES ON EARTH
 Evaporation – the hydrologic cycle begins with
the evaporation of water from the surface of the 1. Saltwater Reservoir
ocean, changing it from liquid to gas or vapor.
 Ocean – is a vast body of saline water. There
 Condensation – the process by which water is only one global or world ocean and it
vapor in the air is changed into liquid water or covers 71% of Earth. It is geographically
gas to liquid. This process is the reason for the divided into five distinct regions and into
formation of clouds. numerous seas, gulfs, bays, and straits.
Historically the four recognized oceans are
 Precipitation – the stage in the hydrologic cycle the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian
when water is released from the clouds, either in Ocean and Arctic Ocean.
the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or Salinity – the saltiness of water. The major chemical
hail. This provides the delivery of atmospheric elements present in seawater are sodium and
water to the Earth. chloride ions.

 Sublimation – this refers to the process of snow

and ice changing into water vapor in the air 2. Freshwater Reservoirs
without first melting into water.
 Glaciers and icecaps – they cover about 10%
 Deposition – it is the exact opposite of of the world's landmass. Glaciers and
sublimation. It is the process where water vapor icecaps make up 70% of the world's
changes directly into ice. freshwater. Unfortunately, these sources are
far from human habitation, thus they are not
 Infiltration – the process where rain water readily accessible for human consumption.
penetrates into the ground, through the soil and
  Permafrost – soil or sediment that is frozen
for more than two consecutive years is called
permafrost. The frozen ground varies in
thickness from a few meters to about 150
meters.

 Springs – is the result of an aquifer being

filled to the point that the water overflows
onto the land surface. They range in size
from intermittent seep, which flow only after
much rain, to huge pools flowing hundreds
 Groundwater – the most abundant and of millions of gallon daily.
readily available freshwater source today.
Groundwater represents over 90% of the  Wells – are created by drilling or digging
world's usable water. About 1.5 billion people through the rock layers to reach the ground.
depend upon groundwater for their drinking Most wells make use of the motorized pumps
water supply. to bring the water to the surface.

3. Surface Water Reservoirs  Freshwater lakes – most of these lakes are

located at high altitudes. About 50% of the
 Stream – is a moving body of surface water world's freshwater lakes can be found in
that flows downslope toward sea level Canada.
because of gravity. It has clearly-defined
passageways called channel where particles
and dissolved substances are transported.

 Reservoirs – is most commonly an enlarged

natural or artificial lake created using a dam
to store fresh water.

 Wetlands – land areas where water covers

 River – is a stream with a considerable the surface for significant periods is referred
volume and a well-defined channel. Streams to as wetlands. They vary in size – from
are interconnected and form a tree-shaped relatively large in flat areas to small in steep
network of small streams, making up the areas. The types of wetlands include
branches and joined to a large mainstream or marshes, swamps, and estuaries:
river, which comprise the trunk.
a. Marsh – a shallow wetland around
 Tributaries – the smaller streams called as lakes, streams, and oceans where
tributaries. It is a freshwater that feeds into grasses and reeds are dominant
larger stream or river. vegetation. The wetland in Canaba,
Pampanga is an example of a marsh
ecosystem.

b. Swamp – a wetland with lush trees and

vegetation found in low-lying areas
 besides slow-moving rivers. Oxygen Porosity – is the total amount of empty pore space in
content in the swamp water is typically the rock. It determines the amount of groundwater
low, but swamp plants and animals are that aquifer can hold.
adapted to these low-oxygen
conditions. Mangrove forests are
unique example of swamp ecosystem
that tolerates salty conditions.

c. Estuary – a partly enclosed coastal

body of water where freshwater from
stream meets the saltwater from the
sea. It is home to many organisms that
can tolerate the sharp changes in
salinity due to the constant change of
salt content. The mouth of large rivers Permeability – is the ability of the rock or sediments
such as Pampanga River in Manila Bay to allow water to pass through. The movement of
is an estuary. groundwater within the aquifer is also controlled by
the permeability of the material.
 Floods – a natural event wherein an area that
is usually dry is submerged under water. It
usually occurs when the rate of precipitation
is higher than the rate in which it could be
absorbed by the ground or carried by the
streams.

a. Fluvial/riverine flood – occurs when a

stream’s discharge is greater than the
capacity of the channel, causing the
stream to overflow.

b. Flashfloods – are characterized by

intense, high-velocity torrent of water
that occurs in an existing river channel
GROUNDWATER PROFILE
with little to no notice.
Groundwater is the largest reservoir of liquid
c. Coastal flooding – occurs when water fresh water on Earth and is found in aquifers, porous
overwhelms in low-lying areas along rock and sediment with water in between. Water is
the coasts, usually due to severe attracted to the soil particles and capillary action,
weather conditions. which describes how water moves through a porous
media, moves water from wet soil to dry areas.
d. Pluvial/surface water flood – occurs
when heavy rainfall creates a flood 1. Zone aeration/unsaturated zone – a zone in
event independent of an overflowing which the spaces between the particles are filled
stream. This common in urban areas mainly with air.
when the drainage systems are
clogged. 2. Zone of saturation – the layer beneath the zone
of aeration. In this layer, the spaces between the
 Groundwater – is freshwater found in the particles are filled with water.
rock and soil layers beneath the surface. The
groundwater is the largest reservoir of liquid 3. Capillary fringe – directly above the water table
fresh water on Earth. It constitutes about is a layer called capillary fringe, wherein
30.1% of the total freshwater on the planet. groundwater seeps up to fill the pores spaces in
the zone of aeration via capillary action.
Aquifers – the water-bearing rock layers are akin to a
“sponge” which holds groundwater in tiny cracks, 4. Water table – the boundary between the two
cavities, and pores between mineral grains. zones; zone of aeration and the zone of
saturation.
 HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT WATER
SOURCES
Earth's water sources are currently facing a
crisis: they are being threatened by harmful effects
caused by human actions. These include
sedimentation, pollution, climate change,
deforestation, landscape changes, and urbanization.

1. Sedimentation – aquatic ecosystems are now

facing the threat of sedimentation.
Sediments naturally occur in water bodies,
but when human activities such as farming,
mining, building of roads and clearing of
forests are done, too much soil and particles
tend to be clumped into rivers. This
sedimentation can harm plants and animals,
especially when toxic chemicals are dropped
into the water. This also decreases the
capacity of reservoirs and other bodies of
water.

2. Pollution – another effect of uncontrolled

human activity is freshwater pollution.
Wastes that people carelessly dispose can
pollute the air, land, and water resources.
Pollution affects the quality of freshwater
resources, even the quality of rainwater.

3. Climate change/global warming – causes

extreme weather events which reduces
runoff in areas already suffering from water
shortages. Moreover, climate change has
also affected glaciers, gradually melting
them due to increasing heat.