Mongolia

[b]
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north
and China to the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909
square miles), with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's most sparsely
populated sovereign state. Mongolia is the world's largest landlocked country that
does not border a closed sea, and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with
mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar, the
capital and largest city, is home to roughly half of the country's population.
The territory of modern-day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires,
including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the First Turkic Khaganate, the
Second Turkic Khaganate, the Uyghur Khaganate and others. In 1206, Genghis
Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous land empire
in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China proper and established the
Yuan dynasty. After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and
resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan
Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan.

In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia, being further led by the
Manchu-founded Qing dynasty, which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By
the early 20th century, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist
[10][11]
monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared
independence, and achieved actual independence from the Republic of China in
1921. Shortly thereafter, the country became a satellite state of the Soviet Union. In
[12]
1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was founded as a socialist state. After the
anti-communist revolutions of 1989, Mongolia conducted its own peaceful
democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system, a new
constitution of 1992, and transition to a market economy.

Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic; horse culture

remains integral. Buddhism is the majority religion (51.7%), with the nonreligious
being the second-largest group (40.6%). Islam is the third-largest religious
identification (3.2%), concentrated among ethnic Kazakhs. The vast majority of
citizens are ethnic Mongols, with roughly 5% of the population being Kazakhs,
Tuvans, and other ethnic minorities, who are especially concentrated in the western
regions. Mongolia is a member of the United Nations, Asia Cooperation Dialogue,
G77, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, Non-Aligned Movement and a NATO
global partner. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to
[4]
expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups.

Etymology
Mongolia
 Mongolian name

Mongolian Cyrillic Монгол Улс

(Mongol Uls)

Mongolian script ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ

ᠤᠯᠤᠰ

show
Transcriptions

The name Mongolia means the "Land of the Mongols" in Latin. The Mongolian word
"Mongol" (монгол) is of uncertain etymology. Sükhbataar (1992) and de la Vaissière
(2021) proposed it being a derivation from Mugulü, the 4th-century founder of the
[13] [14]
Rouran Khaganate, first attested as the 'Mungu', (Chinese: 蒙兀, Modern Chinese
[15]
Měngwù, Middle Chinese Muwngu ), a branch of the Shiwei in an 8th-century Tang
[14]
dynasty list of northern tribes, presumably related to the Liao-era Mungku
[16]
(Chinese: 蒙古, Modern Chinese Měnggǔ, Middle Chinese MuwngkuX ).

After the fall of the Liao dynasty in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading
tribe on the Mongolian Plateau. However, their wars with the Jurchen-ruled Jin
dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. The last head of the tribe
was Yesügei, whose son Temüjin eventually united all the Shiwei tribes as the
Mongol Empire (Yekhe Monggol Ulus). In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol
grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united
[17]
under the rule of Genghis Khan.

Since the adoption of the new Constitution of Mongolia on 13 February 1992, the
official name of the state is "Mongolia" (Mongol Uls).

History
Main article: History of Mongolia
Prehistory and antiquity
Main articles: Prehistoric Mongolia and Proto-Mongols
[18]
The Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red
ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels,
and ostriches, earning it the nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The Venus
figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in
northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia. Neolithic agricultural settlements (c.
5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan
Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the
history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture. Horse-riding nomadism has
been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and
[19]
Bronze Age Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BC); this Indo-European culture was
active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in
[20]
the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC. Pastoral
nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later Okunev culture
(2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture
(1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC.
Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans,
square slab tombs, and rock paintings.

Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has
always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may
have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The
population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of
[18]
what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west. Tocharians (Yuezhi) and
Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a
Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-
[21]
year-old man with blond hair; it was found in the Altai, Mongolia. As equine
nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe
also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions
of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, and Donghu) into China during
the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) presaged the
age of nomadic empires.

Early states

7th-century artifacts found 180 km (112 mi) from Ulaanbaatar

Since the prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time
to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common
institutions were the office of the Khan, the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and right
wings, imperial army (Keshig) and the decimal military system. The first of these
empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by Modu
Shanyu to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest
threat to the Qin dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China. It
was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian's tenure,
as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu
empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234 AD),
which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic
Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan"
as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks
(555–745), an even larger empire.

The Göktürks laid siege to Panticapaeum, present-day Kerch, in 576. They were
succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz.
The Mongolic Khitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao
dynasty (907–1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to
prominence.

Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia
summarizes the time of the Khagans:

In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed
them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees
genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to
the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were
great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with
people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When
they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China),
Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz,
Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans, Tatabis came to the funerals. So many people
[22]
came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans.

Mongol empire to early 20th century

Main articles: Mongol Empire, Mongolia under Yuan rule, Northern Yuan dynasty,
Dzungar Khanate, and Mongolia under Qing rule
See also: List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans, List of Mongol states, and List of
Mongol rulers

Mongol Empire expansion (1206–1294)

In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in
uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he
took the title Genghis Khan, and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned
for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the
Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his
successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east,
and from parts of Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south,
[23]
covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi), (22% of Earth's
total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about a quarter of
Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of Pax Mongolica also
[24][25]
significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height.

After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or
Khanates. These eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War
(1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power following Möngke Khan's death in
1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol
homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty
under Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-
day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown
by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming the
Northern Yuan dynasty. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their
homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum
and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under
[26]
Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür.

After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers from China proper, the Mongols continued to
rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. With the
division of the Mongol tribes, it was subsequently also known as "The Forty and the
[27]
Four" (Döčin dörben) among them. The next centuries were marked by violent
power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-
Genghisid Oirats, as well as by several Ming invasions (such as the five expeditions
led by the Yongle Emperor).

Genghis Khan, the first Mongol Emperor

In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited all Mongol
groups under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a
grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became
powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557. After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he
ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time
this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded
the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became the first
Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian
population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on
an altar at the north side of their yurt. Mongolian nobles donated land, money and
herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the
top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in
[28]
addition to spiritual power.

The last Khagan of Mongols was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came
into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated
most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636, most of the Inner Mongolian tribes
had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty. The Khalkha
eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under
Manchu rule. After several Dzungar–Qing Wars, the Dzungars (western Mongols or
Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and
[29]
1758.

Altan Khan (1507–1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and
originated the title of Dalai Lama.

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were killed
[30]
by a combination of disease and warfare. Outer Mongolia was given relative
autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet
Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba
Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass
Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture.
The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks.
The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had
permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which
was staffed by 5–30 chosen families.

Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances
and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans, Manchu
"high officials", were installed in Khüree, Uliastai, and Khovd, and the country was
divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people
in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal
lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the
responsibilities towards their subjects. The behavior of Mongolia's nobility, together
with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in
silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By
1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000
monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu,
there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai
khutuktu), in Outer Mongolia.

Modern history
Main articles: Mongolian Revolution of 1911, Bogd Khanate of Mongolia, Mongolian
Revolution of 1921, Mongolian People's Republic, Mongolian Revolution of 1990,
and History of modern Mongolia

The eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Bogd Khaan

 Map of unified Mongolia in 1917

With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared
its independence. But the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia
to be part of its own territory. Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of China,
considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that
both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing,
and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission
[31]
to the Manchu had become invalid.

The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer
Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia,
Chinese troops led by warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on
the northern border. As a result of the Russian Civil War, the White Russian
Lieutenant General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920,
defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February
1921 with Mongol support.

To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the
establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian
army took the Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921,
and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared
[32]
its independence again on 11 July 1921. As a result, Mongolia was closely
aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.

Mongolian People's Republic

[33]
In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer or, as some sources
[34]
claim, at the hands of Russian spies, the country's political system was changed.
The Mongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan
rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952)
included many with Pan-Mongolist ideals. However, changing global politics and
increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the
following period.

Khorloogiin Choibalsan led Mongolia during the Stalinist era, and presided over an
environment of intense political persecution
Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction
of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out Stalinist purges, which resulted in the
murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s,
approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the
[35]
20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia.

In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to the Mongolian People's
Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill
Stalin's demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed,
including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar. The Stalinist purges in Mongolia,
which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Under Stalinist influence in the
Mongolian People's Republic, an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures
[36]
show. Choibalsan, who led a dictatorship and organized Stalinist purges in
Mongolia between 1937 and 1939, died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952.
Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the
[37]
land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany".
[page needed]

Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at Khalkhin Gol, 1939

After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was

threatened on this front. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet
Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia
fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the
Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and
[38]
Mengjiang.

Cold War

The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in
the Pacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at
Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. The
referendum took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers)
[39]
100% of the electorate voting for independence.

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries confirmed
their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However, the Republic of China used its
Security Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's
Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —
including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the Republic of
China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the
ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its
veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African state),
in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other
African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were
[40][41][42]
both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961. (see China and the United
Nations)

Mongolian Premier Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal was the longest-serving leader in the Eastern Bloc,
with over 44 years in office.

On 26 January 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after the death
of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than
[43]
30 years. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness
prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn
Batmönkh.

Post-Cold War

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics
and youth. Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in January 1990
and the introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy. At the same
time, the transformation of the former Marxist-Leninist Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party to the current social democratic Mongolian People's Party
reshaped the country's political landscape.

A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was
dropped from the country's name. The transition to a market economy was often
rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food
[44]
shortages. The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993
(presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported
Mongolia's application for membership in the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD),
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in the
[45]
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Mongolia
 The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern and
western portions are mountainous.

2 [46]
At 1,564,116 km (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 18th-largest country. It
is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between
latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E.
As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same
latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while the southernmost part
is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The
westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India,
while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou
in China, as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share
a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi)
from Kazakhstan, nearly making a quadripoint.

The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold,
mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland, with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of the
[47] [48]
total land area, a higher percentage than Ireland (10%). The whole of Mongolia
is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia is
the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft).
The basin of the Uvs Lake, shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, is a natural World
Heritage Site.

Climate
Main articles: Climate of Mongolia and Climate change in Mongolia
Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky"
(Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a
[49][50][51][52]
year.
 Köppen climate classification zones in Mongolia

Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter,
[53]
with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F). A vast front of
cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys
and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much
warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with
altitude).

In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian
Anticyclone. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs
province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan
(Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin
Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe
as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi
Province (Dalanzadgad, Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering
China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and
eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province
(Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher
than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. The
Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In
Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January
temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January
[54][55]
temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F).

The Khentii Mountains in Terelj, close to the birthplace of Genghis Khan

The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. It

results in large proportions of the country's livestock dying from starvation
or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the
largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in
Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city.
[53] [56]
Mongolia is high, cold and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with
long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation
[56]
falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the
[56]
center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the
north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the
[56]
south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually. The highest
annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests of Bulgan
Province near the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in)
[57]
occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990). The sparsely populated far north
of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it
receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or
22.5 in).

Environmental issues
This section is an excerpt from Environmental issues in Mongolia.[edit]

The Gobi Desert, Ömnögovi Province. Desertification is a key issue in Mongolia.

There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to
both human and environmental wellness. These problems have arisen in part due to
natural factors, but increasingly because of human actions. One of these issues is
climate change, which will be responsible for an increase in desertification, natural
[58]
disasters, and land degradation. Another is deforestation, which is expanding due
to human activity, pests, disease, and fires. Mongolian lands are becoming more arid
through desertification, a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land
use. Additionally, more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction.
Moreover, especially in population centers, Mongolians deal with air and water
pollution caused by industrialization.
Wildlife
Main article: Wildlife of Mongolia

Bactrian camels by sand dunes in Gobi Desert

The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a
category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with
 [56]
enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although
the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian
[56]
landscape.

Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in
expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can
[56]
survive. The arid conditions in the Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect
caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the
Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a
flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance
from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the
Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps are still found in the
Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon and Kherlen rivers and
Lake Buir form part of the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts
some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish (cambaroides
dauricus) and Daurian pearl oyster (dahurinaia dahurica) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers
as well as Siberian prawn (exopalaemon modestus) in Lake Buir.

Mongolia had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.36/10,
[59]
ranking it sixth globally out of 172 countries.

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Mongolia

Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia.

In settlements, many families live in ger districts.

Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U.S. Census
[60][failed verification]
Bureau to be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world.
But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the
 [61]
United Nations (UN) estimations instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations.
[62]
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division
estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the
U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian
National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population
[62]
growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.). About 59% of the total population is
under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing
[citation needed]
population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy.

The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a
[63]
population of 647,500. Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a
decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other
[62]
country in the world, according to recent UN estimations: in 1970–1975, fertility
was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005.
[64]
The decline ended and in 2005–2010, the fertility value increased to 2.8 in 2013
and stabilised afterwards at a rate of about 2.5-2.6 children per woman around 2020.
[65]

[66]
The Mongols are moderately homogeneous; ethnic Mongols account for about
95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished
primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the
ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others.
Turkic peoples (Kazakhs and Tuvans) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and
[67]
the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.

Languages

Public Library and Museum in Mörön, Khövsgöl province showing signage in Mongolian
(Mongolian Script and Cyrillic) and English

Mongolia's official and national language is Mongolian. A member of the Mongolic

language family, the standard dialect is Khalkha Mongol. It coexists with various
other, largely mutually intelligible varieties of Mongolic such as Oirat, Buryat, and
Khamnigan. Several dialects have been morphing to become more like the central
[68]
Khalkha dialect in recent years. Most speakers of these dialects are located in the
western part of the country, namely Bayan-Ölgii, Uvs, and Khovd. Kazakh, a Turkic
language, is the majority language in Bayan-Ölgii, while Tuvan is another Turkic
language spoken in Khövsgöl. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of
the deaf community.

Today, Mongolian is mainly written using the Cyrillic alphabet, introduced during the
1940s. Since the 1990 revolution there has been a minor revival of the historic
Mongolian script, which is still the official script used by Mongols in neighboring Inner
Mongolia. Although Mongolian script has officially been declared the national script,
[69] [70]
and is taught from the sixth grade onward at schools, it remains mostly
[68]
confined to ceremonial usage in daily life. In March 2020, the Mongolian
government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script
[71][72]
in official documents by 2025.

This map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire compared to today's
Mongols. The red area shows where the majority of Mongolian speakers reside today.

Since 1990, English has quickly supplanted Russian as the most popular foreign
[73][68][74]
language in Mongolia. In the communist era, Russian was a vital language
for mobility and professional communication, with a large number of students
studying in the Soviet Union as well as a large number of Soviet professionals and
[68]
soldiers located within Mongolia. Since then, however, Mongolia's education
system has reoriented away from the Soviet Union to the West, and English has
become the dominant foreign language, aided by liberalized media, international aid
agencies, the rise of private education and tutoring, as well as official government
policy. In the 2014–2015 academic year, 59% of the overall student population
[68]
studied English at public secondary schools. In 2023, English was declared the
[75]
"first foreign language", and to be taught from the third grade.

As of the 2014–2015 academic year, the most popular foreign language in

specialized language courses were (ordered by popularity), English, Chinese,
Russian, Japanese, and Korean. Korean in particular has gained popularity as tens
[76]
of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea, forming the largest group of
Mongolians abroad.

Religion
Main articles: Religion in Mongolia and Freedom of religion in Mongolia
 Religion Populatio Shar
n e

Non- 735,283 38.6%

religious

Religious 1,170,283 61.4%

Buddhism 1,009,357 53.0%

Islam 57,702 3.0%

Shamanism 55,174 2.9%

Christianity 41,117 2.2%

Other 6,933 0.4%

religions

Total 1,905,566 100.0

%

According to the 2010 National Census, among Mongolians aged 15 and above,
53% were Buddhists, while 39% were non-religious.

Mongolian shamanism has been widely practiced throughout the history of what is
now Mongolia, with similar beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia.
They gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on
Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western
Mongolia, some Mongols, and other Turkic peoples in the country traditionally
adhere to Islam.

Throughout much of the 20th century, the communist government repressed

religious practices. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Buddhist Church, which
had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures (e.g.
[78]
from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been the Khan of the country). In
the late 1930s, the regime, then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all of
Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30,000 people, of
[79]
whom 18,000 were lamas. The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000
[78]
in 1924 to 110 in 1990.

Amarbayasgalant Monastery
The fall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice. Tibetan Buddhism,
which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose
to become the most widely practised religion in Mongolia. The highest-ranking lama
of Buddhism in Mongolia, has been vacant since the 9th Jebtsundamba's passing in
[80]
2012 and the search for the next Jebtsundamba Khutuktu is being complicated by
[80]
Beijing's desire to assert control over Tibetan Buddhism.

The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions to
spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund,
the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. In
May 2013, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) held a
cultural program to celebrate twenty years of LDS Church history in Mongolia, with
[81]
10,900 members, and 16 church buildings in the country. There are some 1,000
Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from the Philippines was named
[82]
Mongolia's first Catholic bishop. In 2017 Seventh-day Adventists reported 2,700
[83]
members in six churches up from zero members in 1991.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Mongolia

State Great Khural chamber in session

Mongolia is a semi-presidential representative democratic republic with a directly

[3][84][85]
elected President. The people also elect the deputies in the national
assembly, the State Great Khural. The president appoints the prime minister, and
nominates the cabinet on the proposal of the prime minister. The constitution of
Mongolia guarantees a number of freedoms, including full freedom of expression and
religion. Mongolia amended its constitution most lately in 2019 transferring some
[86]
powers from the president to the prime minister. On May 31, 2023, Mongolia's
parliament approved a constitutional amendment that increased the number of seats
from 76 to 126 and changed the electoral system re-introducing proportional party
[87]
voting.

Mongolia has a number of political parties; the largest are the Mongolian People's
Party and the Democratic Party. The non-governmental organization Freedom
[88]
House considers Mongolia to be free.
The People's Party – known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1924 and
2010 – formed the government from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990)
and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the
Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two
other coalitions. The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 prior to
losing power in the 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling
coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's
Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to
the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall
[89] [90]
majority; however, as the Democratic Party won the largest number of seats,
its leader, Norovyn Altankhuyag, was appointed prime minister on 10 August 2012.
[91]
In 2014, he was replaced by Chimediin Saikhanbileg. The MPP won a landslide
victory in the 2016 elections and the next Prime Minister was MPP's Ukhnaagiin
Khürelsükh. In June 2020, MPP won a landslide victory in the election. It took 62
seats and the main opposition DP, 11 of the 76 seats. Before the elections the ruling
[92]
party had redrawn the electoral map in a way that was beneficial for MPP. In
January 2021, Prime Minister Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh resigned after protests over
[93]
the treatment of a coronavirus patient. On 27 January 2021, Luvsannamsrai
Oyun-Erdene of MPP became new prime minister. He represents a younger
[94]
generation of leaders that had studied abroad.

Mongolia's President Tsakhia Elbegdorj with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, June 2016

The President of Mongolia is able to veto the laws made by parliament, appoint
judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors. The parliament can override
that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three
requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born
Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years
before taking office. The president must also suspend their party membership. After
defeating incumbent Nambaryn Enkhbayar, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former
prime minister and member of the Democratic Party, was elected as president on 24
[95]
May 2009 and inaugurated on 18 June that year. The ruling Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party (2010) (MPRP) nominated Batbold Sukhbaatar as new Prime
[96]
Minister in October 2009. Elbegdorj was re-elected on 26 June 2013 and was
[97]
inaugurated on 10 July 2013 for his second term as president. In June 2017,
opposition Democratic Party candidate Khaltmaagiin Battulga won the presidential
[98] [99]
election. He was inaugurated on 10 July 2017.
In June 2021, former Prime Minister Ukhnaa Khurelsukh, the candidate of the ruling
Mongolian People's Party (MPP), became the country's sixth democratically elected
[100]
president after winning the presidential election.

Mongolia uses a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural, with 76 seats, which
is chaired by the Speaker of the House. Its members are directly elected, every four
[3]
years, by popular vote. As per 2023 constitutional amendment the parliament
[101]
increased the number of seats from 76 to 126.

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Mongolia

Mongolian President Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh with Russian President Vladimir Putin in

Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 3 September 2024

Mongolia's foreign relations traditionally focus on its two large neighbors, Russia and
[102]
China. Mongolia is economically dependent on these countries: China is
Mongolia's largest export partner at a 78% share, far above the other top countries
(Switzerland at 15%; Singapore 3%). Mongolia receives 36% of imports from China
[103]
and 29% from Russia. Mongolia is also pursuing a trilateral partnership with
China and Russia through the Power of Siberia 2 natural gas pipeline, with a
contract to be signed in the "near future" according to Russian Deputy Prime Minister
[104][105]
Alexander Novak. Due to China's status as Mongolia's most important
trading partner, Mongolia has been trying to stay out of the current U.S.-China
[106]
confrontation.

It has begun seeking positive relations with a wider range of other countries
especially in cultural and economic matters, focusing on encouraging foreign direct
[107]
investment and trade. Mongolia has been pursuing a 'third-neighbor' foreign
policy since early 1990s to build deeper relations and partnerships with countries
[108]
beyond its two surrounding neighbors.

Mongolia has been a member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS) since the
[109]
group's founding in 1992.

Then Vice President of the U.S. Joe Biden, visited Mongolia in 2011 supporting
[110]
Mongolia's third neighbor policy.
Embassies

Main article: List of diplomatic missions of Mongolia

Mongolia maintains many diplomatic missions in other countries and has embassies
[111]
in the following world capitals:

● Ankara
● Astana
● Bangkok
● Beijing
● Berlin
● Brasilia
● Brussels
● Budapest
● Cairo
● Canberra
● Hanoi
● Havana
● Jakarta
● Kuala Lumpur
● Kuwait City
● London
● Moscow
● New Delhi
● Ottawa
● Paris
● Prague
● Pyongyang
● Rome
● Seoul
● Singapore
● Sofia
● Stockholm
● Tokyo
● Vienna
● Vientiane
● Warsaw
● Washington, D.C.
Military
Main article: Mongolian Armed Forces
 Mongolian, Chinese and Russian national flags set on armored vehicles during the large-
scale military exercise Vostok 2018 in Eastern Siberia

Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive
contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq. About 130 troops were deployed to
Afghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to
protect the UN's special court set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to
[112]
send a battalion to Chad in support of MINURCAT.

From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and
Luxembourg contingents in Kosovo. On 21 November 2005, George W. Bush
[113]
became the first-ever sitting U.S. president to visit Mongolia. In 2004, under
Bulgarian chairmanship, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE) invited Mongolia as its newest Asian partner.

Legal system
Main article: Judiciary of Mongolia
The judiciary of Mongolia is made of a three-tiered court system: first instance courts
in each provincial district and each Ulaanbaatar district; appellate courts for each
province and also the Capital Ulaanbaatar; and the court of last resort (for non-
[114]
constitutional matters) at the Supreme Court of Mongolia. For questions of
constitutional law there is a separate constitutional court.

A Judicial General Council (JGC) nominates judges which must then be confirmed
by the parliament and appointed by the President.

Arbitration centres provide alternative dispute resolution options for commercial and
other disputes.