UNIT V: Subsidiary Enterprises of Agriculture

1. APICULTURE, LAC CULTURE AND SERICULTURE

1 APICULTURE
 Apiculture is also known as bee-keeping.
‗Apis‘ means bee. The scientific names of different species of honeybees begin with the
generic name Apis. Apiculture or bee-keeping is the art of caring for, and manipulating
colonies of honeybee in large quantity, over and above their own requirement.
History
The first evidence of this association came to light from the rock paintings made by
primitive human. Thousands of years ago, Egyptian were well acquainted with bee keeping
before the Christian Era. In Rigveda, there are many references to bee and honey. Bee-
keeping became a commercial proposition during the 19th century as a result of scientific
research. Apiculture is a flourishing industry in many advanced countries like USA, Canada,
Germany and Australia.
Importance of bee keeping
There are three main advantages of bee-keeping:
2. Provides honey - a valuable nutritional food
3. Provides bees wax - which has many uses in industry
4. Honey bees are excellent pollinating agents, thus increasing agricultural yields. In
terms of actual value this advantage exceeds the other two.
Species of honey bee
There are four common species of honey bee under a single genus Apis (apis = bee):
5. Apis dorsata (The rock- bee):- This is the largest honeybee. Builds single large open
comb on high branches of trees and rocks. Produces large quantity of honey, but this
bee is difficult to domesticate. This bee is ferocious, stings severely causing fever and
sometimes even death.
6. Apis indica (The Indian bee):- It is Medium sized in size. Hive consists of several
parallel combs in dark places such as cavities of tree trunks, mud walls, earthen posts,
etc.This bee is not so ferocious and can be domesticated
7. Apis florea (The little bee):- It is Medium sized in size. Builds single small combs in
bushes, hedges, etc. Honey yield is poor.
8. Apis mellifera (The European bee):- Somewhat like the Indian bee (Apis indica).
This has been introducted in many parts of the world including India. It is easily
domesticated.

The bee colony – various castes and their activities :- A honey bee colony has three castes

 Queen – only one; functional female

 Workers – 20,000-30,000, sterile females
 Drones – a few only, functional males available prior to swarming.

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Queen Bee:-
 Queen bee is the only perfectly developed female, that is has well developed ovaries
and other organs of female reproductive system.
 She is largest in size.
 Its wings are smaller and are shrivelled.
 Mouth parts for sucking food is shorter than that of workers. No wax glands.
 Live for about 3 - 4 years.
 May lay eggs at the rate of 800 - 1500 per day.
Events in the life of queen bee
Usually at the age of 7-10 days in her parent hive, after the old mother queen along
with some workers had left for starting another hive, this new virgin queen goes out for
marriage (nuptial) flights. The drones from the same hive chase her. This swarm may also be
joined by drones (male bees) from other hives. Mating takes place, while flying, on an
average, the queen mates with about six drones and then returns to the hive. The sperms she
has received are enough for her whole life, and she never mates again.
The queen has a control mechanism on the release of the sperms from the spermatheca
(sperm store). She can lay two types of eggs:
Various castes of honey bee.
(ii) Fertilized – eggs that produce females (either sterile workers or fertile females (new
queens).
(iii)Unfertilised – eggs which produce drones.
Worker bees
 Worker bees are imperfectly developed females.
 These are smaller than the queen.
 These have strong wings to fly.
 These have a large and efficient proboscis (mouth parts packed together like a thin
tube) for sucking nectar.
 A well-developed sting is present.
 Hind legs have ―pollen basket‖ for
collecting pollen.
 The workers have a life span of
about 35 days. The different duties which
they perform age-wise are as follows:
 Day 1-14 Activity inside the
hive such as cleaning the hive, feeding the
larvae, etc.
 Day 14-20 Guard duties
at entrance to the hive
 Day 21- 35 Foraging, i.e. collecting
the food (nectar and pollen from the
surroundings)
For foraging, some scout bees set
out in the morning. On locating good
sources of nectar (i.e. flowers) they return
to their hive and perform characteristic movements (bee dances) at the comb. These dances
communicate to the other worker bees the distance and the direction of the food source. This

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is how more and more worker bees are deployed in food gathering. The workers visit flower
to flower, collect nectar and pollen and return to their own nest against taking clue from the
position of Sun as well as by certain amount of memory and finally the smell of their own
particular hive.
The bee dance:- In this dance the middle course of the dance communicates to the other bees
the angle from the hive with reference to the sun. Taking a hint from this angle they have to
fly to reach the food source.
(iii) Drones:- Drones are the male bees produced from unfertilised eggs. Their production in
the hive synchronises with the production of the new (virgin) queens. At the age of 14-18
days the drones perform mating flight chasing the virgin queen in the air. Drones can live up
to about 60 days, although they are stung and killed after the mating.

The schematic representation of formation of different castes of bees is shown in.

Queen lays

Unifertilized Eggs Fertilized Eggs

↓ ↓
Hatch into Larvae Hatch into Larvae
↓ ↓
For first few days fed on Fed on ―royal jelly‖
―Royal jelly‖ for first few days.
(Saliva of workers) then
on honey and pre-digested
pollen

↓
Pupa Royal jelly replaced Royal jelly
↓ by honey and pre feeding
Drones digested continued
pollen ↓
↓ Pupae
Pupae ↓
↓ Queen
Workers

Schematic representation of the formation of different castes in honeybee.

Emergence of new Queen, and Swarming of the old one
When the queen gets older (usually in the third year) her body gives out a chemical
stimulus to the workers to construct a few rearing cells for queens. She places one fertilized
egg in each of such brood cells. The larvae are fed on royal jelly (saliva of workers). They
turn into pupae and then into queens. The first queen to emerge from the brood cells, kills the
remaining ones.

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 Now the old queen takes to swarming along with a mixture of workers of all ages,
leaves the old hive to develop a colony at some new site.
The new queen in the old hive takes to mating flight with the drones and returns to the
same hive, as described earlier.
Apiculture and commercial production of honey
Bees produce honey and wax both of which are valuable and marketable
commodities.
(a) Indigenous methods of bee keeping
Many villagers make (i) wall or fixed types of hives in rectangular spaces in the walls
with a small hole or (ii) movable types of hives in wooden boxes or earthen pitchers. The
traditional beekeepers catch clustered swarms from trees, bushes, etc and transfer them to the
above-mentioned spaces. After sometime when the honeyis ready, the bees are driven away
from the comb usually by smoking the hive. Then the comb is cut away and the honey is
squeezed out through a piece of large - meshed cloth.
(b) Modern hives
The modern beehive is made up of a series of square or oblong boxes without tops or
bottoms, set one above the other. This hive has the floor at the bottom, and a crown board at
the top, and a roof over all. Inside these boxes, wooden frames are vertically hung paralled to
each other. The wooden frames are filled with sheets of wax foundation on which the combs
are built by the bees. The only entrance to the hive is below the large bottom box (brood
chamber). The queen is usually confined to the brood chamber. The boxes termed ―supers‖
are used for storage of honey. The queen is prevented from going to the ―supers‖ by the
―queen excluder‖ that allows only the workers to move.

Fig. A modern bed hive.

Catching a swarm

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 You have already read what a swarm is. It is an old queen accompanied by huge
population of workers flying to start a new hive. Swarms are collected from where they are
settled. Some kind of a container is needed to collect the bees. The container is usually a
straw basket (skep) with a lid.
Hiving a Swarm
It is the process in which the collected swarm is transferred to the hive to build up the
colony and produce honey. It is operated in two ways:
(i) Traditional method

 The hive is set up with brood chamber filled with its full number of frames. Each
frame has a full sheet of foundation and there is a crown board with roof at the top.
 A sloping board with white sheet is set against the entrance of the hive.
 Bees in the skep (basket) are knocked out of it on to the slope.
 The instinct of the bees to move upwards onto the dark, drives them onto the hive
through the entrance.
(ii) Quick method

 In this method the crown board of the hive is taken off, frames are also taken off and
the entrance is closed.
 The skep is intimately united with the hive and the bees are poured into the brood
chamber from the top.
 The frames containing the wax foundation are placed in the hive.
 The crown board is put back in its position and the entrance is opened.
 It must be seen that the queen enters the hive. Now, sugar syrup must be fed to the
swarm, as this feeding will help the bees to settle down to work in their new home.
Bee Pasturage

 The plants that yield nectar and pollen are collectively termed ―bee pasturage‖. The
fruit trees, ornamental plants and forest trees comprise important bee pasturage.
 Nectar is the sweet secretion of the flowers. It is raw material for honey.
 Pollen provides the raw material necessary for the major food of the brood.

Products from a bee hive

A. Honey

Honey is a food material for the bees and their larvae. Large quantities of honey are
stored in the hive to meet the demands in scarcity. Chemically, honey is a viscous water
solution of sugar. Its approximate composition in percentage is as follows:

Water 13-20
Fructose 40-50
Glucose 2-3
Minerals Traces

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 Vitamins (minute
(B1, B2, C) quantities)

 Composition of honey and its different flavours depend on the kinds of flowers from
which the nectar is collected.
 Nectar is sucked from flowers and mixed with saliva. It is swallowed into a special
region of the gut called honey stomach. Nectar is a disaccharide (sucrose) it is
hydrolysed by the salivary amylase to produce monosaccharides (fructose and
glucose).
 Inside the hive the workers regurgitate the processed nectar. The honey thus produced
is still very dilute. After placing this honey onto the storage cells of the hive the bees
―fan‖ with their wings to evaporate the excess water and bring the honey to its
required concentration.
 Extraction of honey from the combs is done by centrifugation.
Uses of Honey
Some uses of honey are as follows:-
A. Food
 Honey is a nutritious food, rich in energy and vitamins.
 Medicines: It is used as a carrier in ayurvedic and unani medicines. It acts as a
laxative and prevents cold, cough and fever.
 It is used in religious ceremonies.
 It goes in the making of alcoholic drinks and beauty lotions.
 Another important use is in scientific research for making bacterial cultures.
 It is also utilised for making poison baits for certain insect pests.
Purity Standards
There is no ready method to test the purity of honey by the customers. Homogenous
granulation is a probable sign of its purity. Otherwise there are laboratory methods for testing
(test for monosaccharides).
B. Beeswax
Beeswax is secreted by the wax glands located on the underside of the last four
abdominal segments (4th to 7th) of the worker bee. This wax is used in constructing bee combs
in which the colony of the bees develops.
Uses of beeswax
Some uses are as follows:
 Making of candles (the modern candles are made of paraffin wax, a petroleum
product);
 Making pharmaceutical preparations;
 Preparation of varnishes and paints;
 Water proofing and waxing of threads; and
 Formation of comb foundation (wax foundation in apiaries).

Dance Language of the Honey Bee:-

Social behavior in bees has a number of advantages. One of the most important of these is the
ability to quickly mobilize a large number of foragers to gather floral resources that may only

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be available for a short period of time. The ability to communicate location with such
precision is one of the most interesting behaviors of a very interesting insect.
The recruitment of foragers from a hive begins when a scout bee returns to the hive
engorged with nectar from a newly found nectar source. She begins by spending 30-45
seconds regurgitating and distributing nectar to bees waiting in the hive. Once her generosity
has garnered an audience, the dancing begins. There are 2 types of bee dances: the round
dance and the tail-wagging or waggle dance, with a transitional form known as the sickle
dance.
In all cases the quality and quantity of the food source determines the liveliness of the
dances. If the nectar source is of excellent quality, nearly all foragers will dance
enthusiastically and at length each time they return from foraging. Food sources of lower
quality will produce fewer, shorter, and less vigorous dances; recruiting fewer new foragers.

The Round Dance

The round dance is used for food sources 25-100 meters away from the hive or closer.
After distributing some of her new-found nectar to waiting bees the scout will begin running
in a small circle, switching direction every so often. After the dance ends food is again
distributed at this or some other place on the comb and the dance may be repeated three or
(rarely) more times.
The round dance does not give directional information. Bees elicited into foraging
after a round dance fly out of the hive in all directions searching for the food source they
know must be there. Odor helps recruited bees find the new flowers in two ways. Bees
watching the dance detect fragrance of the flower left on the dancing bee. Additionally, the
scout bee leaves odor from its scent gland on the flower that helps guide the recruits.

The Waggle Dance

As the food source becomes more distant the round dance is replaced by the waggle
dance. There is a gradual transition between the round and waggle dance, taking place
through either a figure eight or sickle shaped pattern.
The waggle dance includes information about the direction and energy required to fly
to the goal. Energy expenditure (or distance) is indicated by the length of time it takes to
make one circuit. For example a bee may dance 8-9 circuits in 15 seconds for a food source
200 meters away, 4-5 for a food source 1000 meters away, and 3 circuits in 15 seconds for a
food source 2000 meters away.

Direction of the food source is indicated by the direction the

dancer faces during the straight portion of the dance when
the bee is waggling. If she waggles while facing straight
upward, than the food source may be found in the direction
of the sun.

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If she waggles at an angle 60 degrees to the left of upward
the food source may be found 60 degrees to the left of the
sun.

Similarly, if the dancer waggles 120 degrees to the right of

upward, the food source may be found 210 degrees to the
right of the sun. The dancer emits sounds during the waggle
run that help the recruits determine direction in the darkness
of the hive.

Lac culture
Lac is a resinous substance secreted by a tiny insect called Laccifer lacca (popular
name ―lac insect‖)
Shellac is the purified lac usually prepared in the orange or yellow flakes
Lac or shellac is used in many ways
 Commonest use is in polishing wooden furniture. The granules are dissolved in spirit
and then are applied in very thin layers on the wooden surfaces
 In sealing parcels, packets and envelopes
 As insulating material in electrical work
 In making phonograph records (now replaced by synthetic material)
 In shoe polishes
 In toys and jewellery

Utilization of lac for various purposes has been very ancient in India. A ―lac palace‖ is
described in Mahabharata, which was intended to be used for burning the Pandavas
alive. The Hindi name ―Lakh‖ or ―Laksha‖ in Sanskrit

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Lac insect

The lac insect lives on native trees in India, Burma (now called Myanmar) and Malaysia.
In India it is chiefly grown on trees like ― Kusum‖, ― Palas‖, and ―Ber‖.
 The minute young lac insect (also called crawler) finds a suitable branch.
 The insect inserts its beak into the plant tissue to obtain nourishment.
 It grows in size and secretes a resinous material around itself.
 The resinous material hardens on exposure to air.
 Thousands of crawlers settle side by side and the resinous secretion builds up around
them and completely encases the twig.
 Most crawlers develop in about 3 months into female which occupy small cavities in
the resinous mass. The females can never come out of these masses.
 Eggs develop inside the body of the female and she assumes a sac like appearance.
 The female dies, the eggs hatch, the crawlers escape and move to a nearby-uninfected
part of the twig, and the process is repeated.
Extraction of Lac

 The encrusted twigs are known as stick lac. Such twigs are harvested.
 The stick lac is ground largely in crude mortars, and the resulting granular lac is called
seed lac.
 The fine particles or the dust separated from the granular lac is used in making toys,
bangles etc.
 The wood portion is used as fuel.
 The seed lac is washed, melted, spread out in a thin layer and dried. This is the shellac
of commerce.
 It requires about 4,00,000 (4 lacs) insects to yield one kilogram of lac. The Hindi
word ―Lakh‖ for shellac possibly derives from such large number of insects required
to produce lac.

 In India the lac insect is found in great abundance and millions of people directly or
indirectly find livelihood in this industry.
 Lac Research Institute in Ranchi (Now in Jharkhand) conducts research on the various
aspects of the lac insect, its life history, protection against enemies, etc.
 Synthetic lacquers have been produced by the modern industry, which is replacing
true shellac for many purposes.

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SERICULTURE
Sericulture or silk production is the breeding and management of silk worms for the
commercial production of silk.

Sericulture is an important industry in Japan, China, India , Italy, France and Spain.
Brief History
Sericulture or silk production from the moth, Bombyx mori has a long and colourful
history unknown to most people. This insect is the only living species of family Bombycidae
and has been domesticated for so long that it is possible that there are no survivors in the wild
any longer.

According to the Chinese records, the discovery of silk production from B. mori
occurred about 2700 BC. It is believed that empress Si-lung-Chi was asked by emperor
Huang-ti to find the cause of damaged mulberry leaves on trees in their garden. The empress
found white worms eating the leaves. She noticed that they were also shiny cocoons around
themselves. A cocoon dropped in her cup of teaand silky threads separated from the cocoon.
Silk industry began in China where the source of silk was kept a secret for more than 2000
years. After some time, China lost their monopoly in silk production, sericulture reached
Japan through Korea and then to other countries.
Sericulture has been growing in India as an agro-based industry playing a vital role in
the improvement of rural economy.
Source of silk – The silkworm
The silkworm is the larva or the caterpillar of the moth Bombyx mori (popularly called the
silk moth) the total life history of the moth (from egg to adult take 50 days. The different
stages are as follows:
(i) Egg 10 days
(ii) Larva (4 Stages) 30 days

(iii) Pupa (Cocoon) 10 days

Stages of life history of silk worm moth.

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(i) Adult:- The adult silk moth is a creamy white moth that has a flat body and a wing
expanse of about 5 cms. It takes no food and seldom attempts to fly. It lives for only 2 to 3
days. After mating, the female moth lays 300-500 eggs on leaves of the mulberry tree.
(ii) Eggs:- The eggs are round and yellowish-white, and they become grey as hatching time
approaches.
(iii) Larvae
 The newly hatched larva is about 3 mm long and somewhat black in colour.
 The larvae grow in size and shed their skin (moult) four times. Each growing stage of
the caterpillar consumes lot of mulberry leaves.
 The last stage full grown larva is about 7 cm long. It has a hump behind the head and
a spine-like horn at the tail end.
 When full grown, the mature larva stops feeding, climbs on a twig and spins a cocoon.
(iv) Pupa
 The full grown larva pupates inside the cocoon.
 In about 10 days‘ time it transforms into a winged adult. The adult moth makes an
opening in the cocoon and escapes through it.
The cocoon
The cocoon is formed from a secretion from two large silk glands (actually the
salivary glands), which extend along the inside of the body and open through a common duct
on the lower lip of the mouthparts. The larva moves the head from side to side very rapidly
(about 65 times per minute) throwing out the secretion of the silk glands in the form of a
thread. The secretion is a clear viscous fluid, which on exposure to the air gets hardened into
the fine silk fibre.
The filament forming a cocoon is continuos and ranges in length from 700-1100
metres.
The cocoons from which moths have emerged are called pierced cocoons. These are
of low value because continuous thread cannot be obtained. Pieces are removed by
instruments and spun into a thread.
Rearing of silkworms
Selected healthy silk moths are allowed to mate for 4 hours. Female moth is then kept
in a dark plastic bed. She lays about 400 eggs in 24 hours, the female is taken out and is
crushed and examined for any disease, only the certified disease- free eggs are reared for
industrial purpose. The eggs are hatched in an incubator.

The hatched larvae are kept in trays inside a rearing house at a temperature of about
20°C-25°C . These are first fed on chopped mulberry leaves. After 4-5 days fresh leaves are
provided. As the larvae grow, they are transferred to fresh leaves on clean trays, when fully
grown they spin cocoons.
Reeling silk
The cocoons are cooked in hot water and the silk fibre is unwound from the cocoons.
This process is called reeling. The silk consists of two proteins the inner core is fibroin and an
outer cover of sericin. There are four following steps for the completion of the process of
reeling:

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For reeling silk the cocoons are gathered about 8 days after spinning had begun.
 The cocoons are first treated by steam or dry heat to kill the insect inside. This is
necessary to prevent the destruction of the continuous fibre by the emergence of the
moth.
 Next, the cocoons are soaked in hot water (95° -97°C) for 10-15 minutes to soften the
gum that binds the silk threads together. This process is called cooking.
 The ―cooked‖ cocoons are kept in hot water and the loose ends of the thread are
caught by hand.
 Threads from several cocoons are wound together on wheels (―charakhas‖) to form
the reels of raw silk.
 Only about one-half of the silk of each cocoon is reelable, the remainder is used as a
silk waste and formed into spun silk.
 Raw silk thus obtained is processed through several treatments to give it the final
shape.
Main properties of silk
1. It is lustrous, soft and strong.
2. It is made of two proteins : the inner core is fibroin and an outer cover is sericin
3. It is hard wearing.
4. It can be dyed into several colours
Silk moth Bombyx mori is at present fully domesticated. It no longer exists in a wild state
and it cannot survive without the human care.
Silk Producing States of India
Major Indian States producing mulberry silk are:
 Karnataka
 West Bengal
 Jammu and Kashmir
Non-mulberry “silks”
1. Tasar silk is produced by certain species of another moth Antherea royeli. Their larvae are
reared on Arjun trees, chiefly in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
2. Muga silk is obtained from Antherea assama whose larvae are reared on ― Som‖ trees in
Brahmaputra Valley.
3. Eri silk is produced by the moth Philosamia ricini whose larvae feed on castor leaves. It
is produced in Assam.

Important Point
 Bee- keeping helps in three ways – provides honey, provides wax and bring about
pollination of agricultural crops.
 There are four common species of honey bee - the wild Apis dorsata the two domestic
ones Apis indica and Apis mellifera and the little bee Apis florea.
 A bee colony has three castes - a queen, large number of workers and the male drones
(produced only for mating in the nuptial flight).
 Queen is the largest, has no wax glands, lives up to 3-4 years, and lays eggs at the rate
of 800- 1500 per day.
 Queen lays two types of eggs - fertilized eggs produce females and unfertilised eggs
produce male bees.

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 Workers are sterile females and possess an efficient sucking proboscis, wax glands,
and a sting.
 Workers live for about 35 days, and they perform different duties in different life
periods.
 Workers communicate to the fellow workers of the hive about the direction and
distance of the food source by means of ―bee dances‖.
 When the hive is overpopulated the old queen with a large number of workers leaves
the parent hive (swarming) and settles at some other site, and one new queen takes
charge of the previous hive.
 Beekeeping is an ancient industry but the modern way is very technical. Modern hive
consists of several boxes one above the other.
 A swarm is caught and is hived by either traditional method or the quicker methods.
 The plants visited by the bees are called ― bee pasturage‖.
 Honey is a nutritious food rich in simple sugars and vitamins.
 Honey has numerous uses besides as a direct food. Beeswax is secreted by the wax
glands of the workers. It has wide uses in cosmetics, varnishes, paints, candle-making.
 Lac is produced by a tiny insect Laccifer lacca.
 Lac has numerous uses in industry- largest being as a polishing material and in
making phonograph records.
 Lac is the secretion of the lac insect, which hardens and covers the insect, making an
encrustation on the twig.
 The lac on the twigs is called stick lac and after removal from the wood, and is ground
into grains is called the seed lac.
 Lac is grown in the largest quantity in India in the state of Bihar.

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 2. MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
Mushroom is a saprophytic fungus that grows on dead and decaying organic matter.
Due to the absence of chlorophyll, it is unable to synthesize its own food and hence is
dependent upon the organic matter/substrate for food.

 The first record of cultivation of mushroom dates back to the reign of Louis XIV (1637-
1715).
 French scientists were the first to detail record the mushroom cultivation techniques
which is valid even now.
 In the same context, an article was published in Paris in 1707, following that mushrooms
were cultivated in the foothills of France in 1800.
 In these regions horse dung was used (which itself got pasteurized due to high
temperatures), as the substrate for spawn inoculation and mushroom production.
 Annual mushroom production has increased to 80,000 ton in 2006 from a mere 1,000 ton
in 1981. Fifty percent of this is produced by marginal and small production units and the
rest by industrial establishments.
 The major producers of mushrooms are Punjab (35,000 MT) Tamilnadu (15,000MT),
and Andhra Pradesh (5000MT). Mushroom production of Uttarakhand alone increased
from 2,640MT in 2000 to 5340MT in 2006, with Dehradun, Nainital, Haridwar and
Udham Singh Nagar the major production centres.
 Button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) constitutes about 90% of total production in India
where that of other cultivated mushrooms viz. Pleurotus, Lentinula, Auricularia and
Calocybe are very marginal.
Morphology:- Mushrooms can be defined as ―a
macro-fungus with distinctive fruiting bodies,
epigeous or hypogeous, large enough to be seen
with naked eyes and picked up by the hands‖.
The mushroom fruiting body may be umbrella
like or of various other shapes, size and colour.
Commonly it consists of a cap or pileus and a
stalk or stipe but others have additional
structures like veil or annulus, a cup or volva.
Cap or pileus is the expanded portion of the
carpophore (fruit body) which may be thick,
fleshy, membranous or corky. On the underside of the pileus, gills are situated. These gills
bear spores on their surface and exhibit a change in colour corresponding to that of the
spores. The attachment of the gills to the stipe helps in the identification of the mushroom. On
the basis of the attachment, gills are of following types:
Free gill: when the gills do not touch the stipe or only do so by a fine line.

Adnate gill: when gills are attached directly to the stem forming nearly a right angle with the
stem/stipe.
Decurrent gill: when the gills extend down the stem to a greater or lesser degree.

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Adnexed gill: if the attachment of the gills is only by a part of the stem to a greater or lesser
degree.
Sinuate gill: when gills are near the stalk in a deep notch.

Nutritional and Medicinal Values

Proximate protein content (dry weight) of edible mushrooms as reported by different authors

Species Protein content Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin

(%) (mg/100g air-dried)
Volvariella volvacea 21.32 0.32 1.63 47.55
Agaricus bisporus 27.8 1.1 5.0 55.7
Pleurotus ostreatus 27.4
Pleurotus florida 37.19 0.35 2.97 64.88
Pleurotus sajor-caju 36.94 1.16 - 4.8 - 46.108
Lentinula edodes 17.5 7.8 4.9 54.9
Auricularia auricular-judae 8.1
Flammulina velutipes 21.9

Medicinal Importance of Mushrooms:- The invention of the so called ―wonder drug‖

penicillin was a landmark in the field of medicinal uses of fungi. Since then several fungi
have been well recognized for their antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antitumour and many
others such properties of pharmacological values. In the recent past a variety of medicinal
preparations in form of tablets, capsules and extracts from mushrooms have been produced
and marketed. Mushrooms are perhaps the only fungi deliberately and knowingly consumed
by human beings and they complement and supplement the human diet with various
ingredients not encountered in or deficient in food items of plant and animal origin. Besides,
chemical composition makes them suitable for specific group suffering with certain
physiological disorders or ailments. Mushrooms are regarded as an ultimate health food, low
in calories due to presence of good amount of quality protein, iron, zinc, vitamins, minerals
and dietary fibres which protects from digestive ailments and strengthening of the human
immune system.
Recent investigations have proved the empirical observations of the oriental herbalists
that certain mushroom possesses very useful medicinal attributes. In the 1991, the value of
world medicinal crops was estimated at 8.5 billion dollars and in the same year 1.2 billion
dollars are estimated to have been generated from medicinal products from mushrooms. This

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was based on the sale value of products from Coriolus, Ganoderma, Lentinula,
Schizophyllum and other mushrooms.

Although the biggest use of mushroom has traditionally been for reasons of their
gastronomic and nutritional appeal. There has always been interest in certain mushroom for
their medicinal attributes. Production of medicinal mushroom is now a days increasing over
worldwide. In the present era a variety of proprietary product based on mushroom
nutriceuticals and pharmaceutical have already been produced and marketed. Various
mushrooms and their metabolic extract have been reported to protect against cancer, tumor
and pathogenic microorganisms. It is suggested that regular consumption of different
mushroom varieties not only protects humans from heart trouble but also had medicinal
potential for certain ailments.

Important Medicinal Mushrooms

Mushroom have a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine . In fact it is
estimated that in China more than 270 species of mushrooms are believed to have medicinal
properties with 25% of them thoughts to have antitumour capability. Few of the edible
mushrooms have also gained importance in modern medicine for their various
pharmacological values.

 Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi mushroom):

 Coriolus versicolour:
 Grifola frondosa (Maitake):
 Lentinula edodes (Shiitake):
 Cordyceps species (Keera ghas):
 Tremella fuciformis:
 Poria cocos:
 Pleurotus species (Oyster or Dhingri):

LEVEL OF GROWING SYSTEM / Mushroom houses

Marginal Scale:
 Crop Rooms (Huts) : Made up of Sarkanda, Bamboo, Straw and Grasses
 Crop Room/Hut size : 30‘x17‘x9‘
 Containers: Shelves or racks of bamboo and Sarkanda
 Composting : Long method
 Yield : 14-18kg/100kg compost in 8-10 weeks of harvesting
B. Small Scale:
 Crop Rooms : Conversion of old buildings into crop rooms or insulated crop room
 Rooms size : 40‘x18‘x12-14‘ or 50‘x21‘x12‘
 Containers : 3-5 tires bamboo shelves or metallic racks for 10-12kg compost
 Composting : Long method/Short method
 Yield: 15-20kg/100kg compost in 8-10 weeks of harvesting
9. Industrial Scale:
 Crop Rooms : Insulated and controlled

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 Room size: 48‘-100x18-27‘x12‘-18‘
 Containers: Metallic racks for bags/shelves
 Composting : Short method
 Yield: 18-22kg/100kg compost in 4-6 weeks of harvesting

Spawn and Its Production:-

 Spawn is the planting material for the cultivated mushroom.
 It is merely the vegetative mycelium from a selected mushroom strain grown in a
convenient medium.
 The particular strain of mushroom selected decides the type of mushroom the spawn
would produce.
Mother Spawn/ Master spawn
The commonly followed method in India is as given below:-

Ten kg of wheat or sorghum grains are boiled in 15 litres water. Water is drained off over
a wire netting to dry slightly. 120 g gypsum and 30 g lime (CaCO3) are mixed with 10 kg of
boiled grains. The gypsum prevents the sticking of grains together as clump and lime adjusts
the pH. The grains are then filled into a half litre milk or glucose bottle container upto three-
fourth the capacity. Bottles are plugged with non -absorbent cotton plug and are to be
sterilized at 20-22 lb. psi (126 0 C) for 1 ½ to 2 hours. Sterilized bottles are taken out from the
autoclave while still hot and are shaken to avoid clump formation. The bottles are
immediately transferred to inoculating room or chamber and allowed to cool down overnight.
On the following day, bottles are inoculated with two bits of agar medium colonized with the
mycelium of pure cultures raised either by tissue or spore by putting the culture bits just
opposite to each other in the inner side of glass surface in the middle of the bottle. About 7 -
10 days after inoculation, bottles are to be shaken vigorously so that mycelial threads are
broken and mixed with grains evenly. Three weeks after incubation, the stock culture
becomes ready for further multiplication of spawn. One bottle of stock culture is sufficient to
multiply in 30-40 polypropylene bags or bottles. Inoculated bottles are incubated at ambient
temperature.

Commercial Spawn
The technique for raising commercial spawn is essentially the same as for master spawn
except that instead of glass bottles, polypropylene bags can be used as the containers for
filling grains. Inoculated bottles or polypropylene bags are incubated at ambient temperature.
In two to three weeks after inoculation, spawn becomes ready for seeding the compost.

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 SPAWN PREPARATION

Wheat grains

Boiled with water (1:1.5 w/v)

Drain off excess water

12g/kg grains CaSO4 and 3g/kg grains CaCO3

Filled in bottle

Sterilized at 22psi for 90 minutes

Inoculation with pure culture

Master spawn

Commercial spawn

Qualities of a good spawn

 The spawn should be fast growing in the compost
 It should give early cropping after casing
 It should be high yielding
 It should produce better quality of mushroom
White Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)
 Favourable season : Oct. to March (for plains of India)
 Required temp. and humidity : 14-220C and 80-85%

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Cultivation process involves four major steps
1. Preparation of compost
2. Spawning of compost
3. Casing (Covering the spawned compost)
4. Cropping and crop management
Preparation of compost:
Unlike other traditional crops soil is not the appropriate substrate for mushroom cultivation.
Rather, the substrate for mushroom called compost, is prepared from agro wastes like straw,
stem, shoot, apices etc. with organic manure. Mushroom substrate may be simply defined as a
lingo-cellulosic material that supports the growth, development and fruiting of mushroom
mycelium. This compost is pasteurized by various micro-organisms and at appropriate
temperature range. Essential supplement are also added/ supplemented to the compost. The
whole process is termed as composting. Generally composting refers to the piling of substrates
for a certain period of time and the changes due to the activities of various micro-organisms,
which result in a composted substrate that is chemically and physically different from the starting
material. The compost provides nutrients, minerals, vitamins and ions required for proper growth
of mushroom. This compost supports the growth of only the mycelium of button mushroom and
prevents that of other competitive moulds.

Methodology for compost preparation

Compost is an artificially prepared growth medium from which mushroom is able to derive
important nutrients required for growth and fructification. Cemented floors are required for
making good quality compost. There are two main methods for compost preparation:

(iv) Long method of composting

This is an outdoor process and takes around 28 days in its completion with a total of seven
turnings. The following materials are required for long method of compost:

Wheat straw 300 Kg

Wheat bran 15 kg
Ammonium sulphate or calcium ammonium nitrate 9 kg
Super phosphate 3 kg
Muriate of Potash 3 kg
Urea 3 kg
Gypsum 30 kg
Furadan 150 g
B.H.C. 150 g
Before making compost, wheat straw is spread on cemented floor and is turned many times with
water being spread at regular intervals.

Day 0: At the stage, there should be around 75% humidity content in the wheat straw, to which
wheat bran, calcium ammonium nitrate, urea, murate of potash, and super phosphate are mixed

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thoroughly and evenly. The material is then piled 1.5m thick x1.25m high with the help of
wooden rectangular block. The blocks are removed. Once the entire material has been stacked up
or piled up. Water is sprayed twice or thrice to keep the substrate moist. Temperature should be
in the range of 70-750C.

1st turning Day 6: On the sixth day first turning is given to the stack. The purpose of turning is
that every portion of the pile should get equal amount of aeration and water. If the turnings are
not given, then anaerobic condition may prevail which may lead to the formation of non-selective
compost. In the stack, the central zone is fermenting at its peak and has maximum temperature
rest of the portion is either not at all fermented or ferments improperly. The correct method of
turning is as: Removing about 15cm of compost from the top and spread it on one side of the
floor, the rest part of compost on the other side of the floor. Now turning is done by shaking the
outer (top most) part and the inner part of the compost, first separately and then missing them
altogether thoroughly with the help of wooden buckets.

2nd turning (Day 10): On the tenth day, again the top most part and the inner part of the compost
is separated, water is sprayed on the top part. Again the two parts are piled up together in such a
way that now the top part is inside and the inner part is on the top of the stack.

3rd turning (day 13): it is also done in the same way as described earlier. Gypsum and furadan
are mixed at this stage.
4th turning (day 16): The same process of turning is followed.
5th turning (day 19): The compost is turned in the same manner and B.H.C. is added.
6th turning (day 22): The same process of turning is followed.
7th turning (day 25): if no ammonia persists in the compost, spawning is done

2. Short method of composting

Compost prepared by short method composting is superior in production quality and the
chances of infection and disease is quite low.

Ingredient:

Wheat straw 1000 kg

Chicken manure 600 kg
Urea 15 kg
Wheat bran 60 kg
Gypsum 50 kg

This method is accomplished in two phases:

Phase I- Outdoor composting

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 Wheat straw mixed with chicken manure is sprayed with water and a 45cm high pile is
made on the fourth day and first turning is made. On 7th day, wheat bran, gypsum and urea is
mixed thoroughly and piled up to 1.25-1.50 m height with a width ranging from 1.25 -1.5 m. The
internal temperature of the compost should be maintained at 70-750C within 24hr. Second
turning is done on this day where as third turning is done on 8th day with subsequent mixing of
gypsum. On the 10th day, the compost is transferred to the pasteurization tunnel. Compost is
filled in the pasteurization tunnel to a height of 7‘. Filling height depends upon the size of the
tunnel.

Phase II- Indoor composting

This is the pasteurization procedure which is done in a closed environment.
Pasteurization has got many purposes.

If the temperature during composting has been low and the compost is heterogeneous,
many parasites (nematodes, pathogens, flies and mites etc.) will survive in the compost mass,
therefore, pasteurization is the best means with which these parasites can be destroyed.
To end fermentation and to convert compost into a chemical and biological state
favourable to the development of the mycelium and unfavourable to moulds.
Conversion of ammonia into microbial protein.
Compost is filled in the pasteurization tunnel and as soon as the compost in the tunnel is
completely filled the doors and fresh air damper are properly closed and blower is put on for
recirculation of air @ 150-250 cubic metre/ 1000 kg compost/ hour. The phase II process is
completed in three stages:

Pre-peak heat stage: After about 12-15 hours of compost filling, the temperature of compost
starts rising and once 48-500C is obtained, it should be maintained for 36-40 hours with
ventilation system. Normally such temperature is achieved by self-generation of heat by the
compost mass without steam injection.
Peak heat stage: raise the temperature of compost to 57-580C by self-generation of heat from
microbial activity if it is not obtained.injecting the live steam in the bulk chamber and maintain
for 8 hours in order to ensure effective pasteurization. Fresh air introduced by opening of the
fresh air damper to 1/6 or 1/4 of its capacity and air outlet too is opened to the same extent.
Post- peak heat stage: lower down the temperature gradually to 48-520C and maintain till no
traces of ammonia are detected in compost. This may take 3-4 days in a balanced formulation.
When the compost is free from ammonia, full fresh air is introduced by opening the damper to its
maximum capacity and cool down the compost to around 250C which is considered as the
favourable temperature for spawning. Compost when ready for spawning should possess the
following characteristics:
Moisture About 68%
Ammonia Below 0.006%

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 pH 7.2-7.5
Nitrogen Around 2.5%
Fire fangs (Actinomycetes) Excellent growth
Spawning
The process of mixing of the spawn in the compost is known as spawning. Spawn is
thoroughly mixed in the compost at the rate of 600-750 gm per 100 kg of compost (0.6 - 0.75%).
The spawned compost is filled in tray or polypropylene bags covered with formalin treated
newspapers. In case of bags, they should be folded at the top and covered up. After spawning,
temperature and humidity of crop room should be maintained at 18-22o C and 85-90%,
respectively. Water should be sprayed over the covered newspapers, walls and floors of the crop
room. After 12-14 days of spawning white mycelial growth is seen running the entire length of
the tray/bag. This is then covered with casing soil on the surface.

Casing soil
The significance of casing soil is to maintain the moisture content and exchange of gases
within the surface of the compost which helps in the proper growth of the mycelium. The pH of
the casing soil should be 7.5-7.8 and must be free from any infection or disease. In our country
casing soil is prepared from the following ingredients.

Two years old manure + garden soil 3:1

Two year old manure + garden soil 2:1

Two year old manure + spent compost 1:1

Two year old manure + spent compost 2:1

Two year old manure + spent compost 1:2

Pasteurization of casing soil

The casing soil is piled on cemented floor and is treated with 4% formalin solution.
Thorough turning of the soil is done and it is covered with polythene sheet for the next 3- Days.
Pasteurization of casing soil at 650C for 6-8 hours is found to be much more effective.

Using the casing soil

3-4cm thick layer of casing soil is being spread uniformly on the compost when the surface
has been covered by white mycelium of the fungus. Formalin solution (0.5%) is then being
sprayed. Temperature and humidity of the crop room should be maintained at 14-18 0C and 80-
85%, respectively. Proper ventilation should be arranged with water being sprayed once or twice
a day.

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Harvesting of crop
Pin head initiation takes place after 10 -12 days of casing and the fruiting bodies of the
mushroom can be harvested for around 50-60 days. The crops should be harvested before the
gills open as this may decrease its quality and market value.

Productivity
From 100 kg compost prepared by long method of composting 14-18 kg of mushroom can
be obtained. Similarly, 18-20 kg mushroom can be obtained from pasteurized compost (Short
Method Compost).

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju)

This mushroom gained importance during the last decade and now several species of
Pleurotus are available for commercial production such as: P.sajor-caju, P.florida, P.sapidus,
P.eryngii, P.columbinus, P. cornucopiae, P. flabellatus. P. platypus, P. opuntiae, P.
citrinopileatus. It is now being cultivated in many countries in the subtropical and temperate
zones. In China, it is known as abalone mushroom (P. abalonus or P.cystidiosus).

Pleurotus spp. can be grown using various agricultural waste materials. The different species
of Pleurotus grow within a temperature range of 200 to 300C. P. sajor-caju can tolerate
temperature up to 300 C although it fruits faster and produces larger mushroom at 250 C. P.
fossulatus is the so-called low temperature Pleurotus, fruiting mostly at 12-200C. The tropical
wastes like rice straw, wheat straw, corncobs, dried water hyacinth, sugarcane bagasse, banana
leaves, cotton waste or sawdust are used for cultivation. The materials are usually soaked in
water chemically sterilized with bavistin (7-10g) and formalin (120-150 ml)/ 100 litre of water
for 16-18 hours. Extra water is drained off.

The process of spawn making is the same as for Agaricus species. Pleurotus spawn should
be about 15 days old when mycelium has formed complete coating around the grain. The normal
rate of spawning in a pasteurized substrate is 2.0-2.5% of the wet substrate. The spawning is
usually done thoroughly. Before filling the substrate in polythene bags, holes of about 1 cm
diameter are made at 10-15 cm distance all over the surface for free diffusion of gases and heat
generated inside. The optimum temperature for growth of Pleurotus spp. is 23 ±20 C. Relative
humidity in growing room should range between 85-90% during spawn- run. Usually 3 to 4 days
after opening the bags, mushroom primordia begin to form. Mature mushrooms become ready for
harvesting in another 2 to 3 days. An average biological efficiency (fresh weight of mushrooms
harvested divided by dry substrate weight x 100) can range between 70-80% and sometimes even
more. To harvest the mushrooms, they are grasped by the stalk and gently twisted and pulled. A
knife should not be used. The mushrooms remain fresh for up to 3 to 6 days in a refrigerator/cool
place.

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Milky Mushroom (Calocybe indica):
Calocybe indica is an edible white summer mushroom also known as milky mushroom. It
can be easily grown in the temperature range of 25-350C.
It has moderate protein content and has a good biological efficiency (60 -70%) under
optimum conditions. Its sporophores have long shelf life. The major advantage is that it can be
best fitted in relay cropping when no other mushroom can be grown at higher temperature.
Calocybe indica has a very good scope for further cultivation and it can replace the other tropical
mushrooms like Pleurotus spp. and Volvariella spp.
Wheat straw/paddy straw

Soaked in fresh water 24 hrs

Treated with hot water

2-4hrs Remove excess water

Mixed 5% wheat bran

Spawning @ 4%

Casing

14-16 days
Primordial stage

10-12 days
Harvesting
(500-600g/Kg dry wt substrate)

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 Paddy-straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea)
Volvariella volvacea Sing., the paddy straw mushroom, or straw mushroom is the most
popular mushroom in Southeast Asia. V.diplasia is white while V. volvacea is blackish. V.
bombycina differs from the cultivated V. volvacea in terms of habitat as well as colour.

Cultivation of this mushroom started in China almost three hundred years ago. Several
species of Volvariella have been grown for food. V. bombycina Sing. and V.diplasia have been
cultivated in India. Volvariella volvacea thrives in a temperature range of 28 to 380 C and relative
humidity of 75-85% is required. In a modified method of cultivation, bundled substrates (rice
straw, banana leaves or water hyacinth), prepared in the same way as those used for beds, are
soaked in water, drained, then packed (layered) in the wooden frames. Spawn is mixed in with
each layer as the frame is packed or filled. The spawned substrate in the boxes may be placed in
a specially built incubation room with a high temperature (35 to 380C) and high relative humidity
(at least 75%), or it may be covered with plastic sheets and placed under shade outdoors. For
spawning, the air temperature is cooled to 350C and the bed temperature to about 28 to 320 C The
amount of spawn to be used is calculated at 1.5% of wet weight basis.

Major Diseases of Mushroom and their Management

IV. Green mould (Trichoderma spp.)

Symptoms:- Small blue green cushions are seen on spawned and cased trays/bags. It also grows
on dead buds of mushrooms and cut stumps. Mushroom caps may turn brown top side. Green
moulds enerally appear in compost, rich in carbohydrates and deficient in nitrogen. High
humidity with lowpH of casing promotes its development.
V. Brown plaster mould (Papulospora byssina)

Symptoms: whitish patches on the compost or casing ultimately turning to rusty brown in colour
observed on the exposed surface of compost and casing as well as on the side in bags due to
moisture condensation.

Major Insect
 White plaster moulds (Scopulariopsis fumicola)
 Inky caps (Coprinus spp.)
 Yellow mould (Myceliophthora lutea, Chryosporium luteum and Sepedonium spp.)
 False truffle (Diehiliomyces microsporus)
 Dry bubble disease (Verticillium fungicola)
 Mushroom Flies
 Sciarid flies: (Bradysia paupera, B. Tritici)
 Phorid flies: (Megaselia sandhui)
 Springtails: (Seira iricolor)

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 3. PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN
The systematic planning of a garden is an art. One must have a thorough knowledge of
plants, soils, land topography and local environmental conditions.

Landscape:- ―A landscape may be defined as any area, either big or small, on which it is
possible or desirable to mould a view or a design‖.

Landscape gardening:- It may be described as the application of garden forms, methods and
materials with a view to improve the landscape. The art of designing is known as ―Landscape
Architecture,‖ although the older term ―Landscape gardening‖ is also popular.

Important considerations of gardening:-

 A garden has to be one‘s own creation and not an imitation, giving due consideration to
the local environment.
 Overcrowding of the plants should be avoided.
 Take advantage of natural topography while designing garden
 Perfect harmony of different components is the essence in landscape gardening.
 Before planning a design one must be sure for what purpose the garden is – utility or
beauty or both.

Elements of Gardening
1. Line:- Line can be either fixed or moving. Examples of fixed lines are borders of paths,
fences, walls, the outline of a building, the shape of a statue and the edge of a lawn.
Examples of moving lines are the edge of a shadow and the outline of a fast-growing
plant.
2. Form:- Form describes volume and mass, or the three dimensional aspects of objects that
take up space. (Shape is two-dimensional) Forms can and should be viewed from any
angles. When you hold a baseball, shoe, or small sculpture, you are aware of their curves,
angles, indentations, extensions, and edges their forms.
3. Mass:- Mass is the degree of solidity of forms. Heavier, denser or darker foliage will
create the effect of greater mass.
4. Space:- Space is the volume defined by physical boundaries such as walls, trees, shrubs,
ground surface and the sky or canopy of plants above.
5. Texture:- Texture refers to the patterning of the components of the landscape: coarse or
fine, rough or smooth etc. Texture is significant when considering scale, particularly in
more intimate, smaller areas. There is texture in plants, wood, stone, gravel, and even in
water as the wind blows over its surface.
6. Colour:- Colour can be used for harmony or contrast. Generally (but not always)
designers use contrasting colours sparingly. In general pale, cool colours (blue, green,
white, silver and pastel shades) create a relaxing atmosphere in the garden, while hot,
vibrant colours (reds, yellows, orange, bright pink) demand attention and subconsciously
encourage activity.

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 7. Tone:- Tone is the relationship between colour, light and texture.

Principles of Landscape Gardening

A. Balance:- Balance is a psychological sense of equilibrium. As a design principle, balance
places the parts of a visual in an aesthetically pleasing arrangement. In visual images, balance
is formal when both sides are symmetrical in terms of arrangement. Balance is informal when
sides are not exactly symmetrical, but the resulting image is still balanced. Informal balance is
more dynamic than formal balance and normally keeps the learner's attention focused on the
visual message. There are three main types of balance, horizontal balance, vertical balance,
radial balance.

B. Proportion:- Proportion refers to the relative size and scale of the various elements in a
design. The issue is the relationship between objects, or parts, of a whole. This means that it is
necessary to discuss proportion in terms of the context or standard used to determine
proportions.

C. Perspective:- Perspective is created through the arrangement of objects in two-dimensional

space to look like they appear in real life. Perspective is a learned meaning of the relationship
between different objects seen in space.

Is the dark rectangle in front of a circle, or beside a semi-circle? Perspective adds realism
to a visual image. The size of a rectangle means little until another object gives it the size of a
desk, or the size of a building. Perspective can be used to draw the audience into a visual.
Perception can be achieved through the use of relative sizes of objects, overlapping objects,
and blurring or sharpening objects.
D. Emphasis:- Emphasis is used by artists to create dominance and focus in their work. Artists
can emphasize color, value, shapes, or other art elements to achieve dominance. Various kinds
of contrast can be used to emphasize a center of interest.

E. Movement:- The way the artist leads the eye in, around, and through a composition. The path
the eye follows. Motion or movement in a visual image occurs when objects seem to be
moving in a visual image. Movement in a visual image comes from the kinds of shapes,
forms, lines, and curves that are used.
F. Pattern:- Pattern uses the art elements in planned or random repetition to enhance surfaces or
paintings or sculptures. Patterns often occur in nature, and artists use similar repeated motifs to
create pattern in their work. Pattern increases visual excitement by enriching surface interest.

G. Repetition:- Repetition works with pattern to make the artwork seem active. The repetition of
elements of design creates unity within the artwork.

H. Rhythm:- Rhythm is the repetition of visual movement of the elements-colors, shapes, lines,
values, forms, spaces, and textures. Variety is essential to keep rhythms exciting and active, and
to avoid monotony. Movement and rhythm work together to create the visual equivalent of a
musical beat.

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I. Variety:- Variety provides contrast to harmony and unity. Variety consists of the differences
in objects that add interest to a visual image. Variety can be achieved by using opposites or
strong contrasts. Changing the size, point of view, and angle of a single object can add variety
and interest to a visual image.
Breaking a repeating pattern can enliven a visual image.

J. Harmony:- Harmony in visual design means all parts of the visual image relate to and
complement each other. Harmony pulls the pieces of a visual image together. Harmony can be
achieved through repetition and rhythm. Repetition reemphasizes visual units, connecting parts
and creating an area of attention. Rhythm is the flow depicted in a visual. Rhythm helps direct
eye movement.

Patterns or shapes can help achieve harmony. By repeating patterns in an interesting

arrangement, the overall visual image comes together.
K. Unity:- Unity means the harmony of the whole composition. The parts of a composition made
to work together as a total visual theme. Unity is the relationship among the elements of a visual
that helps all the elements function together. Unity gives a sense of oneness to a visual image. In
other words, the words and the images work together to create meaning.

L. Contrast:- Contrast is in opposition to harmony and should not be overdone. Occasional

contrasts are used to create an eye catching feature in a garden; for example, contrasting foliage
texture, colour or form provides a focal point in the garden.

Lawn
There are four aspects of turf-grass establishment: selecting a turf-grass that is adapted
for that particular area; preparing the soil for planting; planting, which may include seeding,
sodding, plugging or sprigging; and care and maintenance of the newly planted lawn to ensure
successful establishment.
Turf-grass Selection:- Proper turf-grass selection is one of the most important factors in the
successful establishment of a home lawn. Not all species and cultivars will perform equally when
placed in the widely differing geographical areas and local climates found in South Carolina. The
turf-grass you select should be adapted to your area and meet the level of lawn quality you
desire.
Soil Preparation:- The key to establishing a lawn successfully is proper soil preparation. This
soil preparation is the same for planting seed, sprigs, stolons or sod.
Soil Test: Soil testing will determine whether the soil pH and nutrient (phosphorus, potassium,
calcium and magnesium) levels are in a range that favour turf-grass growth. The soil test report
will indicate needed amounts of fertilizer and/or lime.
Clean & Rough Grade: Remove all debris from the location to be planted. This includes rocks,
bottles, large roots and old tree trunks. If extensive grading is needed, remove the topsoil and
stockpile it for replacement after the rough grade is established.

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 The subsurface may become compacted during rough grading, especially if the ground is
wet. This compacted layer must be broken up. A spring-tooth harrow works well on lightly
compacted soils; a small rototiller may be needed for more heavily compacted sites.
Deep Tillage: Rototilling loosens compacted soil and improves the speed and depth of rooting. A
tractor-mounted or self-propelled tiller will adequately till the soil. Take care not to destroy the
existing trees in the lawn. Cutting too many tree roots during soil tillage can severely damage or
kill a tree. Trees can also be suffocated by deeply covering the roots with soil. If additional soil is
necessary at a tree base, construct a "tree well."
Replace the Topsoil: Once the subsurface is established, return the topsoil and spread uniformly
over the entire area. Allow for at least 6 to 8 inches of depth after the soil has settled. This means
placing about 8 to 10 inches of topsoil over the subsurface. Improve the soil by adding organic
matter. This improves water retention in sandy soils and drainage in clay soils and reduces
fertilizer leaching.
Fertilization & Liming: Apply the amounts of fertilizer and lime recommended by the soil test
and work into the upper 4 to 6 inches of soil. If the soil test indicates a high pH, the addition of
sulphur or aluminium sulphate can be tilled into the soil to lower the pH into the correct soil pH
range. In the absence of a soil test, a general recommendation is to use a slow-release, "starter-
type" fertilizer specially formulated to contain the higher amounts of phosphate that are required
by turf-grass seedlings during establishment. Apply 1½ to 2 pound of actual nitrogen per 1,000
square feet prior to planting. Examples and amounts to use of slow-release starter fertilizers are:

 Lesco Professional Starter Fertilizer (18-24-12; use 8 to 11 pounds of fertilizer per

1000 square feet),
 Sta-Green Lawn Starter Fertilizer (18-24-6; use 8 to 11 pounds of fertilizer per 1000
square feet),
 Pennington Lawn Starter Fertilizer (18-24-6; use 8 to 11 pounds of fertilizer per 1000
square feet),
 Ferti-lome New Lawn Starter (9-13-7; use 17 to 22 pounds of fertilizer per 1000 square
feet),
 Scott's Turf Builder Starter Fertilizer (24-25-4; use 8 to 10 pounds of fertilizer per 1000
square feet).
The slow-release fertilizers should be tilled into the soil, but they can be applied at planting.
The nitrogen in these fertilizers will typically last 2 months.
Some of the coastal soils may naturally contain very high amounts of phosphorus, such as in
Horry, Georgetown, Charleston and Beaufort county soils. In lieu of a regular starter fertilizer,
which is high in phosphorus, substitute a slow-release centipede lawn fertilizer (15-0-15 with
iron) to incorporate into the soil at the rate of 10 - 13 pounds fertilizer per 1000 square feet of all
lawn grasses. Because of the greater sensitivity of centipedegrass to high amounts of phosphorus
in the soil, it is very important to have the soil tested. If the soil test reveals levels of phosphorus
that are medium or above, use a slow-release 15-0-15 as the starter fertilizer at planting.
If a water-soluble, quick- release source of nitrogen is used, do not apply and mix in more
than 1 pound of actual nitrogen per 1,000 square feet. An example and amount of a fast -release,
"starter-type" of fertilizer is 20 pounds of a farm grade 5-10-10 fertilizer per 1,000 square feet of
lawn. If a 5-10-10 is unavailable, use 10 pounds of 10-10-10 per 1000 square feet of lawn. The

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fast -release fertilizers should be tilled into the soil pre-plant, but could be applied after grass
seed has germinated. The nitrogen in most quick-release farm fertilizers will typically last one
month.
Final Grading: After the fertilizer and lime or sulfur have been worked into the soil, firm the
soil by rolling with a water ballast roller before seeding, sodding and plugging. The best soil for
seeding has a granular texture with small clods of soil varying from one-eighth inch to three-
quarters inch in size. However, if the area is to be sprigged the soil should remain loose in the
upper 2 to 3 inches so a portion of each sprig can be set (pushed) into the soil. Once the soil is
properly prepared, it is time to plant.
Seeding:- Assuming that adequate soil preparation was done, the appropriate turfgrass species or
blend was chosen and a high-quality seed lot was obtained, the three main factors affecting
turfgrass establishment from seed are: planting procedures, mulching and post-germination care.
Successful establishment from seed depends on purchasing top-quality seed. Law requires
that each container of seed have a tag listing the turf-grass species and cultivar, purity, percent
germination and weed content. Purity indicates the amount (as a percentage) of the desired seed
as well as other seed and inert matter. Germination percentage tells the amount of seed expected
to germinate under optimum conditions. The quantity of weed seeds is also listed. Try to
purchase seed that has a purity of 90 percent or higher and a germination of 85 percent or higher.
Many seeding methods are used, ranging from planting by hand to using mechanical
equipment for large turf areas. Evenness of seed distribution is important from the standpoint of
overall uniformity. The seedbed should be well-prepared and leveled.
Rake the entire area with a garden rake. Apply the seed mechanically either with a drop-
type or rotary spreader. Mechanical seeders provide a more uniform distribution of seed than
hand seeding. For best distribution of seed, sow one-half the required amount in one direction
and apply the remainder at right angles to the first seeding. For very small seed like
centipedegrass or bermudagrass, it may be helpful to mix the seed with a carrier such as corn
meal, grits or an organic fertilizer to distribute the seed evenly.
With a rake, mix the grass seed with the top one-quarter inch of soil. Then roll the
seedbed with a light or empty water-ballast roller to ensure good seed-to-soil contact. Mulch the
seedbed to prevent soil erosion, retain moisture and prevent crusting of the soil surface. The most
commonly used mulch is straw. However, it is important to use weed-free straw. One bale of
straw (60 to 80 pounds) will cover about 1,000 square feet. Straw can be removed when the turf
reaches a height of 1 to 1½ inches or can be left to decompose if it is not spread too thickly.
Peat moss and aged sawdust do not make good mulches for seeded lawns. These
materials compete with the seed for water and are slow to decay.
Water the lawn as soon as possible after seeding. Watering with a fine spray will help
seed to germinate, but be sure to prevent washing or puddling.
Care of the Newly Seeded Lawn
Irrigation: Proper watering is the most critical step in establishing turfgrasses from seed. Apply
water frequently so that the soil is moist, but not excessively wet. Supplying water two or three
times a day in small quantities for about two to three weeks will ensure adequate moisture for
germination. If the surface of the soil is allowed to dry out at any time after the seeds have begun

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to swell and before roots have developed, many of the seedlings will die. As the seedlings mature
and the root system develops, the frequency of waterings can be decreased, but the volume
should be increased, so that the entire root zone is moistened, not just the soil surface.
Care after Germination of Seed
During the establishment phase, a number of practices can be employed to help ensure a
uniform, dense turf. A combination of mulching and irrigation is the key factor in successful
turfgrass establishment. If a straw or hay mulch is used, be sure to monitor the grass seedlings
for shading. If the new seedlings show a yellowing, lightly rake away some of the mulch.
Mowing:- Begin normal mowing practices when the turfgrass seedlings reach a height one-third
higher than the normal mowing height. It is important to maintain a sharp cutting blade to avoid
pulling these seedlings out of the soil.
Fertilization: A light application of nitrogen fertilizer made when the seedlings are between 1½
and 2 inches tall will enhance the establishment rate substantially. Apply about one-half pound
of actual nitrogen per 1,000 square feet watered into the soil. Avoid excessively high nitrogen
fertilization.
Irrigation: The surface of the soil where seeds are germinating and seedling growth occurs
should be moist at all times. The goal is to water often enough to keep the seedbed moist but not
saturated, until the plants can develop sufficient root systems to take advantage of deeper and
less frequent watering. Soils that have not been mulched will tend to dry out quickly. Less
irrigation will be needed if mulch was used. The quantity of water applied will be small and
should be maintained for at least three weeks following planting. As the turf-grass matures,
reduce irrigation to a maintenance level to promote a deep root system.
Weed Control: Timing of weed control practices is also critically important once seeds have
germinated. Most herbicides are somewhat toxic to newly germinated turf-grass plants. Delay
post-emergence applications of a herbicide for weed control as long as possible after seeding.
Follow recommendations found on pesticide labels closely as far as timing of application and
planting. Diligent care of the young lawn during the first two or three months is important for its
overall success.
Vegetative Planting:- Vegetative planting is simply the transplanting of large or small pieces of
grass. Solid sodding covers the entire seedbed with vegetation. Spot sodding, plugging, sprigging
or stolonizing refer to the planting of pieces of sod or individual stems or underground runners
called stolons or rhizomes.
Most warm-season turf-grasses are established by planting vegetative plant parts.
Exceptions to this include centipedegrass, carpetgrass, common bermudagrass and Japanese
lawngrass (Zoysia japonica), which can be established from seed.
Sodding: Sodding is more expensive than sprigging or plugging, but it produces a so-called
"instant" lawn. It is recommended where quick cover is desired for aesthetic reasons or to
prevent soil erosion. Establishment procedures for sod include soil preparation, obtaining sod of
high quality, transplanting and postplanting care.
Soil Preparation: Soil preparation for sodding is identical to that for seeding.

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Sod Quality: Before buying the sod, inspect it carefully for weeds, diseases and insects. Store
the sod in a cool, shady place until used, but do not store for a long period. Purchase the right
amount; try to install it as soon as it is delivered.
Sod Transplanting:- The primary objective in sod transplanting is to achieve as quick a
rooting into the underlying soil as possible. Factors that influence quick rooting include:
proper soil preparation, adequate soil moisture in the underlying soil and transplanting
techniques that will minimize sod drying.
Install cool-season grass sod anytime during the year as long as the soil is not frozen. If
done in the fall, transplanting should be completed early enough to allow root growth into the
underlying soil before cold weather arrives. Winter sodding is done when conditions for root
growth are not favorable. The grass may or may not survive the winter depending on
temperatures.
Dampen the soil just prior to laying the sod to avoid placing the turf roots in contact with
excessively dry and hot soil. To reduce the need for short pieces when installing sod, it is
generally best to establish a straight line lengthwise through the lawn area. The sod can then be
laid on either side of the line with the ends staggered in a checkerboard fashion. A sharpened
concrete trowel is handy for cutting pieces, forcing the sod tight but not overlapping and leveling
small depressions.
Do not stretch the sod while laying. The sod will shrink upon drying and cause voids.
Stagger lateral joints to promote more uniform growth and strength. On steep slopes, lay the sod
across the angle of the slope; it may be necessary to peg the sod to the soil with stakes to keep it
from sliding. Immediately after the sod has been transplanted, it is important to roll or tamp it.
This will eliminate any air spaces between the soil and the sod. Roll perpendicular to the
direction the sod was laid.
Water newly transplanted sod immediately to wet the soil below to a 3-inch depth to
enhance rooting. Do not let the soil dry out until a good union between the sod and soil surface
has been achieved. Light, frequent applications of soil topdressing will help to smooth out the
lawn surface.
Care after Transplanting Sod:- Irrigate newly transplanted sod to a depth of 4 inches
immediately after transplanting to promote deep root growth. In the absence of adequate rainfall,
water daily or as often as necessary during the first week and in sufficient quantities to maintain
moist soil to a depth of at least 4 inches. The sod should then be watered lightly during midday
hours until rooting into the underlying soil has taken place. Deeper, thorough watering can then
be done as the roots begin to penetrate the soil.
Do not mow until the turf-grass sod is firmly rooted and securely in place. The mowing
height and frequency on newly sodded areas should be the same as normally practiced on
established turfs. Fertilization of the sod after transplanting should not be needed since the grass
should have been grown under optimum conditions and fertilizer should have been incorporated
into the soil before transplanting. Start a fertility program after the sod has established a good
root system.
Sprigging: Sprigging is the planting of stolons or rhizomes in furrows or small holes. A sprig is
an individual stem or piece of stem of grass without any adhering soil. A suitable sprig should

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 have two to four nodes from which roots can develop. Soil preparation for sprigging should be
the same as for the other methods of planting.
To plant sprigs, dig furrows 8 to 12 inches apart and place the sprigs at a 1- to 2-inch
depth (use the shallower depth if adequate moisture is available) every 4 to 6 inches in the
furrows. The closer the sprigs are, the faster the grass will cover the soil.
After placing the sprigs in the furrow, cover a part of the sprig with soil and firm. The
foliage should be left exposed at the soil surface. Another method is to place the sprigs on the
soil surface at the desired interval end-to-end, about 6 inches apart, and then press one end of the
sprig into the soil with a notched stick or blunt piece of metal like a dull shovel. A portion of the
sprig should be left above ground exposed to light. Regardless of the planting method, each sprig
should be tamped or rolled firmly into the soil. Water after planting. Since the sprigs are planted
at a shallow depth, they are very prone to drying out. Light, frequent waterings are necessary
until roots become well-established. Watering lightly once or twice daily will be required for
several weeks after planting.
Stolonizing is the broadcasting of stolons on the soil surface and covering by topdressing
or pressing into the soil. Stolonizing requires more planting material but produces a quicker
cover than sprigs.
Care after Sprigging:- It is extremely important to maintain a moist surface during the initial
establishment from sprigs. If practical, topdress newly planted sprigs at regular intervals.
Plugging:- The planting of 2- to 4-inch diameter square, circular or block-shaped pieces of sod at
regular intervals is called plugging. Three to 10 times as much planting material is necessary for
plugging as sprigging. The most common turfgrasses that are started by the use of plugs are St.
Augustinegrass, zoysiagrass and centipedegrass. These plugs are planted into prepared soil on 6-
to 12-inch centers. The closer the plugs are planted together, the faster the sod will cover.
However, the closer the plugs are planted together, the more sod it will take to provide plugs to
cover the lawn area.
Prior to plugging, prepare the soil the same as that for seeding or sodding. Plugging can
be done by special machines designed to plant plugs or by hand on smaller areas. Timing of plug
transplanting for warm-season turf-grasses should take place in the late spring or early summer.
This will give the turf optimum growing conditions to establish. After the plugs have been
transplanted, the soil should be rolled to ensure good plant-to-soil contact. Irrigation should
follow the same guidelines as for sodding.
Care after Plugging: Post-plugging care involves mowing at the height and frequency required
for that particular turf-grass. A fertilizer application made three to four weeks after plugging
enhances the establishment rate. Proper irrigation procedures will also enhance establishment of
a lawn through plugging.
Important lawn grass species
Botanical Name Common name Texture Situation
Cynodon dactylon Hariyali (or) Arugu (or) Doob Medium Suitable for open sunny location;
grass fine drought resistant
Stenotaphrum St. Augustine grass or Coarse Suitable for shady situation; requires
secundatum Buffalo grass texture frequent watering
Sporobolus Chain grass (or) Upparugu Fine Suitable for saline soils and open sunny

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tremulus locations
Poa annua Annual blue grass Medium Suitable for acid soils and suitable for
fine higher elevations
Pennisetum Kikuyu grass Rough Grow well in acids soils, suitable for
clandestinum higher elevations.
Zoisia japonica Japan grass Coarse Suitable for poor sandy soil; open sunny
situation, slow in growth
Z. matrella Manila grass Medium Suitable for open sunny situation
Z. tenuifolia Korean grass or velvet grass Fine Suitable for open sunny situation
or carpet grass
Cynodon sp. Bermuda grass (or) Fine Suitable for open sunny situation, needs
Hyderabad grass mowing
Cynodon sp. Dwarf Bermuda Medium Suitable for open sunny situation
Festuca sp. Fescue grass Coarse Shade tolerant, survive on inferior soils
Paspalum Paspalum grass Medium Suitable for open sunny situation
vaginatum

Avenue Gardening
Avenue Gardening:- In landscaping, an avenue, or allée, is traditionally a straight path or road
with a line of trees or large shrubs running along each side, which is used, as its French
source venir ("to come") indicates, to emphasize the "coming to," or arrival at a landscape
or architectural feature. In most cases, the trees planted in an avenue will be all of the
same species or cultivar, so as to give uniform appearance along the full length of the avenue.
The French term allée is used for avenues planted in parks and landscape gardens, as well
as boulevards such as the Grande Allée in Quebec City, Canada, Bologna Alley
in Zagreb and Karl-Marx-Allee in Berlin.
History:- The avenue is one of the oldest ideas in the history of gardens. An avenue
of sphinxes still leads to the tomb of the pharaohHatshepsut (died 1458 BCE); see the
entry Sphinx. Avenues similarly defined by guardian stone lions lead to the Ming tombs in
China. British archaeologists have adopted highly specific criteria for "avenues" within the
context of British archaeology.
In order to enhance the approach to mansions or manor houses, avenues were planted
along the entrance drive. Sometimes the avenues are in double rows on each side of a road. Trees
preferred for alleys were selected for their height and speed of growth, such
as poplar, beech, lime, and horse chestnut.[1] In the American antebellum era South, the southern
live oak was typically used, because the trees created a beautiful shade canopy.
Sometimes tree avenues were designed to direct the eye toward some distinctive
architectural building or feature, such as a chapels, gazebos, or architectural follies.[2]
In Garden à la française Baroque landscape design, avenues of trees that were centered
upon the dwelling radiated across the landscape. See the avenues in the Gardens of
Versailles or Het Loo. Other late 17th-century French and Dutch landscapes, in that intensely
ordered and flat terrain, fell naturally into avenues; Meindert Hobbema, in The Avenue at
Middelharnis (1689) presents such an avenue in farming country, neatly flanked at regular
intervals by rows of young trees that have been rigorously limbed up; his central vanishing
point mimics the avenue's propensity to draw the spectator forwards along it.

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Tree suitable for Avenue
Acer saccharum (Sugar Maple)
Quercus alba (White Oak)
Quercus coccinea (Scarlet Oak)
Quercus rubra (Red Oak)
Quercus velutina (Black Oak)
Tilia euchlora (Crimean Linden)
Tilia tomentosa (Silver Linden)
Tilia vulgaris (Common Linden)
Ulmus americana (American Elm)
Ulmus glabra (Scotch Elm)
Acer platanoides (Norway Maple)
Ailanthus glandulosa (Tree of Heaven)
Celtis occidentalis (Nettle Tree)
Fraxinus spp (Ash Tree)
Ginkgo biloba (Maidenhair Tree)
Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweet Gum)
Liriodendron tulipifera (Tulip Tree)
Platanus orientalis (Oriental Plane)
Phellodendron amurense (Chinese Cork Tree)
Quercus palustris (Pin Oak)
Ulmus campestris (English Elm)

TYPES OF GARDEN
Formal and informal gardens:- Man‘s eternal desire is to make his living place like that of a
paradise. The geometrical design of the earlier dwellings when man came out of caves lead to
orderliness as well as provided life security. But it lacked the raw nature around him inside the
dwelling.

FORMAL STYLE
The gardens of Greece and Rome assured an emotional security though their Formal style.
The Persian, Moorish gardens of Spain and Moghul gardens were also of the same kind and were
strictly formal, symmetrical and geometrical resembling a carpet.

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 The Italian renaissance garden was having intricate geometric designs, sheared trees,
trimmed hedges and edges to create formality.
 The impact of formalism influenced the French and British gardens also in the form of
parierre, the much divided flower beds.
 The Moorish garden of Spain also had the impact of Moghul‘s architecture and they were
formal and geometrical though Moorish gardens were exclusively meant to beautify patios
of large mansions.

The key features of formal design are

 Plan is made on the paper and land is selected accordingly.
 The plan is symmetrical with square, rectangular and roads cut at right angles.
 It had a sort of enclosure or boundary.
 Flower beds also have geometric designs as in carpets.
 The arrangement of trees and shrubs are necessarily geometrical and kept in shape by
trimming and training.
 Other features like fountains, water pools, cascades, etc. are used for further attraction.
Demerits
 Formal gardens have no ‗secrets‘ and the element of surprise is lost.
 However, attractive focal points at terminal and intersecting points of paths and roads are
provided to make the formal garden effective.
 Present day home gardens are laid out in formal design only at the frontage.
INFORMAL STYLE
 Hindu, Buddhist and Japanese garden laid no emphasis on formality.
 Woodlands (vanams) and running water (streams and rivers) was the main feature
around which the garden was created in natural way.
 Brindavan of Lord Krishna was a woodland.

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  Every temple was provided with irregular shaped lotus tanks. (Latter on such tanks
was given masonry boundary either rectangular or square).
 Japanese developed an intensely national and naturalistic style of its own. It is in
Japanese garden, the asymmetric balance has been perfected.
 The impact of industrial climate drove the Britishers to opt for natural gardens latter
The further the man is isolated from nature (due to industrial revolution) the deep is the
longing to go back to nature. The industrialized cities became concrete jungles with no
flavour and aroma of nature and there was emptiness in human life. To avert this, natural
gardens was given impetus.

 The nature‘s projection of mountains, oceans, rivers and lakes on a larger canvas of
earth‘s surface is informal with all its grandeur. Such grandeur is mimicked in
informal gardens omitting the untamed, disastrous and violent side of nature.
 Lanchlot ‗capability‘ Brown (1716-83): She emphasized the use of coloured flower
and foliage, tree form, etc. in natural style.
 The cottage gardens of UK had the utility with fruits, vegetable and herb plants as
well as the beauty that spans from its harmony with surrounding rural scenery.
Key feature of informal style/natural style
 This style reflects naturalistic effect of total view and represents natural beauty.
 It is contrast to formal style.
 Plan is asymmetrical according to the land available for making the garden.
 Smooth curvaceous out lines are more appropriate.
 Water bodies are more irregular in shape.
 Hillock are made, water falls provided, lakes and islands, cascades, rocks, shola and a
rustic hutment are provided to create rural effect. Appropriately grouped plants
provide living quality and they are not trimmed.

FREE STYLE OF GARDENING

This style combines the good points of both formal and informal style of gardening.
Rose garden of Ludhiana is an example of this style of gardening.

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 4. Bio-pesticide and It’s Formulation
Introduction
Bio pesticide is a formulation made from naturally occurring substances that controls
pests by nontoxic mechanisms and in eco-friendly manner. Biopesticides may be derived
from animals (e.g. nematodes), plants (Chrysanthemum, Azadirachta) and micro-organisms
(e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis, Trichoderma, nucleopolyhedrosis virus), and include living
organisms (natural enemies) etc.
However, biopesticides are generally less toxic to the user and are non-target
organisms, making them desirable and sustainable tools for disease management.
Advantages of bio pesticides
 Inherently less harmful and less environmental load,
 Designed to affect only one specific pest or, in some cases, a few target organisms,
 Often effective in very small quantities and often decompose quickly, thereby
resulting in lower exposures and largely avoiding the pollution problems.
 When used as a component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, bio
pesticides can contribute greatly.
Types of bio pesticides
 Microbial pesticides
 Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIPs)
 Biochemical pesticides
 Botanical pesticides
 Biotic agents (parasitoids and predators)
Microbial Pesticides:-
 Microbial pesticides are composed of microscopic living organisms (viruses, bacteria,
fungi, protozoa, or nematodes) or toxin produced by these organisms.
 Applied as conventional insecticidal sprays, dusts, or granules.
 Their greatest strength is their specificity as most are essentially nontoxic and non-
pathogenic to animals and humans.
 Microbial pesticides includes insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and growth
regulators of microbial origin.
Some of the important microbial pesticides
1. Bacillus thuringiensis
 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a unique bacterium in that it shares a common
place with a number of chemical compounds which are used commercially to
control insects important to agriculture and public health.
 Discovered in Japan in early 20th century and first become a commercial
product in France in 1938.
 Control lepidopterous pests like American bollworm in cotton and stem borers
in rice.

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  When ingested by pest larvae, Bt releases toxins which damage the mid gut of
the pest, eventually killing it.
 Main sources for the production of Bt preparations are the strains of the
subspecies kurstaki, galeriae and dendrolimus
2. Agrobacterium radiobacter (Agrocin):-
 Agrobacterium radiobacter is a gram negative bacillus found in soil
containing organic material (rhizosphere). It is a saprophytic organism,
meaning it uses dead plant material for nutrients.
 Agrobacterium radiobacter is used to treat roots during transplanting, that
checks crown gall.
 Crown gall is a disease in peaches, grapevine, roses and various plants caused
by soil borne pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciensm.
 The effective strains of A. radiobacter possess two important features:
 They are able to colonize host roots to a higher population density.
 They produce an antibiotic, agrocin that is toxic to A. tumefaciens.
3. Pseudomonas fluorescens (Phenazine)
 Pseudomonas fluorescens is an obligate aerobe, gram negative bacillus. These
bacteria are able to inhabit many environments, including: plants, soil, and
water surfaces.
 This bacteria is used to control damping off caused by Pythium sp.,
Rhizoctonia solani, Gaeumannomyces graminis.
 It has ability to grow quickly in the rhizosphere
4. Trichoderma
 Trichoderma is a very effective biological mean for plant disease management
especially the soil born.
 It is a free-living fungus which is common in soil and root ecosystems. It is
highly interactive in root, soil and foliar environments.
 It reduces growth, survival or infections caused by pathogens by different
mechanisms like competition, antibiosis, mycoparasitism, hyphal interactions,
and enzyme secretion.
 Trichoderma is a fungicide effective against soil borne diseases such as root
rot.
 This is also used against Necteia galligena, that causes silver leaf disease of
fruit trees by entering through pruning wounds.
5. Metarizium anisopliae
 Metarhizium anisopliae is an entomopathogenic fungus that infects insects that
come in contact with it.
 Once the fungus spores attach to the surface of the insect, germinate and begin
to grow, they then penetrate the exoskeleton of the insect and grow very
rapidly inside the insect causing the insect to die.
 Other insects that come in contact with infected insects also become infected
with the fungus.
 It infects spittlegbugs, rhinoceros beetles.
6. Beauveria bassiana
 Beauveria bassiana is a naturally occurring entomo-pathogenic fungus in most
part of the world.

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  The spore of this fungus when comes in contact with the cuticle (skin) of the
target insect pest they germinate and grow directly through the cuticle to the
inner body of the host.
 The fungus proliferates throughout the insect‘s body, draining the insect of
nutrients, eventually killing it in about 48-72 hours after spray.
 Controls Colorado potato beetle.
7. Verticillum lecanii
 Beauveria bassiana is a naturally occurring entomo-pathogenic fungus in most
part of the world.
 The spore of this fungus when comes in contact with the cuticle (skin) of the
target insect pest they germinate and grow directly through the cuticle to the
inner body of the host.
 The fungus proliferates throughout the insect‘s body, draining the insect of
nutrients, eventually killing it in about 48-72 hours after spray.
 Controls aphids and whiteflies.
8. Nomuraea riley
Controls soybean caterpillars.
9. Baculoviruses(Bvs)
Control lepidopterous and hymenopterous pests.
Rod shaped, circular double stranded super coiled DNA.
Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIPs):- Consistent with the Coordinated Framework for
Regulation of Biotechnology issued by the U.S. Office of Science and Technology Policy in
1986 (51 FR 23302) genetically modified (GM) crops with pesticidal traits fall under the
oversight of EPA, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration. EPA‘s oversight focuses on the pesticidal substance produced (e.g., Bt Cry
proteins) and the genetic material necessary for its production in the plant (e.g., Cry genes).
EPA calls this unique class of biotechnology-based pesticides plant-incorporated protectants
(PIPs). PIPs are pesticidal substances that plants produce and the genetic material that has
been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal protein
and introduce the gene into the plant‘s own genetic material. Then the plant, instead of the Bt
bacterium, manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. EPA regulates the protein and
its genetic material, but not the plant itself.
Botanical pesticides:- These are naturally occurring plant material that may be crude
preparation of the plant parts ground to produce a dust or powder that can be used in full
strength or dilute form in a carrier such as clay, talc or diatomaceous earth. ―Azadirachtin‖
effects the reproductive and digestive procees of pest. Several plant based insecticides as
nicotinoids, natural pyrethrins, rotenoids, neem products etc are used.
Biochemical pesticides
They are naturally occurring substance to control pest by non-toxic mechanisms.
Biochemical pesticides include substances as insect sex pheromones that interfere with
mating that attract insect pest to traps.
A. Semiochemicals:- These are chemicals emitted by plants or animals that modify the
behaviour of receptor organisms of like or different kinds. The terms commonly used
for various semiochemicals (chemical signals) include pheromones (acting between

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 individuals within a species) and allelochemicals (acting between individuals of
different species). Allelochemicals can be categorized into allomones (advantage for
sender), kairomones (advantage for receiver), synomones (advantage for both) and
apneumones (from non-living sources). Pheromones are substances emitted by a
member of one species that modify the behaviour of others within the same species.
Allomones are chemicals emitted by one species that modify the behaviour of a
different species to the benefit of the emitting species. Kairomones are chemicals
emitted by one species that modify the behaviour of a different species to the benefit
of the receptor species. Semiochemicals determine insect life situations such as
feeding, mating and egg-laying (ovipositing). Semiochemicals are thus potential
agents for selective control of pest insects (for definitions of terms used for various
chemical signals). Biological control with pheromones or kairomones can be used for
detection and monitoring of insect populations. Monitoring is important for the
efficient use of conventional or unconventional insecticides. Mating disruption by use
of pheromones is a promising and in many cases, it is a successful strategy for pest
control (confusion strategy). The use of semiochemicals as feeding deterrents is
another strategy. The most common strategy for control by the use of semiochemicals
is to attract, trap and kill the pest insects.
B. Hormones:- These are biochemical agents synthesized in one part of an organism and
translocated to another where they have controlling, behavioral, or regulating effects.
New approaches to the development of insect control agents have been revealed
through the description of natural and synthetic compounds capable of interfering
with the processes of development and reproduction of the target insects. The
information on novel insecticides that mimic the action of two insect growth and
developmental hormone classes is the ecdysteroids and the juvenile hormones.
Neuropeptide structures, their biogenesis, action and metabolism also offer the
opportunity to exploit novel control agents.
C. Plant Extracts:- Plants are infact, natural laboratories in which a great number of
chemicals are biosynthesized. Many plants have developed natural and biochemical
mechanisms to defend themselves from weed competition and animal, insect and
fungal attacks. Some of these chemicals discourage feeding by insects and other
herbivores. Others provide protection or even immunity from diseases caused by
some pathogens. Still others help the plants to compete for resources by discouraging
competition among different plant species. By studying the diverse chemistries of
many different plant species, scientists have discovered many useful compounds that
can be used as biopesticides. Plant extracts have long been used to control insects,
wherein dating far back children have been deloused using a powder obtained from
the dried flowers of the pyrethrum plant (Tanacetum cinerariifolium). The first
botanical insecticide dates back, when it has been shown that nicotine from tobacco
leaves killed plum beetles. Today, there are a number of biopesticide plant extracts
being marketed as insecticides and these products fall into several different classes.
Some of the plant products registered as biopesticides include Limonene and
Linalool that act on target pests fleas, aphids and mites, also kill fire ants, several
types of flies, paper wasps and house crickets. Neem has pesticidal properties against
a variety of sucking and chewing insect; while pyrethrum is effective against ants,
aphids, roaches, fleas, flies and ticks. Rotenone exhibits insecticidal activity against

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 leaf-feeding insects, such as aphids, certain beetles (asparagus beetle, bean leaf beetle,
potato beetle, cucumber beetle, flea beetle, strawberry leaf beetle and others) and
caterpillars, as well as fleas and lice on animals. Ryania is found most effective in
reducing the larval population of caterpillars such as corn borer, corn earworm, and
thrips and others, while Sabadilla has a significant effect against squash bugs,
harlequin bugs, thrips, caterpillars, leaf hoppers and stink bug
D. Enzymes:- The enzymes are protein molecules, which are the instruments for
expression for gene action and that catalyze biochemical reactions. Plant defenses
against insect herbivores are mediated, in part, by enzymes that impair digestive
processes in the insect gut. Little is known about the evolutionary origins of these
enzymes, their distribution in the plant kingdom, or the mechanisms by which they act
in the protease-rich environment of the animal digestive tract. The transgenic
expression of insecticidal proteins such as α-amylase and protease inhibitors is also
being evaluated as a potential protective strategy against insects.
E. Feeding Deterrents:- Feeding deterrent is a compound that once ingested by the
insect pest, causes it to stop feeding and eventually to starve to death. Crop damage is
inhibited and the insect eventually starves to death. The screening for insecticidal
principles from several Chinese medicinal herbs showed that the root bark of
Dictamnus dasycarpus possessed significant feeding deterrence against two stored-
product insects (Tribolium castaneum and Sitophilus zeamais). From the methanol
extract, two feeding deterrents have been isolated by bioassay-guided fractionation.
The compounds have been identified as Fraxinellone and Dictamnine from their
spectroscopic data. Fraxinellone and Dictamnine have demonstrated to possess
feeding deterrent activity against adults and larvae of T. castaneum as well as S.
zeamais.
F. Repellents:- An insect repellent (also commonly called bug spray) is a substance
applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces which discourages insects (and arthropods
in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. Typically compounds which
release odors that are unappealing or irritating to insects, include garlic or pepper
based insecticides. Insect repellents help to prevent and control the outbreak of insect-
borne diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and bubonic plague. Pest creatures
commonly serving as vectors for disease include the insects flea, fly, mosquito and
the arachnid tick. Repellents researched, which have been shown to provide
significantly better protection are N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, essential oil of the lemon
eucalyptus (Corymbia citriodora), Icaridin, Nepetalactone, Dimethyl carbate,
Dimethyl phthalate, Citronella oil, Neem oil and Metofluthrin, which are promising
group of repellents. Sometimes, the synthetic repellents tend to be more effective and
longer lasting than natural repellents.
Repellants, confessants, and irritants are not usually toxic to insects, but
interfere with their normal behaviour and thereby keep the insects from causing
damage. Mothballs and mosquito repellants are familiar examples. Wide scale use of
synthetic sex pheromones may confuse insects sufficiently that they are unable to
mate and produce offspring; a few such products are commercially available, such as
for codling moth control in apples. Using insect pheromones in this manner is called
mating disruption, a practice that works best in large commercial plantings where it is
less likely that mated females will move into the planting from outside of the treated

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 area. Many of these types of behavioural chemicals break down or wash away
quickly, and must be reapplied frequently, used in an enclosed area, or formulated to
release slowly over a long period.
G. Confusants:- Confusants are compounds that imitate food sources and are used as
traps or decoys to draw damaging insects away from crops. Confusants can also be
formulated as concentrated sprays designed to overwhelm insects with so many
sources of stimuli that they cannot locate the crop. Not only are plant extracts used
directly as insecticides, but they are used also as a source for synthetic insecticides
based on analogues developed in the laboratory. Scientists have modified molecules
found in plants to be more toxic or more persistent. Common examples of this can be
found in the pyrethroid and neonicitinoid families of insecticides, derived from
molecules isolated from plants like pyrethrum (T. cinerariifolium) and tobacco. The
damage caused by the whiteflies Dialeuropora decempuncta, Aleurodicus disperses
Russell, and Aleuroclava sp., to mulberry plants is extensive and they cause a huge
economic loss to mulberry leaves which affects silkworm rearing. Previous
investigations indicate that neem-based insecticides may be a suitable alternative for
pest management in sericulture. Use of neem products in sericultural pest control has
many merits. It will also help in the successful introduction of biological controls in
plants. Several exotic parasitoids have been found to be highly effective, including
two aphelinid parasitoids Encarsia haitiensis Dozier and E. meritoria Gahan. These
are most promising and are reported to minimize the fly pest populations. The
parasitization potential and behaviour of the parasitoids have to be carefully assessed
before they are introduced to control fly pest populations. There is a need for careful
assessment of all these advanced biological technologies in order to develop a
profitable, safe and durable approach for whitefly control in sericulture.
H. Plant Growth Regulators:- Simply, plant growth regulators also known as growth
regulators or plant hormones are chemicals used to alter the growth of a plant or plant
part. From the regulatory control perspective, plant growth regulators are classified
under pesticides. Natural plant regulators are chemicals produced by plants that have
toxic, inhibitory, stimulatory, or other modifying effects on the same or other species
of plants. Some of these are termed plant hormones or phytohormones. Some plant
oils can act as effective contact herbicides through a variety of mechanisms such as
disrupting cell membranes in plant tissue, inhibiting amino acid synthesis, or
precluding production of enzymes necessary for photosynthesis. Examples of
minimum risk pesticides include products containing active ingredients of cottonseed,
clove and garlic oils, cedar oil, and rosemary and peppermint oil.
I. Insect Growth Regulators:- The insect growth regulators (IGRs) have been used in a
variety of practical applications and are described as agents that elicit their primary
action on insect metabolism, ultimately interfering and disrupting the process of
growth, development and metamorphosis of the target insects, particularly when
applied during the sensitive period of insect development. Biochemical insect growth
regulators have a unique mode of action separate from most chemical insecticides.
Generally speaking, these products prevent insects from reaching a reproductive
stage, thereby reducing the expansion of pest populations. The direct impact of IGRs
on target pests combined with the preservation of beneficial insects and pollinators
aids to growers in maximizing yield and product quality. The IGRs can be divided

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 into two broad categories; i.e., those that disrupt the hormonal regulation of insect
metamorphosis, and those that disrupt the synthesis of chitin, a principal component
of insect exoskeletons. Agricultural applications currently focus on the first category
of compounds, and these products are also known as „hormone mimics‟. Azadirachtin
is one of the most widely used botanical insect growth regulators. Because of its
structural resemblance to the natural insect molting hormone ecdysone, azadirachtin
interrupts molting, metamorphosis and development of the female reproductive
system. Immature insects exposed to azadirachtin (mainly by ingestion) may molt
prematurely or die before they can complete a properly timed molt. Those insects that
survive a treatment are likely to develop into deformed adults incapable of feeding,
dispersing, or reproducing. Since beneficial insects, predators and pollinators do not
feed directly on the treated foliage, biochemical insect growth regulators are
considered „soft‟ on beneficial insects such as honeybees, lady bugs, green lacewings
and the parasitic wasps. Due to their unique mode of action, biochemical insect
growth regulators have played an important role in integrated pest management
systems and as an effective resistance management tool. A good example is the use of
azadirachtin IGR in aphid population management programs for lettuce crop
protection. Integrated use of azadirachtin provides control by impacting the larvae and
nymphs of multiple aphid species, breaking the life cycle before they become
reproducing adults. Another azadirachtin success story is its use for pear psylla
control on pears, where growers integrate traditional control products, azadirachtin
and kaolin clay for an effective pest management with significantly reduced use of
harmful chemical insecticides.
Biotic agents/Natural enemies Predators
 They consume several to many prey over the course of their development, they are
free living and they are usually as big as or bigger than their prey.
 Lady beetles, rove beetles, many ground beetles, lacewings, true bugs such as Podisus
and Orius, syrphid fly larvae, mantids, spiders, and mites such as Phytoseiulus and
Amblyseius.
 Parasitoids:-
 Parasitoids are almost the same size as their hosts, and their development
always kills the host insect.
 An adult parasitoid deposits one or more eggs into or onto the body of a host
insect or somewhere in the host‘s habitat.
 The larva that hatches from each egg feeds internally or externally on the
host‘s tissues and body fluids, consuming it slowly.
 Later in development, the host dies and the parasitoid pupates inside or outside
of the host‘s body.
 Bathyplectes, trichogramma, encarsia, muscidifurax etc.

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 5. VERMICOMPOST
Vermicompost is an organic manure (bio-fertilizer) produced as the vermicast by
earth worm feeding on biological waste material; plant residues.
Vermicomposting is the process of turning organic debris into worm castings. The
worm castings are very important to the fertility of the soil. The castings contain high
amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Castings contain: 5
times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1 ½ times more calcium than
found in good topsoil. Several researchers have demonstrated that earthworm castings have
excellent aeration, porosity, structure, drainage, and moisture-holding capacity. The content
of the earthworm castings, along with the natural tillage by the worms burrowing action,
enhances the permeability of water in the soil. Worm castings can hold close to nine times
their weight in water. ―Vermiconversion,‖ or using earthworms to convert waste into soil
additives, has been done on a relatively small scale for some time. A recommended rate of
vermicompost application is 15-20 percent.

Nutritive value of vermicompost

Organic carbon 9.5 – 17.98%

C/N Ratio 11.64
Nitrogen 1.5 – 2.50%
Phosphorous 1.6 – 1.8%
Potassium 1.0-1.5%
Sodium 0.06 – 0.30%
Calcium and 22.67 to 47.60
Magnesium meq/100g
Copper 2 – 9.50 mg kg-1
Iron 2 – 9.30 mg kg-1
Zinc 5.70 – 11.50 mg kg-1
Sulphur 128 – 548 mg kg-1
Advantage of Vermicompost
 Actinomycetes found in Vermicompost 8 time more than FYM, that increase resistant
power of crop against pest and diseases.
 Vermicompost is rich in all essential plant nutrients.
 Provides excellent effect on overall plant growth, encourages the growth of newshoots
/ leaves and improves the quality and shelf life of the produce.
 Vermicompost is free flowing, easy to apply, handle and store and does not have
badodour.
 It improves soil structure, texture, aeration, and waterholding capacity and prevents
soil erosion.
 Vermicompost is rich in beneficial micro flora such as a fixers, P-
solubilizers,cellulose decomposing micro-flora etc in addition to improve soil
environment.
 Vermicompost contains earthworm cocoons and increases the population andactivity
of earthworm in the soil.
 It neutralizes the soil protection.

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  It prevents nutrient losses and increases the use efficiency of chemical fertilizers.
 Vermicompost is free from pathogens, toxic elements, weed seeds etc.
 Vermicompost minimizes the incidence of pest and diseases.
 It enhances the decomposition of organic matter in soil.
 It contains valuable vitamins, enzymes and hormones like auxins, gibberellins etc.
Species of Earthworm:- In nature found about 700 species of earthworm. In which 293 are
useful for agriculture. Generally they are classified into three group:-
Epigeic: surface dwellers:- Epigeic earthworms live in areas containing high amounts of
organic matter. They live at or near the soil surface and feed on leaf litter, decaying plant
roots or dung. These earthworms do not form permanent burrows. Epigeic species tend to
have dark skin colour (pigmentation). The pigmentation acts as camouflage as they move
through the leaf litter. It also helps to protect them from UV rays. Being close to the ground
surface exposes the earthworms to predators so their muscles are strong and thick in
proportion to their length, allowing for quick movement. Being so close to the surface also
makes them vulnerable to stock treading in intensively grazed paddocks. Epigeic species tend
to be small (1–18 cm in length). Introduced epigeic earthworms tend to live in compost (such
as the introduced tiger worm Eisenia fetida, which cannot survive in soil) and under logs and
dung. Native species usually live in forest litter. Dendrobaena octaedra, Dendrobaena
attemsi, Dendrodrilus rubidus, Eiseniella tetraedra, Eisenia fetida, Heliodrilus
oculatus, Lumbricus rubellus, Lumbricus castaneus, Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus
friendi, Satchellius mammalis
Endogeic: topsoil dwellers:- Endogeic earthworms are the most common earthworm species
found in New Zealand. Their niche is the top 20 cm depth of soil. Endogeic earthworms eat
large amounts of soil and the organic matter in it, although species sometimes come to the
surface to search for food. They form shallow semi-permanent burrows. Endogeic
earthworms have some pigmentation. Their muscle layers are not as thick nor do they move
as quickly as epigeic earthworms. Endogeic species range in size from 2.5–30 cm. Introduced
endogeic earthworms are often found in agricultural soils, while native endogeic earthworms
are often found in tussock grasslands. Allolobophora chlorotica, Apporectodea
caliginosa, Apporectodea icterica, Apporectodea rosea, Murchieona muldali, Octolasion
cyaneum and Octolasion lacteum.
Anecic: subsoil dwellers:- Anecic earthworms live in permanent burrows as deep as 3 m
below the soil surface. They collect food from the soil surface and ingest organic matter from
the soil. Anecic earthworms form extensive burrows that extend laterally and vertically
through the subsoil. Their burrows can be up to 2 cm in diameter. Introduced anecic
earthworms have some pigmentation. Indigenous anecic species tend to be sluggish and have
weakly developed muscles. Because they live so deeply in the soil, native anecic species have
little pigmentation, and being so pale, they are often referred to as milk worms. These deep-
burrowing species are also the longest, ranging from 3 cm up to a very large 1.4 m. eg:-
Lumbricus terrestris and Apporectodea longa.
Vermicompost by Eisenia fetida
 Eisenia fetida is most suitable for Rajasthan climate.
 Eisenia fetida 3-4 inch in length and half gram in weight.

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  Red in colour.
 It is eating 90% organic matter and 10% soil. It is laying 2-3 cocoon in a week.
 Every cocoon has 3-4 egg.
 A adult earthworm laying 250 eggs in six months.

Selection of site and bed preparation

Shad is required for composting.
Bed Size:- 40-50x3-4x3-4 fit
Preparation of Vermicompost

 Vermibed (vermes= earthworms; bed= bedding) is the actual layer of good moist
loamy soil placed at the bottom, about 15 to 20 cm thick above a thin layer (5 cm) of
broken bricks and coarse sand.
 Earthworms are introduced into the loamy soil, which the worms will inhabit as their
home. 150 earthworms may be introduced into a compost pit of about 2m x 1m x
0.75m, with a vermibed of about 15 to 20 cm thick.
 Handful-lumps of fresh cattle dung are then placed at random over the vermibed. The
compost pit is then layered to about 5 cm with dry leaves or preferably chopped
hay/straw or agricultural waste biomass. For the next 30 days the pit is kept moist by
watering it whenever necessary.
 The bed should neither be dry or soggy. The pit may then be covered with coconut or
Palmyra leaves or an old jute (gunny) bag to discourage birds.
 Plastic sheets on the bed are to be avoided as they trap heat. After the first 30 days,
wet organic waste of animal and/or plant origin from the kitchen or hotel or hostel or
farm that has been pre-digested is spread over it to a thickness of about 5 cm. This can
be repeated twice a week.
 All these organic wastes can be turned over or mixed periodically with a pickaxe or a
spade.
 Regular watering should be done to keep the right amount of moisture in the pits. If
the weather is very dry it should be dampened periodically.

Harvesting of Vermicompost

 The compost is ready when the material is moderately loose and crumbly and the
colour of the compost is dark brown. It will be black, granular, lightweight and
humus-rich.
 In 60 to 90 days (depends up on the size of the pits) the compost should be ready as
indicated by the presence of earthworm castings (vermicompost) on the top of the
bed. Vermicompost can now be harvested from the bin/pit.
 To facilitate separating the worms from the compost, stop watering two to three days
before emptying the beds. This will force about 80 per cent of the worms to the
bottom of the bed.
 The worms can also be separated by using sieves/meshes. The earthworms and the
thicker material, which remains on top of the sieve, goes back in the bin and the
process starts again. The smell of the compost is earth-like. Any bad odour if formed
is a sign that fermentation has not reached its final goal and that the bacterial
processes are still going on. A musty smell indicates the presence of mold or
overheating which leads to loss of nitrogen. If this happens, aerate the heap better or
start again, adding more fibrous material and keeping the heap drier. The compost is
then sieved before being packed.

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  The harvested material should be placed in a heap in the sun so that most of the
worms move down to the cool base of the heap.
 In the two or four pit system, watering should be stopped in the first chamber so that
worms will automatically move to another chamber where the required environment
for the worms are maintained in a cyclic manner and harvesting can be done
continuously in cycles.

Precautions for compost making:

 Moisture level in the bed should not exceed 40-50%.Water logging in the bed leads
to anaerobic condition and change in pH of medium.This hampers normal activities
of worms leading to weight loss and decline in worm biomass and population.
 Temperature of bed should be within the range of 20-30 degree centigrade.
 Worms should not be injured during handling.
 Bed should be protected from predators like red ants, white ants, centipedes and
others like rats, cats , poultry birds and even dogs
 The organic wastes should be free from plastics, chemicals, pesticides and metals etc.

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 6. NURSERY
Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised,
propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting.
Importance of Nursery:
1. The young seedlings require special attention during the first few weeks after germination.
It is easier and economical to look after the young and tender seedlings growing in nursery
bed in a small area than in a large permanent site.
2. Majority of fruit crops are propagated by vegetative means. The propagules require special
skill and aftercare before transferring them in the main field. In a controlled condition in
nursery all these can be provided successfully by skilled labour.
3. Cuttings are best rooted and grafts are hardened in the mist house chamber which is an
integrated part of a nursery.
4. Direct sowing method is not so successful in several crops when compared with
transplanting of seedlings raised in nursery.
5. Plants hardened in the nursery are preferred for causality replacement in orchards.
6. Besides these, raising of seedlings or saplings in nursery provides more time for pre-
planting operations/preparations.
7. Seasoning/hardening of seedlings against natural odds is only possible in nursery.

Factors affecting the establishment of a nursery:

1. Location and site- Topography,climate , reputation of locality for business and transport
facility
3 Selection of soil
2. Water facility
3. Manures
4. Availability of labour
Components of nursery: A nursery should consist of the following components:
1. Building structures: This includes office, sale counter, packing shed, potting shed, store,
implement shed and residential quarter.
2. Progeny tree block: The current choice of kind and variety of fruit crops and collection of
true to type mother plants have strong bearing on the success and goodwill of a nursery
industry. Progeny tree block should be cover 10% area of total nursery area.
3. Propagation structures: structures like green house, glass house, poly house, hot bed,
cold frames, lath house, shade house, mist house are used to create congenial condition for
the propagation of plants.

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4. Nursery bed:
Types of nursery bed
a) Flat bed b) Raised bed c) Deep bed
a) Flat Bed: - It is prepared where, there annual rain fall is very less or water drainage
system is good.
b) Raised bed:- It is most popular nursery bed. It is prepared where, there annual rainfall is
very high or water drainage system is poor. It is generally made 15cm high from ground
level.

15cm

c) Deep bed:- It is prepare in temperate zone for protection of cold wind. It is generally made
25-30cm deep from ground level.
Size of Bed:-

Soil mixture:-This is the most commonly employed medium for pot plants. It usually
consists of red earth, well decomposed cattle manure, leaf mold, river sand and also charcoal
in some cases. Soil mixture commonly used for propagation is
 Red earth - 2 parts
 FYM - 1 part

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  Sand - 1 part
Fruit Nursery:- Fruit plants seedling are transferred nursery to orchard in 1-2 year old. But
papaya seedling should be transplanted in two months old.
 Deciduae fruits seedling should be transplanted in Feb-March month without earth
ball.
 Evergreen fruits seedling should be transplanted in June-July month with earth ball.
 Papaya seeds are sowing in Feb-march month and seedling should be transplanting in
May.
 Hardening off:- Hardening off is the process of moving plants outdoors for a portion
of the day to gradually introduce them to the direct sunlight, dry air, and cold nights.
 15% extra plants should be purchase during purchasing of seedling.
 Seedling plant should be planted in orchard during evening hours.
Vegetable Nursery:-
Vegetable Area need in nursery for Seedling age for
one hector Planting transplanting
Tomato 100-125m2 3-4 weeks
Bringle 125-150 m2 3-4 weeks
Chilli 150-200 m2 3-4 weeks
Cole Crops 250 m2 6-8 weeks
Onion 500 m2 6-8 weeks

Hi-Tech Nurseries:-There is sudden increase in the demand for certain commercial plants.
For example Tissue cultured banana, gerbera and carnation etc. It is not possible to fulfill this
requirement by ordinary or common nursery practices. There is necessity to have special
techniques and methods to meet the demand and only Hi-tech nurseries can satisfy this type
of demand. These nurseries grow plants in greenhouse, building of glass or a plastic tunnel,
designed to protect young plants from harsh weather, while allowing access to light and
ventilation. Modern greenhouses allow automated control of temperature, ventilation, light,
watering and feeding. Some also have fold-back roofs to allow "hardening-off" of plants
without the need for manual transfer of plants to the outdoor beds.

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