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 The Pharma Innovation Journal 2019; 8(1): 126-138

ISSN (E): 2277- 7695

ISSN (P): 2349-8242
NAAS Rating: 5.03 Applications of bio-colour in dairy industry
TPI 2019; 8(1): 126-138
© 2019 TPI
www.thepharmajournal.com
Received: 18-11-2018
Chaitali Chakraborty, Pinaki Ranjan Ray, Rimli Chatterjee and Manasi Roy
Accepted: 21-12-2018
Abstract
Chaitali Chakraborty Color is a measure of quality and nutrient content of foods. The objective of adding color to foods is to
Associate Professor, Department make them appealing, augment the loss of color during processing, to improve the quality and also to
of Dairy Chemistry, Faculty of influence the consumer to buy a product. The developing food industry had a vast array of synthetic
Dairy Technology, WBUAFS, colors. An established list of permitted synthetic color eventually came into force in most countries.
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, Consumers have become increasingly aware of the ingredients in their foods and as such they require
India
foods to be as `natural' as possible. Bicolour can be classified into three main classes: natural colors,
browning colors and additives. At present, the demand for natural dyes is increasing worldwide due to
Pinaki Ranjan Ray
Professor, Department of Dairy the increased awareness on therapeutic and medicinal properties and their benefits among public and also
Chemistry, Faculty of Dairy because of the recognized profound toxicity of synthetic colors.
Technology, WBUAFS,
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, Keywords: Colors, bio colours, food industry, food dye, synthetic colors
India
1. Introduction
Rimli Chatterjee Colour is one of the most important qualities of foods. In the past, consumers did not care
M. Tech Student, Department of
Dairy Chemistry, Faculty of about the kind of pigments used in food colouring (natural or synthetic). Bio-colours, the word
Dairy Technology, WBUAFS, consists of two words, BIO meaning natural and COLOUR meaning anything which is used
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, for colouring purpose. Bio-colour is any dye obtained from any vegetable, fruits, plants,
India microorganisms, animal or mineral that is capable of colouring food, drugs, cosmetics or any
part of human body. The production of the synthetic colorants is economically efficient and
Manasi Roy
M. Tech Student, Department of technically advanced but many artificial synthetic colorants, usually used in foodstuff,
Food Safety and Quality dyestuff, cosmetics and pharmaceutical manufacturing processes, causes various hazardous
Management, National Institute effects like toxic diseases such as cancer and other behavioural problems in children (Parmar,
of Food Technology Gupta, Phutela, 2015) [75]. To counteract the ill effects synthetic colorants, there is worldwide
Entrepreneurship and interest in process development for the production of pigments and colours from natural
Management, Kundli, Sonepat,
Haryana, India sources. But with reference to food colorants recently there is an aversion towards synthetic
pigments owing to the belief such as "synthetic pigments are associated with several illnesses "
and "natural pigments have pharmacological benefits" (Clydesdale, 1993) [34]. Natural organic
pigments are generally extracted from fruits, vegetables, seeds, roots and microorganisms and
they are sometimes called bio-colours because of their biological origin (Pattnaik et al., 1997)
[95]
. Bio-colours that are permitted for human foods are very limited and there is difficulty in
getting approval for new sources for the reason that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) considers the pigments as additives and consequently pigments are under strict
regulations (Wissgot and Bortlik, 1996) [120]. Recently there have been changes in the
legislational so causing a significant reduction in number of synthetic colours used in foods
(Downham and Collins, 2000) [39]. According to a study on dyes and organic pigments, the
worldwide demand for organic colorants is projected to increase from 4.9% in 2003 to $10.6
billion in 2008. Future growth is going to be large for naturally derived colours with a
predicted annual growth rate of 5-10%. Synthetic colours are still forecast to grow but at a
lower rate of between 3 and 5% (Downham and Collins, 2000) [39].The demand for food colour
in global market in 2000 was 2400MT which increased to 3000 MT by the year 2005 and
further to increase to 8000 MT by the year 2010 and is expected to increase to 15000 MT by
the year 2015 (Lakshmi, 2014) [65]. The investment in natural food colour market
acrosstheglobehastouchedtoUS$1 billion and is continuously growing as there is demand for
Correspondence natural food colours against synthetic food colours (Magoulas, 2009) [73]. Because of
Chaitali Chakraborty
Associate Professor, Department
consumers choice for natural food processing industry and have contributed to the increase in
of Dairy Chemistry, Faculty of natural colour market significantly (Ree, 2006) [98].Only few natural pigments are available in
Dairy Technology, WBUAFS, sufficient quantities to be useful for industry because they are usually extracted from plants
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, (Lauro, 1991) [66].
India
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But there is an ever growing interest in microbial pigments which give yellow to red colours and the flavonoids with their
due to several reasons like their natural character and safety to principal subclass the anthocyanins, which impart red to blue
use, production being independent of seasons and colours to flowers and fruits. In recent years, there has been
geographical conditions, controllable and predictable yield much interest in carotenoids, especially-carotene as it is
(Francis, 1987) [49]. The successful marketing of pigments converted in the body to vitamin A andhas antioxidant
derived from algae or extracted from plants, both as a food properties. It has a beneficial effect in reducing the risk of
colour and a nutritional supplement, reflects the presence and some cancers and perhaps heart diseases. It can be produced
importance of niche markets in which consumers are willing commercially using microorganisms like Dunaliellasalina
to pay a premium for ‘all natural ingredients’. Colours can and Blakesleatrispora.
serve as the primary identification of food and are also a 3.2 Browning colours: These are produced during cooking
protective measure against the consumption of spoiled food. and processing and thus may not be of any direct importance
Colours of foods create physiological and psychological in foods. For e.g., as produced during sugar Caramelization,
expectations and attitudes that are developed by experience, baking etc.
tradition, education and environment: ‘We inevitably eat with 3.3 Additives: Food additive colours are based on
our eyes’. anthocyanins derived from sources such as red grapes or beet
The controversial topic of ‘synthetic dyes in food’ has been but the first additive colour were synthetic dyes which were
discussed for many years and was amplified in 2007 with the extensively used as food colorants in nineteenth century and
Southampton study (McCann et al., 2007) and its early 1900s. Anthocyanins are polyphenolic group of
transcription in a legal frame (i.e. the use of warning labels in compounds which have been named Vitamins of the 21 st
Europe about a hyperactivity link for products containing any Century due to their impressive medical and health benefits.
of the Southampton colours is mandatory since July 2010). 3.3.1 Food additives can be grouped according to the
The scrutiny and negative assessment of synthetic food dyes function they perform
by the modern consumer have given rise to a strong interest in  Antioxidants make food last longer by helping to stop
natural colouring alternatives. Some companies decided to fats, oils and certain vitamins from combining with
‘colour food with food’, using mainly plant extracts or oxygen in the air, a process known as oxidation, which
pigments from plants, e.g. red from paprika, beetroots, berries makes food taste ‘off’. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and
or tomato; yellow from saffron or marigold; orange from vitamin E are commonly used antioxidants.
annatto; green from leafy vegetables, etc. Penetration of the  Colourings impart colour to food and compensate for
fermentation-derived ingredients into the food and cosmetic colour lost in processing. Some food colourings are
industries is increasing year after year. Examples could be natural in origin, such as curcumin (E100), which comes
taken from the following fields: thickening or gelling agents from the spice turmeric.
(xanthan, curdlan, gellan), flavour enhancers (yeast  Emulsifiers help mix ingredients together that would
hydrolysate, monosodium glutamate), flavour compounds normally separate. They are used in mayonnaise,
(gamma-decalactone, diacetyl, methyl-ketones), acidulants margarine, ice cream and some baked goods.
(lactic acid, citric acid), etc. Efforts have been made in order  Gelling, thickening and stabilising agents, such as carob
to reduce the production costs of fermentation pigments gum, guar gum, xanthan gum and agar, give food its
compared to those of synthetic pigments or pigments desired texture and consistency.
extracted from natural sources Innovations will improve the  Flavourings are used to bring out and enhance the flavour
economy of pigment production by isolating new or creating of food.
better microorganisms, by improving the processes. (Dufossé,  Preservatives stop mould or bacteria from growing, so
2006) [42]. food can be safely kept for longer. Sulphur dioxide is an
2. History example of a preservative and is used in products such as
From time immemorial, colour has been an important dried fruit.
criterion for acceptability of products like textiles, cosmetics,  Sweeteners include aspartame and saccharin. These are
food and other items. In Europe, it was practiced during the ‘intense sweeteners’ which are many times sweeter than
Bronze Age. The earliest written record of the use of natural sugar and therefore used in smaller quantities. There are
dyes was found in China dated 2600 BC. The cochineal dye also ‘bulk sweeteners’, which are of a similar sweetness
was used by the people of Aztec and Maya culture period of to sugar and tend to be used in similar amounts.
Central and North America. Henna was used even before  Sweeteners provide fewer calories than sugar and so can
2500 BC, while saffron is mentioned in the Bible.Use of be used instead of it to sweeten products such as yogurts,
natural biocolarants in food is known from Japan in the soft drinks and chewing gum. Sweeteners are kinder to
shosoin text of the Nara period (8th century), which contains our teeth because they are not broken down to form the
references regarding coloring soybean and adzuki-bean acids that cause tooth decay, as happens when we eat
cakes.According to Aberoumand in the Indian subcontinent foods containing sugar.
and has been substantiated by findings of coloured garments 3.3.2 Applications of Bio-colours as additives: There are
of cloth and traces of madder dye in the ruins of Mohenjo- various applications of Bio-colours in different industries as
Daro & Harappa civilization (3500 BC) (Roy et al, 2008) [100]
. described below:
Thus, it appears that colored processed foods had been taken A. Pharmaceutical industry: Hepatitis C virus (HCV)
by the people of some sections during that period. infects approximately 170 million people worldwide, and is
often associated with chronic hepatitis, leading to liver
3. Classification: Biocolours can be classified into three cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (Brown, 2005).
main classes (Sharma, 2014) [53]. Currently, interferon (IFN) and the nucleoside analogue
3.1 Natural colours: The principal natural colours used as ribavirin are used as the standard therapy to treat chronic
additives are the green pigment chlorophyll, the carotenoids HCV infection. However, IFN- alone or in combination with
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ribavirin often leads to a range of side effects. The 65 kDa to extract colours. Anthocyanin and betala in pigments, which
HCV NS5B protein has RNA-dependent RNA polymerase are water soluble, are extracted from the raw material with
(RdRp) activity and is key player in HCV RNA replication. water and sometimes with aqueous methanol.
Monascus Purpureus produces pigments that are responsible For carotenoids extraction, hexane is the solvent of choice.
for inhibiting hepatitis C virus replication by interfering with After thorough extraction, the extract is concentrated and
viral RNA polymerase activity (Sun et al., 2011) [111]. A group subjected to purification steps by using column
of Monascus orange pigment (MOP) derivatives effectively chromatography. Identification and quantification of the
inhibited NS5B RdRp activity and interfered with the pigment is performed by spectrophotometry or by high
mevalonate synthesis pathway, thereby suppressing HCV pressure liquid chromatography (Naidu and Sowbhagya,
replication in cells. A double-hit strategy, including inhibition 2012) [89].
of HCV RdRp activity and interference with the mevalonate
synthetic pathway, to inhibit HCV amplification may provide 5. The current advance techniques followed in colour
the basis for successful antiviral therapy using the MOP extraction are as follows
AADs derived from this microbial secondary metabolite. 5.1 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) and Pulsed Electric
B. Dairy industry: Among the various pigment-producing Field (PEF): These methods are environment friendly and
microorganisms, Monascus sp. is reported to produce non- energy efficient technologies that enhance mass transfer
toxic pigments, which can be used as food colorant. Besides a processes within cellular tissues, as the permeability of
colouring agent it enhances the flavour of the food and acts a cytoplasmic membranes can be increased which in turn
food preservative. Monascusruber has been used widely in the enhances extraction of valuable cell components. PEF is
preparation of flavoured milk by utilization of rice reported to be an ideal method to enhance juice production,
carbohydrate for its metabolism and production of secondary increase the extraction of valuable components better than the
metabolite namely pigment. Red, orange and yellow pigments yields obtained by enzymatic maceration (Mason and Zhao,
are produced using solid-state fermentation and rice broken as 1994) [80].
a substrate. Monascus Fermented Rice (MFR) 1.2% is used in 5.2 Sonication-assisted extraction: It is one of the most
the preparation of flavoured milk (Vidyalakshmi et al., 2009) commonly used methods to enhance mass transfer phenomena
[117]
. by cavitation forces, where bubbles in the liquid/solid
C. Fish industry: Aquaculture is a rapidly growing global extraction can explosively collapse and generate localized
industry, comprising cultivation of various freshwater and pressure, causing plant tissue rupture and improving the
marine species of finfish, shellfish, molluscs and ornamental release of intracellular substances into the solvent. (Nayak et
fish (Garcia and Maurilio, 2013) [50]. Pigmentation is one of al., 2007).
the important quality attributes of the aquatic animal for 5.3 Gamma irradiation: Gamma-irradiation, as a pre-
consumer acceptability. As fishes cannot synthesize their own treatment to a plant material, increases cell wall
colouring pigments de novo, the colouring agents which are permeabilization, resulting in enhanced extraction of cell
synthesized by some plants, algae and microorganisms, need constituents in higher yield (Sowbhagya and Chitra, 2010) [104,
105]
to be incorporated in the diet. Most promising pigment proved .
to be successful in enhancing skin colour is Astaxanthin. 5.4 Enzymatic extraction: Enzyme assisted extraction of
Commercially available products of astaxanthin (carotenoid) pigments is another new technology. Enzyme pre-treatment
rich yeast Phaffia Rhodozyma and fermentation product of cannot be a complete substitute for conventional solvent
Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous has been widely used. extraction, but can result in increased yield of value added
Microalgae Chlorella vulgaris imparts yellow blue hues, cell components and a reduction in time of extraction and
yielding both muscle and skin pigmentation effects. (Johnson amount of solvent consumption (Rodriguez et al., 2001) [99].
and An, 1991) [59-61]. 5.5 Membrane technology: Membrane processing is a fast
D. Textile industry: The textile industry discharges large and emerging technique for the concentration and separation
proportion of effluent that mainly consists of synthetic dyes. of macro and micro molecules based on molecular size and
Synthetic dyes have been extensively used in the textile shape in biotechnology and food processing industries
industries due to their ease and cost effectiveness in synthesis, (Downham and Collins, 2001) [40, 41]. Advantages of
high stability towards light, temperature and technically membrane processing are many which include improved
advanced colours covering the whole colour spectrum. product quality with higher yield, utilization of by products,
However, these synthetic dyes are often toxic, mutagenic and temperature and pH sensitive products can easily be extracted
carcinogenic leading to several human health problems such without alteration and lastly is environmental friendly as no
as skin cancer and allergic reactions. Thus, the worldwide harmful chemicals are being used and less energy is
demand for the dyes of natural origin is increasing rapidly in consumed. (Spence et al., 2010) [41].
the textile industry. (Gurav et al., 2011) 5.6 Future prospects: A giant leap forward in colour
E. Printing industry: It has become important to reuse and production could be achieved by combining genetic
recycle used papers in offices, etc. for the purpose of the manipulation and fermentation. Technological limitations are
conservation of forest resources and reduction of wastes. the major bottleneck for the commercial exploitation of the
Reuse of papers in offices is preferable, but it requires that microbes for bio-colour production and designing of proper
letters and images easily disappear from printed papers. bioreactors would help to ease out the situation. (Parmar M.,
Decolorable ink for inkjet printing contains a Monascus Phutela U.G., 2015) [75]
pigment. The Monascus pigments are easily discoloured and 6. The requisite for biocolorants
finally lose their colours by the irradiation of visible and/or 1. To maintain the original food appearance even after
ultraviolet light. (Tsuyoshi et al., 2004) [116]. processing and during storage.
4. Methods of extraction of pigments 2. To assure the color uniformity for avoiding seasonal
Solvent extraction is the conventional method that is followed variations in color tone.
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3. To intensify normal color of food and thus to maintain its yellowish-green than oil palm carotenes. Lutein, is also found
quality. in Zucchini (Cucurbitapepo L. var. giromontia), green
4. To protect the flavor and light susceptible vitamins vegetables like cabbage, parsley, spinach, etc. and some
making a light-screen support. fruits.
5. To increase acceptability of food as an appetizing item.
7.5 Annatto (C25H30O4)
7. Main Chromophores and their potential sources A yellow to orange color has been used for over two centuries
(Shapley, P. (2012) Absorbing light with organic mainly for colouring dairy products especially cheese and is
molecules) derived from the outer layer of seeds of the tropical tree
The colorants that occur naturally in food plants have been the Bixaorellana. The chief coloring principle is the carotenoid,
source of the traditional colorants. However, they can also be bixin and norbixin. The pH and solubility affect the color hue;
obtained from microorganisms and animals, but few of them the greater the solubility in oil, the brighter is the color. Water
are available in sufficient quantities for commercial use as soluble, oil soluble, and oil/water dispersible forms of annatto
food colorant. Although, biocolorants are structurally much are available. Norbixin is used to color cheese (e.g., cheddar)
diversified and from a variety of sources, the three most because it binds to the proteins. It may also be used to color
important are: Tetrapyrrols, Tetraterpenoids, and Flavonoids. beverages with neutral pH, e.g., flavored milk drinks, but not
The main pigments and their potential natural sources are with low pH because of precipitation and it is slightly more
discussed below. reddish in application than β- carotene. Since it precipitates at
low pH, it is also available as emulsion.
7.1 Carotenoids (C40H56)
These are lipid-soluble, yellow–orange–red pigments found in 7.5.1 Use of Annatto in food industry
all higher plants and some animals. Animals cannot Annatto is used currently to impart a yellow or orange colour
synthesize carotenoids, so their presence is due to dietary to many industrialized and semi-industrialized foods. In the
intake. The most important carotenoids are carotenes which European Union, it is identified by the E number E160b.
including (alpha carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, Annatto has been a traditional colorant for Gloucester cheese
lutein, and lycopene) and xanthophyll including violaxanthin, since the 16th century. During the summer, the high levels of
neoxanthin, zeaxanthin and canthxanthin. carotene in the grass would have given the milk an orange tint
which was carried through into the cheese. This orange hue
7.2 ß-Carotene (C40H56) came to be regarded as an indicator of the best cheese,
These are oil soluble, orange-yellow in color but can be made spurring producers of inferior cheese to use annatto in order to
into a water dispersible emulsion. Carrot (Daucuscarota) is a replicate it. The custom of adding annatto then spread to other
good source of ß-carotene. But most ß-carotene for parts of the UK, for cheeses such as Cheshire and Red
commercial use is now derived from algae, orange, apricot, Leicester, as well as coloured cheddar made in Scotland
mango, and peach and pepper contributed significantly in (Aubrey, Allison, 2013) [23]. Many types of cheddar are
increasing ß-cryptoxanthin and ß-carotene concentrations of produced in both white and red (orange) varieties, with the
foods. Besides being used as colorants, carotenes are also latter being more popular despite the only difference between
used for nutritional purposes as provitamin-A agents as in the two being the presence of annatto as a colouring. That
margarine where they also provide color or as dietary practice has extended to many modern processed cheese
supplements. products, such as American cheese and Velveeta.
7.3 Lycopene (C40H56) Annatto condiments and colorants are safe for most people
It is found in plants containing carotene, usually at a very low when used in food amounts, but they may cause allergic
(sometimes undetectable) concentration. Lycopene is an reactions in those who are sensitive (Magee Elaine, 2010). In
expensive pigment and is very prone to oxidative degradation, one 1978 study of 61 patients suffering from chronic hives or
but highly stable under a wide range of temperature and pH, angioedema, 56 patients were orally provoked by annatto
hence used as common food colorant. It is available in liquid extract during an elimination diet. A challenge was performed
form or as cold water dispersible powder. Though lycopene is with a dose equivalent to the amount used in 25 grams (0.88
found in abundance in tomatoes in large proportion, but was oz) of butter. Twenty-six percent of the patients reacted to this
also identified in about 70 plant species including red pepper, colour four hours after intake, worse than synthetic dyes such
Kapia pepper, onion, Rosa rubiginosa (rose hip), as amaranth (9%), tartrazine (11%), Sunset Yellow FCF
Taxusbaccata (yew), Calendula officinalis (marigold) and (17%), Food Red 17 (16%), Ponceau 4R (15%), erythrosine
Citrulluslanatus (watermelon) also contain lycopene at low (12%) and Brilliant Blue FCF (14%) (Mikkelsenetal.1978) as
concentration. Further, red cabbage juice and carrot has long a powerful yellow in applications such as saffron rice.
been a component of tomato blends, indicating that both 7.6 Flavonoids
contain appreciable quantities of lycopene. Orange to yellow The flavonoids are a diverse group of polyphenolic
colour of yew tree, Taxusbaccata is due to rhodoxanthin of compounds contribute to the yellow color of horticultural
xanthophylls and Rubixanthin produces yellow colour in dog products. They are widely distributed in the plant kingdom
rose, Rosa canina. and over 4000 structurally unique flavonoids have been
identified in plant sources. These are divided into six
differentmajor classes (flavonols, flavanones, flavones,
7.4 Lutein (C40H56O2) isoflavones, flavonols and anthocyanidins) based on
Marigold, (Tageteserecta) flowers are by far the most differences in molecular backbone structure. Flavonols may to
abundant natural source for commercial lutein. Lutein is fade in strong light but flavones remain more permanent but
primarily found esterified with saturated fatty acids like paler in colour. The leading representatives of flavone
lauric, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acid. Lutein is more pigments are apigenin, kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin,
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luteolin, tricin, izoramnetin. The minor flavonoids are Galium species, particularly Galiumtinctorium,
chalones - coreopsidoside and mareoside found in daisy Galiummullugo (great ladies bedstraw or Wild madder),
family, aurones-sulphuroside in fustic, daisy family, genistein Galiumverum (yellow ladies bedstraw) and Galiumaperine
in pea family, osajin and pomiferin in Osage-orange, Maclura (goosegrass or cleavers) are inferior dyes to the alizarin
pomifera. Some of the major flavanoids are: obtained from madder. Several other species are
Anchusatinctoria, Lithispermum spp. Carthamustinctoria.
7.6.1 Quercetin Indian mulberry (Morindacitrifolia) commonly known as
The richest sources of quercetin are: apples, onions, plants of Noni, also a potential yielding anthraquinones and flavonoids.
Cruciferae family, Sambucusnigra, in fact the main source of
quercetin is from quercitron, isolated from the inner bark of 7.9 Betacyanins (Betalains) (C24H26N2O13)
an oak, Quercustinctoria but it is also present in horse Betalains are obtained from the red beet (Beta vulgaris)
chestnuts, onion skins, tea and sumac, and extract that are mainly used as a food colouring agents. These
Citrulluscolocynthis. red dyes and the related group, betaxanthins (yellows) were
initially thought to be flavonoids but now it is estimated they
7.6.2 Luteolin differ from flavonoids as they contain nitrogen and do not
One of the principle compounds of yellow dye, which change colour reversibly as the anthocyanins do to pH.
produces the most vibrant and lightfast. The dye and weld or Betanin is the major component (95%) of the pigments in the
dyer‘s rocket (Reseda luteola) was cultivated for extraction of extract and have a good flavor. The beet root extract contains
luteolin in northern Europe. Its major use was the dyeing of red, yellow and also a bluish-red color pigments depending on
gold braid. The perennial plant saw-wort, Serratulatinctoria their content produced by betanin which is stable at higher pH
L. was also a yellow dye yielding plant due to the present of range than red cabbage extract. It has wide application in
ecdysteroid, luteolin and luteolin-7-O glucoside content in the different food commodity from beverages to candy and from
leaves. dairy to cattle products. Apparently, they are only present in a
7.7 Anthocyanin (C15H11O+) few plants of the Chenopodiacae besides red beet (Beta
The glycosides of anthocyanidins and are found more in vulgaris). Bixincan also be obtained from seeds of Sinduri
plants than the parent anthocyanidins, belongs to phenolic (Bixaorella Linn.), which imparts orange-yellow colour to the
substances widely distributed in vegetables, giving rise to the products. Some plants of portulaca and goosefoot families
blue–purple– red–orange color of flowers and fruits. Until also yield significant amount of betacyanins. There is no limit
now, more than 540 anthocyanin pigments have been in its upper usage level in the food products.
identified in nature, with most of the structural variation 7.10 Curcumin (C21H20O6)
coming from glycosidic substitution at the 3 and 5 positions Curcumin is bright yellow colorant can also be obtained from
and possible acylation of sugar residues with organic acids. the ground powder of the rhizomes of turmeric (Curcuma
The most common anthocyanidins are cyaniding (redpurple), longa Linn.) plant. Turmeric contains 3–5% volatile oils and
delphinidin (blue-purple), malvidin (deep purple), peonidin 2.5–6% yellow pigments, the curcuminoids, of which
(red), petunidin (purple) and pelargonidin (orange-red), and curcumin predominates. Solubility of turmeric compound
the distribution of this pigment in the horticultural plants is depends on the processing medium. Turmeric oleoresin is
not even. Some fruits contain a single type of anthocyanin water soluble; but oil extract can be added to fat based foods
(e.g. cyanidin in apple, cherry,.), some contain two major and at high pH, the extract turns orange. There is no usage
types (cyanidin and peonidin as cherry and cranberry); or restriction as long as the level conforms to Good
some with several anthocyanins giving a variety of colors like Manufacturing Practices. Indigo blue is obtained the best
red, purple, yellow and blue as in grape or raspberry or from dried leaves indigo, Indigofera spp., which contains
strawberry. Anthocyanin are used to color a number of non- glucosideindican or isatan B or Indigotin. It is soluble in
beverage foods, including gelatin desserts, fruit fillings and water and hydrolysed to indoxyl in the dyeing process.
certain confectionaries. Grape peel extract (enocianina) also Oxidation, usually by exposure to air, turns the indoxyl to
imparts a reddish purple color to beverages. indigotin (or indigo blue), which is insoluble in water, ether
7.8 Anthracenes (C40H10) and alcohol. Indigo blue is also known to be present in a small
The anthracenes contain several well-known dyes. number of plants like woad (Isatistinctoria), a Japanese
Anthraquinones are the largest group of quinones, best known knotweed (Polygonumtinctorium), common knotweed (P.
for their use as mordant dyes. However, their importance, as aviculare), Neriumtinctorium, and Lonchocarpuscyanescens.
with most other natural dyes, diminished with the 7.11 Paprika oleoresin (C40H56O3)
development of the synthetic dye industry. They occur in (Also known as paprika extract and oleoresin paprika) It is an
many different plants and are generally present as the oil-soluble extract from the fruits of Capsicum annuum or
glycosides in young plants. The biosynthetic pathway for Capsicum frutescens, and is primarily used as a colouring
anthraquinones is uncertain. They may be derived from and/or flavouring in food products. It is composed of
shikimic acid, mevalonic acid or polyketides. Different vegetable oil (often in the range of 97% to 98%), capsaicin,
anthraquinones are alizarin, mungistin, purpurin from Madder the main flavouring compound giving pungency in higher
family; emodin from Persian berries, kermes and lac and concentrations, and capsanthin and capsorubin, the main
Napthoquinones, e.g. juglone (walnut) and alkanin; hypericin colouring compounds (among other carotenoids) (Pérez-
(St. John‘swort). Anthraquinone dyes require mordants (metal Gálvez A, Martin HD, Sies H, Stahl W, 2003). It is much
ions complexed to the fabric to be dyed), which makes the milder than capsicum oleoresin, often containing no capsaicin
dyeing process more complicated. Other plant yielding at all. Extraction is performed by percolation with a variety of
anthraquinone red dyes are madder including Indian madder solvents, primarily hexane, which are removed prior to use.
(R. Cordifolia Linn) and Naga madder (R. sikkimensis). Vegetable oil is then added to ensure a uniform color
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saturation (Jarén-Galán M, Nienaber U, Schwartz SJ Code of Federal Regulations part 73). In Europe, paprika
(1999).Foods coloured with paprika oleoresin include cheese, oleoresin (extract), and the compounds capsanthin and
orange juice, spice mixtures, sauces, sweets and emulsified capsorubin are designated by E160c.
processed meats. In poultry feed, it is used to deepen the
colour of egg yolks. In the United States, paprika oleoresin is Names and CAS nos.
listed as a color additive “exempt from certification” (Title 21
Table 1: Names and CAS Numbers of Capsaicin, Capsanthin, Capsorubin
Trival Name Preferred Name Auto Nomenclature Name Case No.
8-Methyl-N-vanillyl-trans-6-
Capsaicin (E)-8-Methyl-non-6-enoic acid 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzylamide 404-86-4
nonenamide
(2E,4E,6E,8E,10E,12E,14E,16E,18E)-19-((R)-4-Hydroxy-2,6,6-
(all-E,3R,3'S,5'R)-3,3'-dihydroxy- trimethyl-cyclohex-1-enyl)-1-((1R,4S)-4-hydroxy-1,2,2-
Capsanthin 465-42-9
β,κ-caroten-6'-one trimethylcyclopentyl)-4,8,13,17-tetramethyl-nonadeca-
2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18-nonaen-1-one
(2E,4E,6E,8E,10E,12E,14E,16E,18E)-1,20-Bis-((1R,4S)-4-
(all-E,3S,3'S,5R,5'R)-3,3'-
Capsorubin hydroxy-1,2,2-trimethyl-cyclopentyl)-4,8,13,17-tetramethyl-icosa 470-38-2
dihydroxy-κ,κ-carotene-6,6'-dione
2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18-nonaene-1,20-dione

7.12 Chlorophyll (C55H72O5N4) yielding a yellow–brown pigment (pheophytin). It is used in

The green pigment utilized by all higher plants for jam, jelly, candy, ice cream and in several other products, but
photosynthesis. The name derives from the Greek words for chlorophyll finds limited use as a colorant because of the
green and leaf (compare to xanthophyll). Chlorophyll is a lability of the coordinated magnesium and the associated
cyclic tetrapyrrole with coordinated magnesium in the center. color change. Chlorophyll is extracted from edible plants,
In plants, there are two forms of chlorophyll (a and b) which nettle, grass, or alfalfa, silkworm droppings and mulberry
only differ in the substitution of the tetrapyrrole ring. The leaves.
oleoresin thus obtained typically contains 10–20%
chlorophyll and some carotenoids (mainly lutein and ß- 8.1. The structures of chlorophylls are summarized below
carotene), which are co-extracted by the organic solvents,
Table 2: Structures of Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Chlorophyll c1 Chlorophyll c2 Chlorophyll d Chlorophyll f
Molecular
C55H72O5N4Mg C55H70O6N4Mg C35H30O5N4Mg C35H28O5N4Mg C54H70O6N4Mg C55H70O6N4Mg
formula
C2 group -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CHO
C3 group -CH=CH2 -CH=CH2 -CH=CH2 -CH=CH2 -CHO -CH=CH2
C7 group -CH3 -CHO -CH3 -CH3 -CH3 -CH3
C8 group -CH2CH3 -CH2CH3 -CH2CH3 -CH=CH2 -CH2CH3 -CH2CH3
-CH2CH2COO- -CH2CH2COO-
C17 group -CH2CH2COO-Phytyl -CH2CH2COO-Phytyl -CH=CHCOOH -CH=CHCOOH
Phytyl Phytyl
C17-C18 bond Single(chlorin) Single(chlorin) Double(porphyrin) Double(porphyrin) Single(chlorin) Single(chlorin)
Occurrence Universal Mostly plants Various algae Various algae Cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria

8.2 Culinary use browning and the different methods that can be employed to
Chlorophyll is registered as a food additive (colorant), and its maximize this inhibition and ultimately prolong the shelf life
E number is E140. Chefs use chlorophyll to colour a variety of food (Kaanane, A.; Labuza, T. P., 1989).
of foods and beverages green, such as pasta and absinthe
(Adams, Jad, 2004). Chlorophyll is not soluble in water, and it 9.1.1 Enzymatic browning
is first mixed with a small quantity of vegetable oil to obtain Enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions
the desired solution. that takes place in most fruits and vegetables as well as in
seafood. These processes affect the taste, colour, and value of
9. Food browning such foods (Holderbaum Daniel, 2010) [56]. Generally, it is a
9.1 Browning chemical reaction involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol
It is the process of food turning brown due to the chemical oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and
reactions that take place within. The process of food browning benzoquinone from natural phenols. Enzymatic browning
is one of the most important reactions that take place in food (also called oxidation of foods) requires exposure to oxygen.
chemistry and represents an interesting research topic It begins with the oxidation of phenols by polyphenol oxidase
regarding health, nutrition, and food technology. Though into quinones, whose strong electrophilic state causes high
there are many different ways food chemically changes over susceptibility to a nucleophilic attack from other proteins
time, browning in particular falls into 2 main categories: (Macheix, J. J., et al., 1991). These quinones are then
enzymatic and non-enzymatic processes. The browning polymerized in a series of reactions, eventually resulting in
process of foods may yield desirable or undesirable results, the formation of brown pigments (melanosis) on the surface
depending on the type of food (Kaanane, A, Labuza, T. P., of the food (Nicolas, J. J., et al., 1994). The rate of enzymatic
1989) [62]. Browning has many important implications on the browning is reflected by the amount of active polyphenol
food industry relating to nutrition, technology, and economic oxidases present in the food. Hence most research
cost (Corzo-Martínez, et al., 2012) [36]. Researchers are investigating methods to inhibit enzymatic browning has
especially interested in studying the control (inhibition) of focused on hindering polyphenol oxidase activity. However,
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not all browning of food produces negative effects (Corzo- nutritional value of foods, causing huge economic loss when
Martínez, et al., 2012) [36]. not sold to consumers on time (Corzo-Martínez, et al., 2012)
 Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning: [36]
. It is estimated that more than 50% of produce is lost as a
 Developing colour and flavour in Coffee, Cocoa beans, result of enzymatic browning (Kaanane, A.; Labuza, T. P.,
and tea (He Quiang, 2008). 1989) The increase in human population and consequential
 Developing colour and flavour in dried fruit such as depletion in our natural resources has prompted many
raisins. biochemists and food engineers alike to find new and
 Examples of non-beneficial enzymatic browning: improved techniques to preserve food longer, by using
 Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, methods to inhibit the browning reaction, and effectively
bananas and avocados. increase the shelf life of foods. A better understanding of the
 Polyphenols oxidases, is the major reaction in the enzymatic browning mechanisms, specifically, understanding
formation of Melanosis in crustaceans such as shrimp the properties of the enzymes and substratesthat are involved
(Nirmal, et al., 2015) [92]. in the reaction, may help food technologists to control certain
stages in the mechanism and inhibit browning. Apples are
9.1.2 Non-enzymatic browning fruits commonly studied by researchers due to their high
The second type of browning, non-enzymatic browning is a phenolic content, which make them highly susceptible to
process that also produces the brown pigmentation in foods, enzymatic browning. In accordance with other findings
but without the activity of enzymes. The two main forms of regarding apples and browning activity, a correlation has been
non-enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard found between high phenolic amount and enzymatic activity
reaction. Both vary in the reaction rate as a function of water of apples. This provides a hope for food industries in an effort
activity (in food chemistry, the standard state of water activity to genetically modify foods to decrease polyphenol oxidase
is most often defined as the partial vapour pressure of pure activity and thus decrease browning. An example of such
water at the same temperature. Caramelization is a process accomplishments in food engineering is in the production of
involving the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in Arctic Apples. These apples, engineered by Okanagan
cooking for the desired nutty flavour and brown colour. As Specialty Fruits Inc, are a result of gene splicing, a technique
the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing that has allowed for the reduction in polyphenol oxidase
the characteristic caramel flavour. (Holderbaum Daniel, 2010) [56].
The other non-enzymatic reaction is the Maillard reaction. Another type of issue that is closely studied is the browning
This reaction is responsible for the production of the flavour of seafood. Seafood, in particular shrimp, is a delicacy
when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo consumed by people all over the world. The browning of
Maillard reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a shrimp which is actually referred to as Melanosis, creates a
chemical reaction that takes place between the amine group of great concern for food handlers and consumers. Melanosis
a free amino acid and the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar mainly occurs during post-mortem handling and refrigerated
(Corzo-Martínez, et al., 2012) [36], usually with the addition of storage. Recent studies have found a plant extract that acts as
heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a an anti-melatonin polyphenol oxidase inhibitor and serves the
variety of odours and flavours. The Maillard reaction is the same function as sulphites but without the health risks
basis for producing artificial flavours for processed foods in (Nirmal, et al. 2015) [92].
the flavouring industry (Tamanna, Nahid, 2015), since the
type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavour. 10. Natural colors derived from microorganisms
Melanoidins are brown, high molecular weight heterogeneous 10.1 Zeaxanthin (C40H5602)
polymers that are formed when sugars and amino acids Zeaxanthin is one of the most common carotenoid alcohols
combine through the Maillard reaction at high temperatures found in nature. It is important in the xanthophyll cycle.
and low water activity. Melanoidins are commonly present in Synthesized in plants and some micro-organisms, it is the
foods that have undergone some form of non-enzymatic pigment that gives paprika (made from bell peppers), corn,
browning, such as barley malts (Vienna and Munich), bread saffron, wolfberries, and many other plants and microbes their
crust, bakery products and coffee. They are also present in the characteristic colour (Linus Pauling Institute, 2014).
wastewater of sugar refineries, necessitating treatment in Xanthophylls such as zeaxanthin are found in highest quantity
order to avoid contamination around the outflow of these in the leaves of most green plants, where they act to modulate
refineries. light energy and perhaps serve as a non-photochemical
quenching agent to deal with triplet chlorophyll (an excited
9.1.2.1 Browning of grapes during winemaking form of chlorophyll) which is overproduced at high light
Like most fruit, grapes vary in the amount of phenolic levels during photosynthesis. Animals derive zeaxanthin from
compounds they have. This characteristic is used as a a plant diet. Zeaxanthin is one of the two primary xanthophyll
parameter in judging the quality of wine. The general process carotenoids contained within the retina of the eye. Within the
of winemaking is initiated by the enzymatic oxidation of central macula, zeaxanthin is the dominant component,
phenolic compounds by polyphenol oxidases. Contact whereas in the peripheral retina, lutein predominates.
between the phenolic compounds in the vacuole of the grape Zeaxanthin supplements are typically taken on the supposition
cell and the Polyphenol oxidaseenzyme (located in the of supporting eye health. Although there are no reported side
cytoplasm) triggers the oxidation of the grape. Thus, the effects from taking zeaxanthin supplements, this possible
initial browning of grapes occurs as a result of benefit remains scientifically unproven, despite extensive
"compartmentalization modification" in the cells of the grape ongoing research to define dietary or supplemental effects of
(Macheix, J. J.; et al, 1991). zeaxanthin and lutein (Koo E., et al. 2014). As a food
additive, zeaxanthin is a food dye with E number E161h.
9.2 Implications in food industry and technology
Enzymatic browning affects the colour, flavour, and 10.2 Staphylococcus aureus
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Staphylococcus aureus (also known as golden staph) is a Administration have approved astaxanthin as a food colouring
Gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of (or colour additive) for specific uses in animal and fish foods.
the Firmicutes, and it is a member of the normal flora of the The European Commission considers it food dye and it is
body, frequently found in the nose, respiratory tract, and on given the E number E161j (E-numbers: E100- E200 Food
the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction Colours). Plant-derived astaxanthin is generally recognized as
and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need safe (GRAS) by the FDA, meaning it can be sold as a dietary
for oxygen. (Masalha M., et al. 2001) [79]. supplement, but as a food colouring in the United States, it is
restricted to use in animal food.
10.2.1 Staphylococcal pigments
Some strains of S. aureus are capable of producing 10.5 Lycopene (C40H56)
staphyloxanthin - a golden-coloured carotenoid pigment. This In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the
pigment acts as a virulence factor, primarily by being a production of natural carotenoids by microbial fermentation.
bacterial antioxidant which helps the microbe evade the Compared to chemical methods, microbial production of
reactive oxygen species which the host immune system uses carotenoids is an environmentally friendly method and is
to kill pathogens (Clauditz A, et al., 2006; Liu GY, et al. expected to meet the increasing demand for natural
2005) [64]. Mutant strains of S. aureus modified to lack carotenoids. Carotenogenic microbes comprise a wide variety
staphyloxanthin are less likely to survive incubation with an of microbes including halo-tolerant fresh water algae,
oxidizing chemical, such as hydrogen peroxide, than photosynthetic and phototropic bacteria, asporogenous yeasts
pigmented strains. Mutant colonies are quickly killed when and fungi. Among these microorganisms, Dunallielasalina,
exposed to human neutrophils, while many of the pigmented Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (formerly named
colonies survive. In mice, the pigmented strains cause Phaffiarho-dozyma), Haematococcuspluvialis and
lingering abscesses when inoculated into wounds, whereas Blakesleatrispora have been considered for production on a
wounds infected with the unpigmented strains quickly heal. large scale (25,000 L) (Frengova and Beshkova, 2009).
These tests suggest the Staphylococcus strains use
staphyloxanthin as a defence against the normal human 10.6 Monascus purpureus
immune system. Drugs designed to inhibit the production of Monascuspurpureus (syn. M. albidus, M. anka, M. araneosus,
staphyloxanthin may weaken the bacterium and renew its M. major, M. rubiginosus, and M. vini) is a species of mold
susceptibility to antibiotics. (Liu GY, et al. 2005). In fact, that is purplish-red in color. It is also known by the names
because of similarities in the pathways for biosynthesis of ang-khak rice mold, corn silage mold, maize silage mold, and
staphyloxanthin and human cholesterol, a drug developed in rice kernel discoloration.
the context of cholesterol-lowering therapy was shown to This fungus is most important because of its use, in the form
block S.aureus pigmentation and disease progression in a of red yeast rice, in the production of certain fermented foods
mouse infection model. (Liu CI, et al. 2008). in China. However, discoveries of cholesterol-lowering statins
produced by the mold have prompted research into its
10.3 Prodigiosin (C20H25N30) possible medical uses. It produces a number of statins. The
Prodigiosin is the red pigment produced by many strains of naturally occurring lovastatins and analogs are called
the bacterium Serratiamarcescens, (Bennett JW, Bentley R, monacolins K, L, J, and also occur in their hydroxyl acid
2000) [67]. Other Gram-negative, gamma proteobacteria such forms along with dehydroxymonacolin and compactin
as Vibrio psychroerythrus and Hahella Chejuensis. It is in a (mevastatin). The prescription drug lovastatin, identical to
family of compounds termed "prodiginines", which are monacolin K, is the principal statin produced by M.
produced in some Gram-negative gamma proteobacteria, as purpureus. Only the open-ring (hydroxy acid) form is
well as select Gram-positive Actinobacteria (e.g. pharmacologically active.
Streptomycescoelicolor). The name "prodigiosin" is derived
from "prodigious" (i.e. something marvelous) (Williamson 10.7 Phycocyanin (C16H185N20O30)
NR, et al. 2006). Phycocyanin is a pigment-protein complex from the light-
harvesting phycobiliprotein family, along with
10.4 Astaxanthin (C40H5204) allophycocyanin and phycoerythrin (Glazer AN, 1989). It is
Astaxanthin is a keto-carotenoid (Margalith, P. Z., 1999; an accessory pigment to chlorophyll. All phycobiliproteins are
Choi, Seyoung; Koo, Sangho, 2005). It belongs to a larger water-soluble, so they cannot exist within the membrane like
class of chemical compounds known as terpenes (as a carotenoids can. Instead, phycobiliproteins aggregate to form
tetraterpenoid) built from five carbon precursors, clusters that adhere to the membrane called phycobilisomes.
isopentenyldiphosphate, and dimethylallyldiphosphate. Phycocyanin is a characteristic light blue colour, absorbing
Astaxanthin is classified as a xanthophyll (originally derived orange and red light, particularly near 620 nm (depending on
from a word meaning "yellow leaves" since yellow plant leaf which specific type it is), and emits fluorescence at about 650
pigments were the first recognized of the xanthophyll family nm (also depending on which type it is). Allophycocyanin
of carotenoids), but currently employed to describe carotenoid absorbs and emits at longer wavelengths than phycocyanin C
compounds that have oxygen-containing components, or phycocyanin R. Phycocyanins are found in Cyanobacteria
hydroxyl (-OH) or ketone (C=O), such as zeaxanthin and (also called blue-green algae). Phycobiliproteins have
canthaxanthin. Indeed, astaxanthin is a metabolite of fluorescent properties that are used in immunoassay kits.
zeaxanthin and/or canthaxanthin, containing both hydroxyl Phycocyanin is from the Greek phyco meaning “algae” and
and ketone functional groups. cyanin is from the English word “cyan", which conventionally
Astaxanthin can also be used as a dietary supplement intended means a shade of blue-green (close to "aqua") and is derived
for human, animal, and aquaculture consumption. The from the Greek “kyanos" which means a somewhat different
industrial production of astaxanthin comes from plant- or colour: "dark blue". The product phycocyanin, produced by
animal-based and synthetic sources. The U.S. Food and Drug Aphanizomenonflos-aquae and Spirulina, is for example used
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in the food and beverage industry as the natural coloring agent lagoons to intensive cultivation at high cell densities under
'Lina Blue' or 'EXBERRY Shade Blue' and is found in sweets carefully controlled conditions. (Mercadante, A.Z., et al.
and ice cream. In addition, fluorescence detection of 1999).
phycocyanin pigments in water samples is a useful method to
monitor cyanobacteria biomass (Brient L, et al. 2008). 10.10 Torularhodin (C40H52O2)
Phycocyanin can be used in many practices; it is particularly Carotenoids represent a group of valuable molecules for the
used medicine and foods applications. It can also be used in pharmaceutical, chemical, food and feed industries, not only
genetics, where it acts a tracer due to its natural fluorescence. because they can act as vitamin A precursors, but also for
their colouring, antioxidant and possible tumor-inhibiting
10.7.1 Phycocyanin in Food activity. Animals cannot synthesize carotenoids, and these
C-phycocyanin (C-PC) can be used as a natural blue food pigments must therefore be added to the feeds of farmed
colouring. This food colourant can only be used for low species. The synthesis of different natural commercially
temperature prepared goods because of its inability to important carotenoids (beta-carotene, torulene, torularhodin
maintaining its blue colouring in high heats unless there is an and astaxanthin) by several yeast species belonging to the
addition of preservatives or sugars. The type of sugar is genera Rhodotorula and Phaffia has led to consider these
irrelevant; C-PC is stable when there is high sugar content. microorganisms as a potential pigment sources. In this review,
Knowing so, C-PC can be used for numerous types of foods, we discuss the biosynthesis, factors affecting carotenogenesis
one of which being syrups. C-PC can be used for syrups in Rhodotorula and Phaffia strains, strategies for improving
ranging from green to blue colours. It can have different green the production properties of the strains and directions for
tints by adding yellow food colouring (Martelli G, et al. potential utility of carotenoid-synthesizing yeast as an
2014). alternative source of natural carotenoid pigments. (Sperstad S,
et al., 2006).
10.8 Beta-carotene (C40H56)
β-Carotene is an organic, strongly coloured red-orange 10.11 Canthaxanthin (C40H52O2)
pigment abundant in plants and fruits. It is a member of the Canthaxanthin is a keto-carotenoid (Seyoung Choi and
carotenes, which are terpenoids (isoprenoids), synthesized Sangho Koo, 2005) pigment widely distributed in nature.
biochemically from eight isoprene units and thus having 40 Carotenoids belong to a larger class of phytochemicals known
carbons. Among the carotenes, β-carotene is distinguished by as terpenoids. The chemical formula of canthaxanthin is
having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. β-Carotene is C40H52O2 was first isolated in edible mushrooms. It has also
biosynthesized from geranylpyrophosphate (Susan D. Van been found in green algae, bacteria, crustaceans, and
Arnum, 1998). β-Carotene is the most common form of bioaccumulates in fish such as carp, golden mullet, seabream
carotene in plants. When used as a food coloring, it has the E and trush wrasse. Canthaxanthin is associated with E number
number E160a (Milne et al., 2008). In nature, β-carotene is a E-161g and is approved for use as a food colouring agent in
precursor (inactive form) to vitamin A via the action of beta- different countries, including the United States and the EU;
carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase (Susan D. Van Arnum, however, it is not approved for use in Australia and New
1998). Isolation of β-carotene from fruits abundant in Zealand. It is generally authorized for feed applications in at
carotenoids is commonly done using column chromatography. least the following countries: US, Canada, EU. In the EU,
It can also be extracted from the beta-carotene rich algae, canthaxanthin is allowed by law to be added to trout feed,
Dunaliellasalina. (Rudolf Rüegg, 1984). The separation of β- salmon feed and poultry feed. The European Union limit is 80
carotene from the mixture of other carotenoids is based on the mg/kg of feedstuffs, 8 mg/kg in feed for egg laying hens and
polarity of a compound. β-Carotene is a non-polar compound, 25 mg/kg in feed for other poultry and
so it is separated with a non-polar solvent such as hexane. salmonids.Canthaxanthin is a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant.
(Mercadante, A.Z., et al. 1999). Being highly conjugated, it is (Surai, P.F., 2012) [112]. The biological functions of
deeply coloured, and as a hydrocarbon lacking functional canthaxanthin are related, at least in part, to its ability to
groups, it is very lipophilic. function as an antioxidant (free radical scavenging/vitamin E
sparing) in animal tissues. (Surai, A.P. et al., 2003) [113].
10.9 Dunaliella salina
Dunaliellasalina is a type of halophile green micro-algae 11. Market scenario of biocolorants
especially found in sea salt fields. Known for its antioxidant Natural colors lost their appeal with the synthetic colors
activity because of its ability to create large amount of arrived on the scene, as they provide less consistency, heat
carotenoids, it is used in cosmetics and dietary supplements. stability and color range than their chemical alternatives. The
Few organisms can survive like D. salina does in such highly market for natural carotenes has declined since the
saline conditions as salt evaporation ponds. To survive, these introduction of synthetic colour. Moreover, natural colors are
organisms have high concentrations of β-carotene to protect more expensive and unstable in nature. The leading markets
against the intense light, and high concentrations of glycerol for natural colours in the EU are the UK, Germany, France,
to provide protection against osmotic pressure. This offers an Italy and Spain. Recently, there is also a growing market in
opportunity for commercial biological production of these emerging economy countries like China, India and South
substances. Korea demand for natural colours is increasing day-by-day
From a first pilot plant for D. salina cultivation for β-carotene because of the following reasons:
production established in the USSR in 1966, the commercial 1. Increasing demand for natural food in comparison to
cultivation of D. salina for the production of β-carotene synthetic one.
throughout the world is now one of the success stories of 2. Health-promoting properties of bio-colorant food.
halophile biotechnology. (Susan D. Van Arnum, 1998) [78]; 3. Natural colours have been the consumer priority.
Milne, George W. A., 2005; P. Karrer, et al., 1930). Different 4. Low-fat content is the objective for many new or
technologies are used, from low-tech extensive cultivation in improved food formulations, replacing fats with
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thickeners or other food additives. fermentation. Finally, new bio-colorants would have to be
5. Increased consumer preferences for organic food. approved by the authorities, which are very costly because of
6. Variety and internationalisation of food colour and the various toxicological studies needed to confirm the safety
flavours. and also the economics of a new food additive.
The market for natural food colours is estimated to increase
by approximately 10% annually. Many of the raw materials 13. References
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in freshwater bodies. Journal of Environmental Monitoring.
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The earth is bestowed with plants containing a wide range of 10. European Union Register of Feed Additives, Revision 162
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