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Introduction to Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The six interdisciplinary core
branches of linguistics are as follows:
Phonetics Phonology
Phonetics: The scientific study of the Phonology: The scientific study of sound
sounds of human language, including the patterns in a particular language. It helps in
place and manner of articulation. understanding pronunciation

Phoneme: Any of the perceptually distinct Allophone: A phonetic variation or different

units of sound in a specific language that pronunciation of the same sound. For
differentiate one word from another. For example, the "l" sound in "love" and "wool"
example, the "p" sound in "tap" separates are allophones of the same phoneme "l".
it from "tat" and "tag".
Allophonic representation: /kh/
Phonetic representation: /k/

Morphology Syntax
Syntax: The scientific study of sentence
Morphology: The scientific study of structure in a language.
word structure in a language.
English sentence structure: Subject-Verb-
Morpheme: The smallest meaningful unit Object (SVO).
of grammar that cannot be broken down e.g. Ali reads a book.
into smaller words. Morphology + Syntax = Grammar

Free morpheme: A root or base word

that can stand alone and cannot be broken
down into a smaller morpheme. For Grapheme: The smallest functional unit of a
example, the word "dog" is a free written system.
morpheme.
Types of free morphemes:
Lexical: Can stand independently, like the
word “dog”.
Grammatical / Functional morphemes:
Conjunctions, determiners, and
prepositions are grammatical morphemes.

Bound morpheme: Cannot stand alone;

usually, suffixes and prefixes are bound
morphemes. For example, in "pens," "s"
is a bound morpheme.

 Derivational morphemes:
Suffixes and prefixes that create
new words.

Inflectional morphemes: Added to the

end of a word to change its grammatical
status without changing its meaning, for
example, "singing," where "ing" is an
inflectional morphem

Types of word structure:

Simple: One free morpheme (e.g., "dog").

Compound: Two free morphemes (e.g.,
"sunshine").
Complex: Combination of free
morpheme + bound morpheme (e.g.,
"unhealthy").

Semantics Pragmatics
Semantics: The scientific study of Pragmatics: The scientific study of
meaning in language. meaning in context. It implies meaning and
helps in understanding conversational
Application of semantics: Lexicography, strategies
the art of writing dictionaries.

Types of meaning:

Connotative: Figurative meaning of a

word, such as a red rose representing love
Denotative: Literal or dictionary meanings
of a word. For example, a red rose
represents a shrub with red flowers.
Relationships of meanings:

Synonyms: Similar meaning (e.g.,

"passion" - "enthusiastic").
Antonyms: Opposite meaning (e.g.,
"good" - "bad").
Hyponyms: Specific-to-general relation;
for example, pigeon, sparrow, and seagull
are hyponyms of “bird”.
Metonymy: One word is substituted with
another in a particular context to convey
the same meaning. For example, “The pen
is mightier than the sword,” where “sword”
represents military aggression.
Oxymoron: Contradictory terms are used
to create meaning (e.g., “deafening
silence”).

Branches of Linguistics
 Computational linguistics: Application of computer science to the analysis
and comprehension of written and spoken language.
 Neurolinguistics: The study of how the brain processes and produces
language, and the connection between the brain and language.
 Anthropological linguistics: Examines how language is used in everyday life
and its integration into various cultures worldwide.
 Applied linguistics: Concerned with practical applications of language
studies, such as language teaching, translation, and speech therapy.
 Sociolinguistics: Studies sociological aspects of language, including
regional, class, and occupational dialects.
 Psycholinguistics: Examines the relationship between language and the
mind, focusing on four basic aspects: language comprehension, acquisition,
and production.
 Stylistics: studies how author has conveyed style and how reader interpret
this style
Roots of linguistics
The origin of linguistics has located in the literate civilization of
Mesopotamia , north India, Egypt and China. It was in India that was one of
the earliest of the great traditions linguistic scholarship was leading to
Panini’s grammar of Sanskrit in the first millennium BC. At much the same
time , the Greeks embarked on the codification of their languages in a long
series of works culminating in Techne grammatike of Dionysius Tharax.
Enlightenment encouraged vernacular grammar, providing for the need of
increasingly literate society. The Latin grammar had been designed to teach
the subject as a foreign language , therefore, they adopted normative
approach. The unthinking transfer of this prescriptivism to the teaching of
mother tongue , resulted in forming Latin based grammar school which
tarnished the reputation of traditional grammar. Need for Improving
pedagogy was onebmotivation for the reorientation of linguistic subject in
Europe in the first half of 19th century. At that time, the focus of Sanskrit
scholars was on purely linguistic traditions.
 Carl Linnaeus ( 1707-1778) : was swedish botanist whose plant world
classification had largely impressed the 18th century and geology also
provide appropriate model to language.
 Language was subject to the kind of general laws that were the hallmark of
natural sciences . These arguments led to the foundation of young science
( Philology) . The investigation of notion such as ‘ language families ‘ was
influenced by Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859.
 Junggrammatiker ( Neogrammarian) ( 1870) : claimed that their
scientific approach convinced nobody. The sound change laws were not
particularly scientific in nature unless they could focus at generalisations
that were watertight and exceptionless. In addition to this ,linguistic
evidence should be taken from spoken version, not merely written, and
suitable informant could be from non standard dialect whose speech was not
corrupted with standard education. This notion positively described by
 Ferdinand de Sassure in an opening chapter of “ Cours de linguistique
generale”that language should not be seen as an organism of its own accord
but as a product of collective linguistic community. His lectures transformed
19th century comparative and historical philology into 20th century
contemporary linguistics . In this way, Sassure became founder father of
modren linguistics.
Development of Modren Linguistics
Phase 1: The emergence of modren linguistics (1911-1922)
 European linguist ( focus on theory)
 It was founded by the modren philologist Ferdinand de Sassure. Reasons
behind transformation of philology into linguistics are following
1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language for itd own sake
2. Spoken language is the primary source of linguistic study
3. Linguistics is an autonomous discipline
4. Synchronic study of language at specific given point of time take
precedence over diachronic study ( historical study)
 American linguist ( focus on practical)
1. Franz Boas : he was an anthropologist who had considered language
as a separate discipline from culture. His approach, often called the
“Boasian method,” involved gathering data directly from native
speakers and prioritizing their perspectives on their language’s
structure and meaning.
2. Bloomfield ( structural approach ) :He argued that languages
could be analyzed as structured systems of sounds, words, and
syntax, with each element serving a functional role.
“ language as a system of habits”
3. Edward Sapir:In Language (1921), Edward Sapir emphasized form
and function as key to understanding language. Form refers to the
structural elements of language, such as sounds, words, and grammar
rules, which give language its shape. Function is the communicative
purpose behind language, like expressing ideas, emotions, or social
relationships.
4. According to Edward Sapir, linguistic form can be studied
independently of its function, meaning that the structure of language
 (its sounds, grammar, and syntax) can be analyzed without
immediately referencing the communicative purposes these elements
serve
 The Linguistic Society of America 1924
 The Prague Linguistic Circle ( Roman Jakobson and Prince Nikolai
Turbetzkoy 926
British linguist ( phonetics, dialectology, Lexicography)
1. Henry Sweet: A Handbook of Phonetics and An Anglo-Saxon Primer,
which laid the groundwork for modern linguistic study. He introduced
IPA. He avoided term like ‘ linguistics “ at that time using term like “
living philology.
2. Harold Palmer ,Ogden and Malinowski all of them didn’t use term
like “linguistics “ in term of language evolution
Phase 2 : A time of transition ( 1925- 1960)
 In America, structural linguistics or descriptive linguistics grew in size
during inter war period but suddenly it lost its leadership in 1940 before
Chomsky’s transformational Grammar ,leading to the start of transition
period.
 Linguistic Circle of Prague 1926: focused on phonology and functional
interpretation of Linguistics.
 Hjemselv’ s theoretical framework glossmatics published in Copenhagen in
1943, according to which language is a system of signs that are based on
structural forms rather than only depending on word’ meaning.
 Malinowski: focus was on social function of sentences , now phonetics is
separated from linguistics with contribution of Malinowski in London .
 J .R Firth 1940 : combine micro traditions like Phonetics/ Phonology with
Malinowski’s functional approach.
 M.A K Holliday: social semiotic ( union of forms and functions in social
context).
 Applied linguistics 1950
 Post- Bloomfieldians : Bernard Bloch, Charles F. Hockett and Zellig Harris
Phase 3:Expansion and Diversification of Linguistics 1960
  Functionalist approach (not idealise the language ): European: Sassure,
Prague School, Terbetzkoy , London School, Firth M.AK Halliday , Edward
Sapir ,
 Genrativism ( idealise the language): Boas, Sapir , Bloomfield, The
Linguistic Society of America, Post Bloomfieldians , Harris ,Noam
Chomsky
Modren Trends in Linguistics ( Three main stream)
Functionalism: Function of language
Structuralism : Sassure : sign, signifier,signified , parole,langue , pyradigmatic
and syntagmatic relations,
American Structuralism:
Boas: phonemic principal( every single language has definite and limited
group of sounds
Sapir : Whorf hypothesis
Genrativism : TGG, kernel sentences, phrase structure rule , transformational
rule, deep -surface structures, X-bar , principle, parameters, minimalist
program- universal grammar, competence, performance