PACS 321: Internal Conflict and

Violence
Topic 1
 Topic 1
Understanding Internal Conflict: Conceptual
Issues
• What is Internal Conflict?
• Michael E. Brown defines ‘internal conflict’ as “violent or potentially
violent political disputes whose origins can be traced primarily to
domestic rather than systematic factors, and where armed violence takes
place or threatens to take place primarily within the borders of a single
state.

• Examples of internal conflict, according to Brown (1996), include violent

power struggles involving civilian or military leaders; armed ethnic
conflicts and secessionist campaigns; challenges by criminal organizations
to state sovereignty; armed ideological struggles; ad revolutions.

• Simply, ‘internal conflict’ means any violent or potentially violent conflict

that takes place within the boundary of a particular state/country.
 Causes of Internal Conflict
• Michael Brown has explained the causes of internal conflict in terms of the
following factors that affect/cause internal conflict:

• Structural Factors
• 1. Weak states
• 2. Intra-state security concerns
• 3. Ethnic geography

• Political Factors
• 1. Discriminatory political institutions
• 2. Exclusionary national ideologies
• 3. Inter-group politics
• 4. Elite politics
 Causes of Internal Conflict (Cont.)
• Economic/Social Factors
• 1. Economic problems
• 2. Discriminatory economic systems
• 3. Modernization

• Cultural/Perceptual Factors
• 1. Patterns of cultural discrimination
• 2. Problematic group histories
 Structural Factors
1. Weak States
• Weak state structures are viewed as starting point for analysis of internal
conflict. Some states are born free. Some states are born weak. Many of
the Asian and African countries are weak, because they inherited weak
structures from their colonial masters.
• Weak states generally lack political legitimacy, politically sensible borders ,
and political institutions capable f exercising meaningful control over the
territory placed under their nominal supervision.
• Weak states are highly dependent on foreign aid. Weak states often face
internal problems, such as widespread corruption, administrative
incompetence, and an inability to promote economic development.
• Violent conflicts often take place in weak states. Power-struggles between
politicians and would be leaders intensify.
• Ethic conflicts, increase of criminal organizations and their activities,
cross-border movements of militia, increase of arms, drugs, smuggled
goods, refugees, migrants are common phenomena in weak states.
Massive humanitarian problems, such as famines, epidemic as well as
widespread human rights violations often take place in weak states.
 Structural Factors (Cont.)
• 2. Intra-State Security Concerns
• When states are weak, individual groups within the states feel
compelled to provide for their own defense. In this case, they
become worried about whether other groups pose security threats.
• If the state is very weak or if t is expected to become weaker with
time, the impulses for groups to make military preparations grow.
This creates a problem, because in taking steps to defend
themselves, groups often threaten the security of others, which can
lead neighboring groups to take steps that may have diminished the
security of the first group.
• The problems like this type of security dilemma are acute when
empires or multi-ethnic states collapse and ethnic groups suddenly
have to provide for their own security.. In fact, one groups rush to
deploy defensive forces will appear threatening to other groups.
 Structural Factors (Cont.)
3. Ethnic Geography
• Ethnic geography is the third structural factor that very much causes internal conflict.
• According to Brown (1996), states with ethnic minorities are more inclined to conflict than
others, and certain kinds of ethnic demographics create more problems than others.
• Ethnically homogeneous states face fewer problems than ethnically heterogeneous states. As
of now, of more than 180 states, fewer than 20 are ethnically homogeneous, in the sense
that ethnic minorities account for less than five percent of the population.
• Examples of ethnically homogeneous states are Japan, Sweden, Poland, Hungary and Czech
Republic. However, ethnic homogeneity is no guarantee of internal harmony. Although
Somalia is the most ethnically homogeneous state sub-Saharan Africa, it has been torn apart
by clan warfare and a competition for power among local warlords.
• In some states with ethnic minorities, ethnic minorities are intermingled, while in other
states, minorities tend to live in separate provinces or regions.
• Countries with different kinds of ethnic geography are likely to experience different kinds of
internal conflicts. Countries with highly intermingled populations are less likely to face
secessionist demands/violence. On the other hand, countries with groups distributed along
regional lines are more likely to face secessionist demands/violence.
 Political Factors

Brown (1996) has identified four main political factors that have attracted
attention in the scholarly literature on internal conflict: (1) discriminatory
political institutions; (2) exclusionary national ideologies; (3)inter-group
politics; and elite politics.
1. Discriminatory Political Institutions
• Discriminatory political institutions produce internal conflict. Scholars
argue that the prospects of conflict in a country largely depend on the
type and fairness of its political system. Closed, authoritarian systems are
likely to generate considerable resentment over time, if the interests of
some ethnic groups are served while others are neglected.
• Resentment can also be made in more democratic settings if some groups
are inadequately represented in the government, the courts, the military,
the police, political parties, and other state and political institutions.
• Internal conflict is likely to occur, if oppression or violence is generally
employed by the state or if a political transition is under way.
 Political Factors (Cont.)

2. Exclusionary National Ideologies

• The intensity, degree or magnitude of internal conflict very much depends
on the nature of the prevailing national ideology in a country.
• In many countries, nationalism and citizenship are based on ethnic
distinctions, rather than on the principle of equity and social justice.
• Jack Snyder has explained two different conceptions of nationalism, such
as civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism. According to Snyder:
• Civic nationalism normally appears in well institutionalized democracies.
Ethnic nationalism, in contrast, appears spontaneously when an
institutional vacuum occurs. By its nature, nationalism based on equal and
universal citizenship rights within a territory depends on a supporting
framework of laws to guarantee those rights , as well as effective
institutions to allow citizens to voice their views. Ethnic nationalism, in
contrast, depends not on institutions, but on culture.”
• According to Brown, exclusionary national ideologies do not have to be
based on ethnicity.
 Political Factors (Cont.)

3. Inter-Group Politics
• Domestic inter-group politics in a country can give rise to internal
conflict to a significant extent.
• It is argued that the prospects for violence are great, if groups
whether they are based on political, ideological, religious, or ethnic
affinities—have ambitious objectives, strong senses of identity, and
confrontational strategies.
• Conflict is likely to occur, if objectives are incompatible, groups are
strong and determined, action is feasible, success is possible, and if
intergroup comparisons lead to competition, anxiety and fears of
being dominated.
• The creation of new groups and changes in the intergroup balance
of power can also destabilize the conflicting situation.
 Political Factors (Cont.)

4. Elite Politics
• Elite politics is viewed as an important political factor that causes
internal conflict.
• Scholars argue that the tactics employed by desperate and
opportunistic politicians in times of political and economic turmoil
deteriorate communal harmony in a country.

• According to this line of thinking, ethnic conflict is often provoked

by elite in times of political and economic trouble in order to fend
off domestic challenges. Ethnic bashing and scapegoating are tools
of the trade, and the mass media are used in partisan and
propagandistic ways that further worsen interethnic tensions. For
example, the actions of Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia and Franjo
Tudjman in Croatia are worth mentionable in this regard.
 Economic/Social Factors
• Michael E. Brown has identified three broad economic and social factors as potential sources
of internal conflict: (1) economic problems; (2) discriminatory economic systems; and (3)
economic development and modernization.

1.Economic Problems
• Brown (1996) states that most of the countries face economic problems of one kind or
another sooner or later that can contribute to internal conflict.
• Different kinds of economic problems can range from economic growth, transition from
centrally planned to market-based economic systems, unemployment, inflation, resource
competitions and so on.
• For example, In industrialized countries, economic problems can arise even if a country’s
economy is growing, if it is not growing as fast as it once was growing, or fast enough to keep
pace with societal demands.
• In Eastern Europe, former Soviet Union, some parts of Africa, and elsewhere, transition from
centrally planned to market-based economic systems have created a host of economic
problems, ranging from historically high levels of unemployment to inflation.
• Unemployment, inflation and resource competition, especially or land, can give rise to
societal frustrations and tensions, and can be the root cause for burgeoning conflict.
• Economic reform can contribute to economic problems in the short run that can create
internal conflict
 Economic/Social Factors (Cont.)
2. Discriminatory Economic Systems

• Discriminatory economic systems of a country often time cause internal

conflict and violence.
• If discriminatory economic systems prevail in a country, people are
discriminated based on class, race, ethnicity, color or religion that in turn
can generate feelings of resentment and frustration prone to generation
of violence.
• Unequal economic opportunities, unequal access to resources such as
land and capital, and vast differences in standards of living are all
elements of discriminatory economic systems that disadvantaged
members of a society will consider as unfair and illegitimate.
• For example, in Sri Lanka, Tamils have been discriminated against by the
Sinhalese majority in recent decades.
 Economic/Social Factors (Cont.)
3. Economic Development and Modernization
• Many scholars view economic development and modernization as
taproots of instability and internal conflict.
• It is believed that the process of economic development, the
advent of industrialization and the introduction of new technologies
bring about a wide variety of profound social changes: migration
and urbanization disrupt existing family and social systems and
undermine traditional political institutions; better education, higher
literacy rates, and improved access to mass media raise awareness
of where different people stand in the society.
• This process of economic development and modernization places
strain on existing social and political systems.
• This also raises economic and political expectations, and can lead to
mounting frustrations when these expectations are not fulfilled, the
end result of which is instability and disorder.
 Cultural/Perceptual Factors (Cont)

• As mentioned before, two cultural and perceptual factors have been

identified in scholarly literature as sources of internal conflict: (1) patterns of
cultural discrimination; and (2) problematic group histories.
1. Patterns of Cultural Discrimination
• Cultural discrimination against minorities can often give rise to internal
conflict and violence.
• The problems that arise from cultural discrimination include inequitable
educational opportunities, legal and political constraints on the use and
teaching of minority languages, and constraints on religious freedom.
• Draconian efforts to assimilate minority populations combined with programs
to bring large number of other ethnic groups into minority areas constitute a
for of cultural genocide.
• Aggressive forms of these policies were implemented by Joseph Stalin in the
Soviet Union in the 1930s and 1940s in the Caucasus.
• Other examples of cultural discrimination include discriminatory policies by
China in Tibet since the 1950s, cultural assimilationist policies pursued in
Bulgaria with respect to ethnic Turks, in Slovakia with respect to ethnic
Hungarians, and in Thailand with respect to members of northern and western
hill tribes.
 Cultural/Perceptual Factors (Cont.)
2. Problematic Group Histories
• Group histories and group perceptions of themselves and others can be a major cause of
internal conflict and violence.
• Many groups have legitimate ground of grievances against others for crimes of one kind or
another committed at some point in the distant or recent past.
• Some ‘ancient hatreds’ have legitimate historical bases of intrastate conflict and violence. It is
axiomatic that groups tend to whitewash and glorify their own histories, and they often
denounce their neighbors, rivals, and adversaries. For example, in 1994, the Hutu killed
800,000 Tutsi in Rwanda. The Hutu viewed the killing of Tutsi as self-defense instead of
viewing it as genocide
• Stories that are passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth become part
of a group’s lore. They often become distorted and exaggerated with time, and are treated as
received wisdom by group members.
• These ethnic mythologies are particularly problematic if rival groups have mirror images of
each other. For example, Serbs see themselves as heroic defenders of Europe and Croats as
fascist, genocidal thug. On the other hand, Croats see themselves as valiant victims of
Serbian hegemonic aggression
• When two groups in close proximity have mutually exclusive and incendiary perceptions of
each other, the slightest provocation on either side strengthens deeply held beliefs and
provides the justification for retaliatory response. Under such conditions conflict is hard to
avoid and even harder to contain once started.
 Types of Internal Conflict
• Different scholars have explained different types of internal
conflicts in different contexts or perspectives. However, the
following are some major types of internal conflict:

• 1. Anti-Regime Conflict
• 2. Ethnonationalism
• 3. Interstate Conflict
• 4. Interethnic Conflict
• 5. Decolonization
• 6. Gang War
• 7. Genocide
• 8. Ethnic Conflict
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont.)
1. Anti-Regime Conflict
• Anti-regime conflict is one of the major types of internal conflict and/or
violence.
• Any violent or potentially violent political movements or activities by
political opponents in a state/country against the rule of a government is
viewed as anti-regime conflict.
• Simply, any anti-government movement by opposition political parties
and their supporters are examples of anti-regime conflict.
• Anti-regime conflicts often take place in many third world
underdeveloped and developing countries of Asia, Africa and even South
America.
• Political mass movements by major political parties, such as AL, BNP and
their alliances to overthrow the military rule of Ershad in the 1980s and
anti-government political movements in the aftermath by major
opposition parties in Bangladesh are some of many examples of anti-
regime conflicts.
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont)
2. Ethnonationalism
• Ethnonationalism is viewed by scholars of conflict and peace studies as an
important type of intrastate conflict.
• Ethno-based nationalist movements often give rise to internal conflicts
and violence.
• This type intrastate conflict occurs when the ethnic identities of ethnic
minorities are at stakes. In many parts of the world, different ethnic
groups/communities are engaged in ethnonationalist movements/conflicts
with the ruling political parties for the protection of their ethnic identities
as well as attaining their social, political and economic rights.
• Ethnonationalism as a major form of internal/intrastate conflict takes
place, if ethnic groups demand for independence or self-autonomy.
• Examples, CHT conflict in Bangladesh, Kashmir conflict in India, Tamil
conflict in Sri Lanka and so on.
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont)
3. Interstate Conflict
• Interstate conflict is viewed as a form or type of internal conflict, because
interstate conflict produces conflict and/or violence within a country.
• Interstate conflict is a conflict/dispute and/or war between two or more
states/countries that very much affect the internal affairs of the
conflicting states/countries in which the people of the conflicting
countries are engaged in violent activities.
• For instance, after 9/11 attack on WTO and Pentagon in 2001, The US and
its allies invaded Afghanistan and staged a bloody war with the Taliban
regime. Although the Taliban government was ousted by the US military
and its allied forces, civil war has been broken out in Afghanistan between
the Taliban and US supported governments forces alongside the US-led
armies.
• Another example of interstate conflict is the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont.)
4. Interethnic Conflict
• Interethnic conflict is an important type of internal conflict. In most
of the multi-ethnic countries, interethnic conflicts and violence are
common phenomena.
• Interethnic violence is less prevalent in ethnically homogeneous
countries than multi-ethnic or ethnically heterogeneous countries.
• Examples of interethnic conflicts include the conflict between the
Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda, conflict between the tribal people and
Bengali people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and so on.
• However, many ethnically heterogeneous countries have been
successful to reduce interethnic conflict and violence through
different policies, such as cultural assimilation and intermingling of
ethnic minorities with mainstream ethnic groups.
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont.)
5. Decolonization
• Decolonization means freeing from colonization. Decolonization
also refers to the process of being independent.
• Decolonization as a type of internal conflict produces violence
during and/or after a country gets independence from a colonial
empire.
• Weak states, discriminatory political institutions, corrupt
administration and/or bureaucracy are some upshots of
decolonization.
• Many newly independent counties of Asia, Africa and South
America have experienced internal conflict and violence.
• There are also many examples of civil wars the seeds of which were
germinated/ingrained from the colonial rules.
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont.)
6. Gang War
• Gang war is a type of internal conflict, because it threatens to
internal peace and security of a country through violent and
destructive activities.
• Gang refers to a group of persons working together. Gang is also
defined as a group of persons working to unlawful or antisocial
ends.
• Gang war takes place when two or more groups are engaged in a
clash/battle/war to attain their common goals.
• Examples of gang war include the battle between law enforcement
forces and pirates/robbers, clandestine and/or terrorist attacks by
underground parties and /or terrorist groups on police stations or
military bases in a country and so on.
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont)
7. Genocide
• Genocide refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of a
racial, political, or cultural group.
• Scholars argue that genocide gives rise to internal conflict and
violence as a result of well planned, calculative and systematic
destruction of any racial, ethnic, political, cultural, or religious group
of people by dominant group(s) in a country.
• In many countries, the authoritative and/or autocratic
governments, as well as dominant ethnic or political groups have
been engaged in genocidal activities.
• Ethnic cleansing in Rwanda by the Hutu against Tutsi in 1994, mass
killing of the Croats by Serbs and of Bosnian Muslims by the Serbs
and Croats are some examples of genocide.
 Types of Internal Conflict (Cont)
• 8. Ethnic Conflict
• Ethnic conflict is one of the major types of internal conflict and
violence.
• Ethnic conflict is a mega (i.e. umbrella) type of internal conflict.
• Ethnic conflict encompasses ethnonationalism, interethnic conflict,
decolonization and genocide.
• Therefore, the CHT conflict in Bangladesh, Kashmir conflict in India,
Tamil conflict in Sri Lanka, interethnic conflict between different
ethnic groups in Nigeria, Somalia and Congo, ethnic cleansing in
Rwanda by the Hutu against Tutsi, mass killing of the Croats by
Serbs and of Bosnian Muslims by the Serbs and Croats are all
examples of ethnic conflicts.
• However, the following tables show different types of internal
conflict:
 Types of Internal Conflict in Percent, 1985-1994, and 1995-1996

Year Conflict Types

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................….
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2+4+5+7=8
Anti-regime Ethnonationalism Interstate Interethnic Decolonization Gang War Genocide Ethnic Conflict

1985-1994 19.6 44.1 11.8 13.7 4.9 3.9 2.0 64.7

1995-1996 22.5 38.8 3.8 21.3 5.0 6.3 2.5 67.5

Source: Christian P. Scherrer in Hakan Wiberg and Christian P. Scherrer (Eds). Ethnicity and Intra-State Coflict, 1999
 Distribution of Internal Conflicts According to World Region in
Percent, 1985-1994, and 1995-1996

World Region Decade(1985-1994) 2 Years (1995-1996)

Asia 42.2 33.7

Africa 29.4 45.0
Europe 14.7 7.5
Americas 13.7 13.7

Source: Christian P. Scherrer in Hakan Wiberg and Christian P. Scherrer (Eds). Ethnicity
and Intra-State Coflict, 1999