THE JETAVANA STUPA REDISCOVERED

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The third most ancient great Buddhist monastery in Sri Lanka, the Jetavanaramaya or the
Jetavana Monastery, is situated in the Nandana Pleasure Garden or Nandana Uyana, where
Arahath Mahinda preached Buddhism to 7,000 people over a period of seven days. King Mahasena
(276-303 AD), the first of the great tank builders of Sri Lanka, was the founder sponsor of this
monastery. According to the great chronicle Mahavansa, King Mahasena had tried to frustrate
the monks of the Maha Vihara by getting a separate monastery established in the premises that
had already been donated to Arahath Mahinda the founder of their school. Although King
Mahasena commenced the establishment of the Jetawana monastery, the work was completed
by his- son King Kithsirimevan (304-340 AD) and thereafter all kings who belonged to the
Anuradhapura Period continued to develop it. In 1017, the Anuradhapura kingdom fell into the
hands of the South Indian Chola Empire and the Buddhist kings established their kingdom in
Polonnaruva. In 1070, King Maha Vi.jayabahu recaptured Anuradhapura and ruled it for two
years but established his capital in Polonnaruva where the three chapters of the Buddhist Order,
the Maha Vihara, the Abhayagiriya and the Jetavanaramaya established their monasteries.
This resulted in an abandonment of the monasteries in Anuradhapura by the Buddhists. When
the South Indian invader Kalinga Magha captured Anuradhapura in 1215, all Buddhist monks
and Buddhist rulers left the city. From then started the deterioration of the Jetavana Monastery.
In 1236, King Parakramabahu II recaptured Anuradhapura and repaired the three Monasteries,
Mahavihara, Abhayagiri, and Jethawanaramaya, and that could be identified as the last phase
of the development carried out by the Sinhala kings. Although various Sinhala kings and Buddhist
devotees thereafter visited Anuradhapura, the deterioration continued for about 800·years until
the establishment-of the British rule in Sri Lanka in 1815.

THE LAYOUT OF THE MONASTERY COMPLEX

The monastery site covering about 80 hectares contains elements of thepagoda (chethiya),
the image houses (pilimage), the bo-tree shrine (bodhighara), the chapter house (uposathaghara),
the assembly hall (sannipathasala), the refectory (danasala), and the residential complexes
(pannasala). There are many residential complexes or colleges where scholars lived and many
other buildings whose purposes have not yet been identified. The main elements of the monastery
were· established around the cardinal points of the pagoda where the shrine room is situated to
the west, the refectory to the east, and the bo-tree shrine, the chapter house and the assembly hall
to the south. The residential complexes are located around the pagoda with their main entrances
· facing it.
The whole monastery complex, which used to house about 3000 monks, gradually evolved
commencing from the northern end of the site in the third century AD. The pagoda, whose
height was about 400 ft, was the third tallest building in the world at the collapse of the Roman
Empire. Keeping it as the focal point the monastery complex spread towards the north-west, the
south, and the east over a period of six centuries. The ruins visible today above the ground level
belong to the last cultural phase of the ninth and tenth centuries AD.
:,.·
PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL WORK
In the years 1828 and 1832, Major Forbes visited Anuradhapura and he reported that
during his first visit the Jetavana Pagoda had been covered with thick jungle and that during his
second visit it had been completely cleared by a Buddhist priest found injured due to the collapse
of a part of the spire during the heavy rain reported in 1829. In the survey plan drawn by Deputy
Assistant Quartermaster General Major Skinner in 1833, the height of the Pagoda was given as

125

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•• 244ft. After the establishment of the Anuradhapura District and the City of Anuradhapura as the
administrative capital, the emphasis given to the Anuradhapura ruins was increased. Sir William
Gregory, the Governor of Sri Lanka commissioned Mr. Capper, a surveyor to determine the
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I

heights and measurements of Pagodas in Anuradhapura, and since this was not completed,
Architect Ferguson appointed Mr. J. G. Smitherto prepare architectural details of the Pagodas.
After the appointment of Mr. J.F. Dickson as the Government Agent for the Anuradhapura District,
Jetavana Pagoda received the greatest attention ever experienced during the British period. Mr.
S.M.Burrows excavated the Eastern Ayakaya in 1884/85, while Mr. Fisher noted a slip in the,
western side of the Hatareskotuwa on the night of 6th December 1885. At the same time during
the visit of the new Governor Sir Arthur Gordon, it was decided to repair the summit of the
Jetavana Pagoda to preserve the remaining portion of the Spire. The work involved was to rebuild
the Hatareskotuwa using thick brick masonry on a lime concrete foundation with the completion
of the faces with a Buddhist railing pattern and a Wheel of Dhamma in the center. In this restoration
a concealed spiral staircase was built to provide access from the top of the Hatareskotuwa to the
top of the Spire. This work was completed in October 1890 using prison labour. The first
Archaeological Commissioner Mr. H.C.P. Bell, stating thatthe work had been carried out without
proper archaeological excavations, continuously objected to the work carried out in the
Hatareskotuwa. Mr.. R.W. Levers drove a tunnel through the Pagoda in 1887 on a suggestion
made by Mr. J.F. Dickson in 1884. On the z71tt December 1896, the new west face of the
Hatareskotuwa collapsed and several cracks appeared in the rest of the structure. In 1894, Architect
J. G. Smither published the documentations of the Jetavana Pagoda in which the total height was
given as 232 ft. to the point of ruin from the stone-paved platform and the diameter. of the platform
was given as 367 ft.
At the beginning of the 201h Century the confusion in the identification of the Abhayagiriya
and Jetavana Monasteries were cleared by Mr. H.C.P. Bel, and a number of important renovations
were carried out in the monastery. In 1903, Architectural Engineer F. 0. Oertel was given the task
of preparing a report on the restoration of the ancient monuments at Anuradhapura. He provided
detailed plans and estimates for the restoration of the west face of the Hatareskotuwa, which
could never be carried out, In the years 1912, 1916, 1920and 1921, the Department of Archaeology
carried out minor restoration works in the pagoda by filling and grouting the cracks and clearing
the jungle every year.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE CENTRAL CULTURAL FUND

With a Cabinet approval from the Sri Lanka Government and a recommendation by the
UNESCO, a systematic programme was launched in 1978 to excavate, conserve and display the
significant archaeological monuments and sites within a triangular area-linking the ancient capitals
of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruva and Kandy. The area was named as "the Cultural Triangle". In
1980, by Central Cultural Fund Act No. 57 of 1980, a fund called "The Central Cultural Fund"
was established to provide funds for the archaeological activities and to monitor the progress of
the Cultural Triangle Programme. The activities of the programme spread to six sites, namely,
i) Abhayagiriya Monastery, Anuradhapura
ii) Jetavana Monastery, Anuradhapura
iii) Alahana Parivena, Polonnaruva
iv) Sigiriya Water Gardens
v) Dambulla Cave Frescoes
vi) Palace Complex, Devalayas and two monasteries of Malwatta andAsgiriya in Kandy.

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 This programme emphasised the conservation of the two tallest pagodas in the country,
namely Abahayagiriya and Jetavana, through systematic archaeological and scientific
investigations and the restoring programme of the Jetavana Monastery commenced in June 1981.

WORK CARRIED OUT FROM 1981 TO 199.3

The work of the Jetavana Pagoda commenced in 1981 with the restoration of the pagoda to
its original state. The Design Group Five was appointed as the architectural consultants to the
project,. in which Architect Ashly de Vos and later Architect Tudor Sirisena acted as
Director - Conservation. The archaeological investigations and the descriptive and photographic
documentation of the findings were entrusted to Senior Lecturer Dr. Hema Ratnayake of the
University of Colombo. The contract was handed over to the State Engineering Corporation of
Sri Lanka while the Government of Japan donated all required scaffoldings, lifts, and conveyer
belts. The Director General, Dr. Roland Silva, supervised the entire work programme.
Initially, the pagoda was seen as a small mountain covered with vegetation and soil. There
were only the remains of 84 original layers of brick near the eastern ayaka and the original lime
plaster at the base where the dome met the third pesawa. To the south at a point of 120 ft. above
the base of the dome, there were remains of original bricks with the plaster. So it was decided to
commence the restorations at the base up to the 841h bricklayer while the rest is being investigated.
The remains of the four ayakas were removed for better protection and the conservation
· commenced with the laying of fare-faced wire-cut bricks. The discussions continued with regard
to the use of wire-cutbricks instead of ancient bricks. In the mean time, the State Engineering
Corporation completed the restoration of 84 bricklayers, two investigations commenced to identify
the shape and size of the pagoda and the strength and the size of the bricks to be used for the
construction of the remaining portion.
The contour survey carried out in 1983 suggested that the dome whs of parabolic shape. It
further revealed that the average size of a brick was 16" X 12" X 2", and that their crushing
strength was about 650 pounds per square inch. That led to the decision that the new bricks
should be hand-made to a size of 16" X 12" X 2" with a crushing strength of at least 600 pounds
per square inch. The State Engineering Corporation was given the task of supplying hand-made
bricks to the recommended size and strength but it failed, and the contract was candled on
mutual understanding that the Central Cultural Fund had not been able to come to a conclusion
about the final appearance of the dome.
Although the work of the dome stopped at the stone-paved terrace, salapathalamaluwa, at
the outer wall, that at the four gateways and the �our flights of steps continued. The excavations
at the base of the three basal terraces, pesawas, revealed that the foundation of the pagoda was
4 meters below the level of the stone-paved terrace. The conservation of the inner wall was also
completed to the existing level, leaving behind the final layer to be completed with the completion
of the stone-paved ter;race. In the mean time, research into the manufacturing of a special
conservation brick continued and finally, in 1992, a brick kiln was built in Galkadawala, about
20 km away fromAnuradhapura with the help of National Building Research Organisation. This
South Indian-fashioned kiln managed to produce hand-made bricks to the required strength and
size.
In 1_992, during the UNESCO Review Committee Meeting, the question of the conservation
of the pagoda was raised and it was decided to achieve a good progress by 1993. As a result,
the task of recommencing the conservation work of the Jetavana Pagoda was entrusted to the
present writer when he returned after postgraduate studies at the University of York, UK. Soon
after a committee consisting eminent Archaeologists, Architects, Historians and Engineers was
formed and a workshop with the participation of three international experts was held from 101h to
l41h May 1993 in Anuradhapura to decide a conservation policy for the Jetavana Pagoda. The
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tasks decided at the workshop were:
- to attend to the collapsed parts of the hatareskotuwa immediately by buttressing the
devathakotuwa and the koth kerella
- to retain the restoration carried out by the final half of the 191h century
- to keep the koth kerella at the existing collapsed height preserving its aesthetic character
- to restore and reintegrate the pagoda with a "medium" treatment, clearing the vegetation,
reintegrating the eroded parts to prevent water accumulation, and reinstalling the loose
bricks
- to treat the three basal terraces, the four ayakas and the slalapathalamaluwa also in a
similar way adapted to the dome and hatareskotuwa
- to establish a short-term and long-term maintenance programme together with a monitoring
system
Soon after the meeting of the national archaeological experts in June 1993 to decide the
operational strategy the work commenced to buttress the devathakotuwa and the koth kerella
and to investigate the dome in a 30ft wide strip. After the buttress work was completed it was
decided to investigate the area of the hatareskotuwa also to arrive at a final conservation strategy.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE DOME

Two research officers, Mr. D.P. Gamlath and Mr. Y.K.T. Bandara, carried out the
archaeological investigations under the direction of Dr. Hema Ratnayaka. They discovered two
large craters in the middle of the dome. The soil, clay, bricks, and water pockets in the dome had
helped to grow different varieties of trees on the eroded face. To name a few, the species were
identified as palu, weera, kohomba, milla, godakirala, kon, siyambala, tel endaru, agil, kolon,
aththikka, va, bevila, sudu bevila, ingini, hik, kalu habarala, and lolu. Zoologist Dr. W.S.
Weerakkody, could identify 12 species of birds, 8 species of Mammals, 10 species of reptiles,
Ispecies of amphibians, 24 species of butterflies, 7 species of land snails and hundreds of species
of insects such as spiders; dragonflies, beetles, etc.
Three investigative excavations were carried out in the dome in four different stages. The
first stage was a 30ft wide strip commencing from 6ft below the base of the hatareskotuwa in the
south-eastern section of the dome. The second was a strip near the first of 14.Sm X Im commencing
from 47ft below the base of the hatareskotuwa. The third was a pit of 3m x I .Sm from about 100
ft above the stone-paved terrace in the western section and the fourth was a pit of 3m X 1.5m
from about 100 ft above the stone-paved terrace in the eastern section. The main aim of these
three excavations is to identify the construction technology, the deterioration processes and the
present condition of the pagoda dome. According to these excavations and the previous
excavations, the construction technology could be identified as follows.
(i) The foundation of the pagoda rose from the bedrock or from a hard surface, which was
about 4 meters below the stone-paved terrace.
'(ii) The three basal terraces have been constructed together with the dome and were not
later additions.
(iii) The inner most construction method was not yet identified.
(iv) The most interior part at the western section consisted. of bricks and clay.
(v) Building a star-shaped brick wall and filling its inner part with broken bricks and
soil was the construction pattern of the next part.

128
 (vi) The next section had been constructed by using half- or middle-shaped bricks of 15-20
cm in length and similar or less in breath with a maximum of 5 cm in height.
(vii) The colour of the bricks was red and unburnt bricks were too identified.
(vili)The binding medium was ground clay ofbutter earth colour.
(ix) In some areas the bricks were stacked and filled with soil.
(x) The outer layer of bricks on the pagoda was a stable construction of a maxi�um of 60
cm in length, 40 cm in breath, and 5 cm in height.
(xi) There were red coloured bricks of 35-45cm. in length and 20-30cm in breath that were
shaped to fit the curvature of the dome and bonded by using well ground clay with a
. space of 0.5- lcm.
(xii) This construction had continued up to a height of 130ft from the salapathalamaluwa
and thereafter a random construction of small bricks of 20-30cm in length and 10-15cm
in breadth could be identified.
(xiii) This method of construction continued up to the base of the hatareskotuwa.
(xiv) The most interesting identification in the dome within the height of 130 ft. was the use
of unburnt bricks for the construction.
(xv) It was observed that up to a height of 70 ft from the salapathalamaluwa the use of
unburnt bricks was very rare.
(xvi) Above this level the use of bricks was extensive and three types of unburnt bricks could
be identified namely, completely unburnt bricks, semi-burnt bricks, and half-burnt
bricks.
(xvii) Finally, the protective plaster of the dome contained an outer layer of lime as a finishing
layer, a 1 inch thick second layer of well-ground lime and sand, and a 2 inch thick third
layer of sand, lime and different sizes of quart of light brownish colour.
The main deterioration process was identified as the cracking of the lime plaster due to the
effects of different flora growing on the surface. The roots of flora had penetrated deeply into the
dome exerting pressure as well as expansion. The water too penetrated into the dome and expanded
the clay mortar and thereby caused slips on the surface. The water running through the surface
during the monsoon season has created further erosions and many water channels could be
identified on the surface. The slips occurred on the east and the west sides of the hatareskotuwa
had created large craters on the surface of the dome and the water accumulated on these had
added to the deterioration process. The faunal action on the surface had also contributed to the
deterioration of the surface. All these effects provided evidence of deterioration that had
com.m.enced due to negligence for over 800 years. But during investigations it was revealed that
the surface had 'deteriorated only about 10 ft deep from the surface, except on the eastern and
western sides, which had created cliffs due to the fall of the hatareskotuwa, and the rest was still
in a very sound condition.

ARCHAELOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN THE HATARESKOTUWA

In view of planning the reconstruction of the collapsed section and of strengthening the
other parts, three research officers, Mr. D.P.Garnlath, Mr. Y.K.T.Bandara and Mr. Thusitha Mendis,
carried out the archaeological. investigations under .the direction of Dr. Hema Ratnayaka and
Prof. Sudharsan Seneviratne. These were mainly aimed at identifying the reasons for the collapse
of the west face restored in 1890 and the cracks in the other sections. The architect Oertel was of
the opinion that the reasons for the collapse was the water seepage through the lime concrete
layer at the base of the devathakotuwa which resulted in expanding the clay used for the bonding
129 _.. .;.Sc,.; .::al·=µ==.,;:::
l
 of bricks. The cracks appearing in the other walls of the hatareskotuwa were even 35 cm wide
and had developed towards its inner sections.

The excavations carried out commencing from the top of the hathareskotuwa revealed the
construction medium as follows:
i) The 0.5 cm outer face had been constructed, using well-burnt yellowish red-coloured
bricks of 35 - 15cm in length and 5cm in height and with butter clay-coloured mortar of
well-ground clay.
ii) The second phase had been built, using mainly bricks of similar texture but of 20- 8 cm
in length and 6 - 4 cm in height.
_iii) The third layer too had been built, using mainly bricks of similar texture but of 12- 7
cm in length and 7 - 5 cm in height.
iv) The outer layer had been constructed by building dentins depicting Buddhist railings
with a large circle in the middle.
v) The face had been completely covered with a lime plaster.

After determining the construction method of the hatareskotuwa its maximum height was
to be identified. Its top was found covered with a lime plaster to prevent water getting into the
inner areas, which had been built, using clay mortar. Under the lime plaster small- and
medium-size layers of bricks were identified. This had been constructed on top of the random
construction of small bricks of 20-30cm in length and 10-15cm in breadth commencing from 6ft
below the present surface of the top of the dome.
It was further revealed that the reconstruction in 1890 had commenced with the laying of
a lime plaster over the dome. The next investigation was to identify the technology applied at the
point where the bottom met the top of the dome. Four one-metre wide sections were excavated
after removing about 10 cubic feet of accumulated earth. All four excavations provided new
evidence of the base moulding of the hatareskotuwa, which consisted of a lime and sand mortar
of faded brownish colour and washed with lime liquid. This 280cm high moulding was constructed,
using bricks of 40 - 38 cm in length and 7 - 6 cm in height; of 15 -20 cm in length and 8 - 10 cm
in breadth and 5 cm in height; and a 0.5cm thick layer of clay mortar.
Here it was found that the base lime concrete of the reconstruction had not been properly
bonded with the base moulding. Therefore the water seepage from the top of the hatareskotuwa
had escaped through the space between the moulding and the lime concrete, resulting in slips on
the western side and cracks on the other sides: On the other hand the collapse of the hatareskotuwa
was mainly due to the water seepage through the cracks of the protective lime layer at the top
and the expansion occurred in the clay mortar used for bonding the bricks.

CONSERVATION POLICY
After the above archaeological investigations, the final conservation policy was formulated
with the approval of the Department of Archaeology Advisory Council. The following were
included in its agenda for restoration following the methods adopted for the conservation of
ancient stone and brick monuments and where necessary introducing concrete beams reinforced
with stainless steel rods:
i) the outer prakara wall and the four entrance gateways

,, ii) the inner prakara wall raising it by a few layers above the salapathalamaluwa
:1
. I iii) the four stone-made gateways at the inner prakara
I
130
 iv) the salapathalamaluwa with a slope to drain off the water
v) the three basal terraces
vi) the four ayakas removed in 1981
vii) the dome up to 84 layers of bricks
viii) the dome to a minimum curve required for the smooth draining of rainwater
ix) the top part of the dome
x) the hatareskotuwa with all external features
xi) the top moulding of the hatareskotuwa according to plans drawn by Smither in 1894
and Oertel in 1904
xii) the devathakotuwa
xiii)the kothkerella with the spiral staircase built during the British era restorations
xiv) the top of the Kothkerella at the existing height

For all these construction projects, that materials used were hand made bricks of 16x12x2
inches in size with a crushing strength of 600 pounds per square inch and a cement of lime, sand
and mortar in the ratio 1 :2: 10. The face of the pagoda was not plastered but the mortar gaps were
painted with a cement of lime, brick dust, and sand mortar on the ratio 1: 1/2: 1/2: 1/2. In addition
the policy suggested the establishment of short-term and long-term maintenance programmes
together with a monitoring system.

PRESENT POSITION
The conservation process of the pagoda continued under the direction of Architects Ashly
de Vos, Tudor Sirisena, Lalith Muthukumarana, -and Jayatissa Herath, and presently it is under
P.B. Mandawala who is the Conservation Director of the project. According to the policy, the
conservation work of the Jetavana pagoda has continued since the commencement of the
UNESCO/WPP...:... Sri Lanka Cultural Triangle programme. The restoration of the outer wall and
the four entrance gateways were completed. The inner wall along with the four entrances has
been completely restored up to the present level of the salapathalamaluwa. Two of the four
ayakas, the south and west, have been fully restored while the east has just commenced. Quarter
of the salapathalamaluwa, the portion between south and the west has been restored. Quarter of
the three pesawas, the portion between south and the west has been consolidated and restored.
The lime plaster remains found at the bottom of the dome have been consolidated. About 90% of
the dome is fully restored and the balance will be completed by the end of year 2003. The lime
plaster remains at the top of the dome, which has been completed up to the base of the
hatareskotuwa, has been consolidated. Two sections, the south and the west, of the hatareskotuwa
have been fully restored up to the height of the base of the top moulding including the consolidation
of ancient parts and removal of the part added during the British period. Restoration and
consolidation work beyond this up to the top of the present level of the kothkerella has yet to be
completed. It has been estimated that the balance work of the pagoda might take at least three
more years.

A daily, weekly, monthly and annual maintenance and monitoring programme is now in
.operation to remove vegetation growing on the surface, to repair the deteriorated bricks seen on
the surface, point the loose mortar joints, to consolidate the ancient lime plaster remains and to
observe and repair the thermal expansion cracks appearing on the surface.

131

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 TOTAL HEIGHT OF THE PAGODA
The height of the Jetavan Pagoda is yet to be decided. Mahavansa written during the
Anuradhapura Period states it as 160 riyan and Parakumba Siritha written during the Kotte
period states it as 140 riyan. According to Dr. Paranavithana, the ancient carpentry riyana was
30 inches and there - fore the height of the pagoda according to Mahavansa is 400ft, whereas it
is 350 ft according to Parakumba Siritha.
Architect J.G.Smither took actual measurements for the first time in 1894. According to
him, following are the dimensions of the complete pagoda:
Diameter at the level of topmost pesava (16 ft above the platform) - 325 ft O inches

Diameter of outer circle of basement 367ft O inches

Height of first pesava above platform 69 inches
Height of second pesava above platform 1 lft 6 inches
Height of third pesava above platform 16ft O inches
Height from platform to junction of tee with dome 150ft 6 inches
Height from platform to the top of tee 183ft O inches
Present total height of pagoda 232ft O inches

In 1963, Dr Paranavithana stated that the total height of the Pagoda was 231 ft. and Dr.
Roland Silva calculated it as 330 ft, giving the following dimensions:

Height of the three pesavas - 17 ft

l: Height of the dome - 137 ft
Height of the hathareskotuwa 29 ft
,;-i-
.
Height of the devathakotuwa - 25 ft
Height of the kothkerella - 101 ft
Height of the kotha - 21 ft
Total height of the Pagoda from the salapathalamaluwa - 330 ft

Mr. D.P. Gamlath gave the following dimensions in his unpublished bookJetavana Dagoba
Garbhaya, Hatareskotuwa and Koth Kerella:
Height of the first pesavas 4 ft 2 inches
Height of the second pesavas 4 ft O inches
Height of the third pesavas 3 ft 9 inches
Height of the dome 130 ft O inches
Height of the hathareskotuwa - 38 ft 6 inches
! Height of the devathakotuwa - 31 ft O inches
Height of the kothkerella up to the present position - 32 ft O inches
,I

Conjectured height of the kothkerella to the present position - 38 ft O inches

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i• Conjectured height of the kotha - · 34 ft O inches
I'
Total height of the pagoda from the salapathalamaluwa - 315 ft 5 inches
Diameter at the bottom of the pesawa - 365 ft O inches
132

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 Finally, it is important to note that with its height either as 400 ft or as 315 ft the Jetavana
Dagoba still remains the tallest brick monument existing in the world. No doubt it grandly
reflects the architectural, engineering, construction, and artistic abilities of the ancient inhabitants
•I
of Sri Lanka.

REFERANCES
Gamlath, D.G. (1999). Jethavana Stupa Garbhaya, Hathareskotuwa, saha Koth Kerella. Unpublished Report.
Jayasinghe, S.S.S. & Weerakk:ody J.S.K. (1999). 'Faunal Diversity and the Impact on the Jethavana Stupa in
Anuradhapura: A Case Study in the Dry Zone.' Unpublished Paper
Kulatunga, T.G. (2001). Anuradhapura Jethawana Viharaya. Nugegoda: Tharanji Printers.
Oertel, F._O. (1903). Restoration ofAncient Monuments atAnuradhapura, Ceylon. Colombo: Sri Lanka Government
Press.
Paranavithana, R. (1997). Perakumba Siritha. Colombo.
Paranavithana, S. (1995). Stupa in Ceylon. ed. P.L.Premathillake, Colombo
Ratnayake, H. (1992). Jetavana Stupa and Monastery Complex. Colombo: The Cultural Triangle, Central Cultural
Fund.
Silva, Roland (1988). Religious Architecture in Early and Mediaeval Sri Lanka. Unpublished PhD thesis.
Smither, J.G. (1894). 'Architectural Remains, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.' ed. Chandra Wickramagamge

Sumangala, H. (1987). Mahawansa. Ed,s.Wanstthppakasini, Colombo & Batuwanthudawe

Prasbantba B. Mandawala
Senior Lecturer, University of Sri Janyawardanapura
and the Director Conservation of the Maha Vihara
and Jetavana Projects of the Central Cultural Fund

133

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