Sl.No.

Topic

1. Prehistoric Rock Paintings

2. Later Mural Traditions
3. Indian Schools Of Paintings
4. Folk Painting
5. Modern Indian Art
6. Arts Of The Indus Valley
7. Arts Of The Mauryan Period
8. Post-Mauryan Trends In Indian
Art And Architecture
9. Temple Architecture And Sculpture
10. Some Aspects Of Indo-Islamic Architecture

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 1. Prehistoric Rock Paintings Prehistoric Cave Paintings

● Prehistoric cave paintings, dating

back to the Upper Palaeolithic era,
Introduction have been discovered in various parts
of the world.
The distant past before the existence of ● In India, the first rock paintings were
paper, language, or written records is found in 1867-68 by archaeologist
referred to as prehistory. Understanding how Archibold Carlleyle, 12 years before the
people lived during prehistoric times was discovery of Altamira in Spain.
initially challenging. However, scholars have ● Archaeologists like Carlleyle,
gained insights through excavations at Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra, and Ghosh
prehistoric sites, revealing tools, pottery, unearthed numerous sites with rock
dwellings, ancient human and animal paintings in regions such as Madhya
remains, and cave drawings. By analyzing Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
these findings, scholars have developed a Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, and
relatively accurate understanding of Uttarakhand.
prehistoric life. When basic needs like food, ● These paintings featured:
water, clothing, and shelter were met, people ○ Stick-like human figures.
sought to express themselves through art, ○ Animals like long-snouted
particularly through painting and drawing on
creatures, foxes, and
cave walls.
multi-legged lizards.
○ Geometric patterns in white,
black, and red ochre.
● Some scenes even depicted
hand-linked dancing human figures,
and there was evidence of
superimposed paintings with black,
red ochre, and white layers.
● Additionally, engravings on slabs were
discovered in Kashmir.
● Granite rocks in Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh showcased various
types of paintings in white, red ochre,
or a combination of both, providing a
fascinating glimpse into the artistic
expressions of prehistoric humans.

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Bhimbetka’s Ancient Rock Art :- ● While some paintings are wash
● The rock art at Bhimbetka, located in paintings, the majority are filled with
the Vindhya hills of Madhya Pradesh intricate geometric patterns. '
and their Kaimurean extensions into ● The green paintings typically feature
Uttar Pradesh, spans late historical, dancers, while the red ones portray
early historical, and Neolithic periods. ' hunters.
● These rock shelters feature a diverse ● These artworks provide valuable
range of subjects, including bulls, insights into the artistic expressions
elephants, sambhars, gazelles, sheep, and possibly the rituals of early
goats, horses, stylized humans, humans during this period in history.
tridents, and occasionally, vegetal Mesolithic Art at Bhimbetka
motifs. ● The Mesolithic period, represented by
● The richest collection of paintings is Period II at Bhimbetka, unveils a rich
found in the Vindhyan ranges due to collection of paintings, albeit smaller
their abundance of Palaeolithic and in size compared to earlier periods. '
Mesolithic remains, forests, wild ● Hunting scenes dominate this phase,
plants, fruits, streams, and creeks—a portraying people hunting in groups
perfect habitat for Stone Age people. ' with weapons like barbed spears,
● Bhimbetka boasts approximately pointed sticks, arrows, and bows
eight hundred rock shelters, with five ● Some depictions feature primitive
hundred of them adorned with traps and snares used for catching
paintings. animals. '
● Discovered in 1957–58 by ● These hunters are often shown
archaeologist V.S. Wakankar, these wearing simple clothing and
caves offer a glimpse into various ornaments, while some sport
aspects of ancient life, from everyday elaborate head-dresses or masks.
events to sacred and royal images. ' ● The artwork showcases a variety of
● Themes include hunting, dancing, animals, including elephants, bison,
music, horse and elephant riders, tigers, boars, deer, antelope, leopards,
animal fights, honey collection, body panthers, rhinoceroses, fish, frogs,
decoration, and household scenes. ' lizards, squirrels, and occasional birds.
● The rock art at Bhimbetka is ● The Mesolithic artists demonstrated a
categorized into seven historical fascination with animals, depicting
periods, with the first three being them both as predators and prey.
Upper Palaeolithic (Period I), ● 'While animals were rendered in a
Mesolithic (Period II), and Chalcolithic naturalistic style, human figures were
(Period III). ' stylized. '
● The art provides valuable insights into ● Women were depicted both clothed
the culture and evolution of ancient and in the nude, with representations
civilizations in the region of individuals of all ages, including
Upper Palaeolithic Art at Bhimbetka ' children engaged in playful activities.
● During the Upper Palaeolithic period at ● Community dances, fruit gathering,
Bhimbetka, the paintings are honey collection, food preparation,
characterized by linear and family scenes were common
representations in green and dark red themes.
colors. ' ● Many rock-shelters feature
● These ancient artworks depict large handprints, fist prints, and fingertip
animal figures like bison, elephants, dots as well.
tigers, rhinos, and boars, alongside
stick-like human figures. '

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● The artists at Bhimbetka employed a
Ancient Stories on Stones at Bhimbetka
wide range of colors, with white and
● The artists at Bhimbetka crafted their
red being their favorites. '
paintings on the walls and ceilings of
● These colors were derived from
rock shelters. '
minerals like haematite for red and
● Some paintings were discovered in
chalcedony for green, white may have
living spaces, while others were found
been made from limestone.
in places with potential religious
● The paints were created by grinding
significance, often positioned in high
these minerals into powder, which was
or uncomfortable locations, possibly
mixed with water and possibly a
to be visible from a distance. '
binding agent like animal fat or tree
● Despite the challenges they faced,
resin. Brushes were fashioned from
these ancient paintings exude a
plant fibers. '
remarkable pictorial quality. They
● Remarkably, these colors have
depict scenes from the artists’ natural
endured for thousands of years, likely
environment, showcasing
due to chemical reactions with the
adventurous and joyous human
rock surfaces, providing a remarkable
figures and majestic, youthful
glimpse into the artistic skills of
animals.
ancient civilizations
● These primitive artists had a passion
for storytelling, portraying both
humans and animals in dramatic
struggles for survival.
● ' Some scenes show hunting, with
injured men lying on the ground, while
others depict animals in the throes of
death and men dancing—a display of
human dominance over nature. '
● Notably, many rock art sites reveal
new paintings painted over older ones,
sometimes with up to 20 layers of
paintings at Bhimbetka. '
● The reasons for this practice are
speculative but could include
dissatisfaction with previous work, the
sacred or special significance of
certain paintings or places, or multiple
generations using the same locations
over time. '
● These prehistoric paintings offer
valuable insights into the lives, food
habits, daily activities, and thought
processes of early human beings. '
● They serve as witnesses to the
evolution of human civilization, along
with the numerous artifacts like
weapons, tools, ceramics, and bones
found in the region. '
● Above all, these rock paintings stand
as a priceless legacy left behind by the
primitive humans of that era

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Conclusion

● In conclusion, the ancient rock paintings of Bhimbetka, spanning various

historical periods, offer a captivating glimpse into the lives and minds of our
distant ancestors.

● These remarkable artworks, created under challenging conditions with limited

tools and materials, reveal the artists’ deep connection to their environment
and passion for storytelling.

● Through scenes of hunting, survival, and the intricate portrayal of both humans
and animals, these paintings convey a sense of adventure, dominance over
nature, and an enduring appreciation for the world around them.

● These rock paintings serve as proof of the evolving human civilization, shedding
light on early societies’ lifestyles, food habits, daily activities, and, most
importantly, their thought processes.

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 Badami
2.Later Mural Traditions ● Badami in Karnataka was the capital
of the early Chalukyan dynasty
around 543–598 CE. With the decline
Introduction
of the Vakataka rule, the Chalukyas
established their power in the Deccan.
The Later Mural Traditions represent a
● The Chalukya king, Mangalesha (the
diverse array of artistic expressions that
younger son of the Chalukya king,
graced temples, palaces, and other sacred
Pulakesi I), sponsored the excavation
places from the medieval era onward. This
of the Badami caves, known as the
chapter embarks on a captivating journey
Vishnu Cave. '
through these intricate and visually stunning
● The inscription in Cave No. 4 mentions
art forms that flourished in various regions of
the date 578–579 CE, describes the
India during the later periods of its history.
beauty of the cave, and includes the
After Ajanta, there are not many places with
dedication of the image of Vishnu.
paintings that have survived to give us
Therefore, the cave is popularly known
important clues about the painting tradition.
as the Vishnu Cave. '
It’s worth mentioning that sculptures were
● Only a fragment of the painting has
also covered with plaster and painted. The
survived on the vaulted roof of the
tradition of cave excavations continued in
front mandapa. The paintings in this
other locations, where both sculpting and
cave, an extension of the Ajanta
painting were carried out at the same time.
tradition, depict palace scenes
featuring Kirtivarman, son of Pulakesi
I. The artistry, characterized by
sinuous lines and fluid forms, reflects
the artists’ maturity in the sixth
century CE. '
● The faces in the paintings resemble
Ajanta’s style, showcasing the skilled
use of simple lines to create volume.
Notably, the surviving fragment on the
vaulted roof portrays scenes of palace
life, including a dance, with detailed
depictions of the king, queen, and
divine figures.

Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and

Chola Kings
Pallava
● In the southern regions of Tamil Nadu,
the tradition of painting flourished
during the rule of Pallava, Pandya, and
Chola dynasties. '
● The Pallava kings, succeeding the
Chalukya kings, were notable arts
patrons. Mahendravarman I, in the
seventh century, built temples in
Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and
Kanchipuram, showcasing a keen
interest in art. '

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● The inscription at Mandagapattu Pandyas
mentions Mahendravarman I with ● When the Pandyas came to power,
numerous titles such as Vichitrachitta they continued the patronage of art,
(curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger exemplified by the Tirumalaipuram
among artists), Chaityakari (temple caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal.
builder), which shows his interest in art A few fragmented layers of paintings
activities. can be seen in Tirumalaipuram. '
● The Panamalai figure of a female ● In Sittanavasal, the paintings are
divinity is drawn gracefully. ' visible on the ceilings of shrines, in
● Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple verandas, and on the brackets. '
were patronised by the Pallava king, ● The paintings in these locations, such
Rajsimha. Only traces of paintings that as dancing figures of celestial nymphs
depict Somaskanda remain. Faces are (on the pillars of the veranda), exhibit
round and large. Lines are rhythmic firm contours (painted in vermilion red
with increased ornamentation when on a lighter background), vibrant
compared with the paintings of an colors, and skilled artistic imagination.
earlier period. The depiction of the torso The body is rendered in yellow with
still remains like the earlier sculptural subtle modelling. '
tradition but is elongated. ● This tradition of elongated eyes
observed in these paintings continued
in subsequent artworks in the Deccan
and South India.
Cholas '
● During the Chola reign (ninth to
thirteenth centuries), the tradition of
temple construction and
embellishment persisted. ' The
eleventh century marked the zenith of
Chola power, leading to masterpieces
like the Brihadeswara temple in
Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
and Darasuram in Tamil Nadu, were
built during the reigns of Rajaraja
Chola, his son, Rajendra Chola and
Rajaraja Chola II, respectively. '
● Chola paintings are seen in
Nartamalai, particularly in
Brihadeswara temple. Notably, the
● The Panamalai figure of a female paintings were uncovered in two
divinity is drawn gracefully. ' layers, with the upper layer from the
● Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple Nayak period in the sixteenth century
were patronised by the Pallava king, revealing the great tradition of Chola
Rajsimha. Only traces of paintings that painting. '
depict Somaskanda remain. Faces are ● The paintings at Brihadeswara Temple
round and large. Lines are rhythmic showcase the stylistic maturity of
with increased ornamentation when Chola artists, reflecting a
compared with the paintings of an predetermined flow of sinuous lines,
earlier period. The depiction of the torso supple modelling of figures, and
still remains like the earlier sculptural elongation of physiognomic features.
tradition but is elongated. These elements represent both the
perfection achieved by Chola artists
during their period and a phase of
transition.

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 ● These artworks portray diverse Vijayanagara Artistic Conventions
themes, including Rajaraja and his ● Vijayanagara painters evolved a
mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, and distinct pictorial language
various aspects of Lord Shiva, Shiva in characterized by profiled faces,
Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva two-dimensional depictions of figures
as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron and objects, still but fluid lines, and
Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, compositions in rectilinear
dancing figures, etc. compartments. '
Vijayanagara Murals ● These conventions influenced artists
Transition to Vijayanagara Paintings ' in various centers in South India,
● As the Chola dynasty declined in the extending into the Nayaka Period.
thirteenth century, the Vijayanagara Nayaka Paintings
Dynasty (fourteenth to sixteenth ● The Nayaka dynasty, in the
centuries) rose to power. Hampi seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
served as its capital, capturing the continued the artistic tradition in
region from Hampi to Trichy. Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam, and
● ' The paintings at Tiruparakunram, Tiruvarur in Tamil Nadu.
near Trichy, done in the fourteenth ● 'Thiruparakunram features paintings
century represent the early phase of from both the fourteenth and
the Vijayanagara style. ' seventeenth centuries, depicting
● In Hampi, the Virupaksha temple has scenes from the life of Vardhaman
paintings on the ceiling of its Mahavira.
mandapa narrating events from T'hemes in Nayaka Paintings
dynastic history and episodes from ● Nayaka paintings depict episodes
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. from the Mahabharata and the
Among the important panels are the Ramayana, along with scenes from
ones that show Vidyaranya, the Krishnaleela. '
spiritual teacher of Bukkaraya Harsha, ● Various temples, such as Tiruvarur,
being carried in a palanquin in a Chidambaram, and Chengam,
procession and the incarnations of showcase panels narrating stories
Vishnu. The faces of the figures are related to Shiva, Vishnu, and the
shown in profile, with large frontal Ramayana. '
eyes. The figures have narrow waists. ' ● In Chidambaram, there are panels of
● In Lepakshi, near Hindupur, in paintings narrating stories related to
present-day Andhra Pradesh, there Shiva anwd Vishnu— Shiva as
are glorious examples of Vijayanagara Bhikshatana Murti, Vishnu as Mohini,
paintings on the walls of the Shiva etc.
temple. Continuity and Modifications in Nayaka
Style
● Nayaka paintings, considered an
extension of the Vijayanagara style,
exhibit minor regional modifications
and incorporations.
● After the 1905 figures, mostly in profile,
are set against flat backgrounds. Male
figures are depicted slim-waisted,
with less heavy abdomens compared
to Vijayanagara paintings. '
● The artists maintain a tradition of
infusing movement and dynamism
into the depicted space, as seen in the
painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli.

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Kerala Murals ● These sites capture the mature phase
Evolution of Kerala Mural Painting ' of Kerala’s mural painting tradition.
● During the 16th to 18th centuries, Continuity in Contemporary Murals
Kerala painters developed a ● Even today, mural painting is
distinctive pictorial language and prevalent on the interior and exterior
technique, incorporating elements walls of houses in villages across the
from Nayaka and Vijayanagara country.
schools. ' ● Women often engage in creating
● They drew inspiration from local these paintings during ceremonies,
traditions like Kathakali and kalam festivals, or as part of routine wall
ezhuthu (ritual floor painting of cleaning and decoration.
Kerala), utilizing vibrant colors and ● Traditional mural forms are observed
achieving three-dimensional in different regions, such as pithoro in
representation of human figures parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, Mithila
painting in northern Bihar, warli
paintings in Maharashtra, and various
wall paintings in villages of Odisha,
Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and
Chhattisgarh
Conclusion
Mural paintings in India boast a rich and
enduring history, dating from the 2nd
century BC to the 8th-10th century AD. The
exquisite frescoes found in iconic locations
such as the Ajanta and Ellora caves, Bagh
caves, Sittanvasal, and other sites provide
invaluable evidence of this ancient artistic
Themes and Sources tradition. These murals, adorning the walls of
● Kerala mural paintings, found on caves and palaces, represent a remarkable
shrine and temple walls, as well as fusion of artistic brilliance and cultural
inside palaces, exhibit unique expression. From the natural caves and
thematic elements. rock-cut chambers to the intricate details of
● Narrations predominantly focus on the Ajanta, Bagh, and Ellora Caves, the
episodes from Hindu mythology murals showcase the diverse themes and
popular in Kerala. ' styles that flourished during this period.
● Artists drew from oral traditions and These artworks not only serve as visual
local versions of the Ramayana and archives of historical narratives but also
the Mahabharata for their painted stand as a testament to the enduring
narratives. creativity and artistic mastery of ancient
Prominent Sites of Kerala Mural Painting Indian civilizations.
● Over sixty sites showcase mural
paintings in Kerala, including notable
locations like Pundareekapuram
Krishna temple, Panayanarkavu,
Thirukodithanam, Triprayar Sri Rama
temple, and Trissur Vadakkunathan
temple

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 3.Indian Schools of Medieval Miniature Paintings
Paintings ● Paintings from the medieval era are
commonly termed “miniature
Introduction paintings” due to their smaller size. '
Indian painting has a rich tapestry that has ● These were handheld artworks meant
evolved over time. Before the British era, it for close observation because of their
was rooted in traditions, from temple art to intricate details. '
detailed manuscripts. The British introduced ● They were never meant to be
the Company School of Painting, blending displayed on walls, unlike mural
European observation with Indian styles. As paintings that adorned the walls of
photography emerged, artists like Raja Ravi affluent homes.
Varma combined European techniques with Manuscript Illustrations '
Indian themes. The Bengal School of Art, led ● A significant portion of these paintings
by Abanindranath Tagore, sought inspiration served as illustrations for manuscripts.
from Indian heritage. Nandalal Bose’s ● These paintings visually translate
‘Haripura Posters’ celebrated the common poetic verses from epics and various
man, while Gaganendranath Tagore and canonical, literary, bardic, or musical
others embraced modern styles like Cubism. texts. Verses were typically
Artists like Jamini Roy bridged folk art with handwritten either at the top of the
contemporary themes. This journey painting or behind it. '
showcases India’s ability to merge traditions ● Paintings were systematically
with evolving global influences. grouped in thematic sets, such as the
Vishnudharmottara Purana’s Contribution Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana,
to Indian Art ' Mahabharata, Gita Govinda,
● The third Khanda of the Ragamala, etc. '
Vishnudharmottara Purana, a ● Each set was wrapped in cloth and
fifth-century text, includes the chapter stored in the libraries of kings or
Chitrasutra, a significant source of patrons. '
Indian art, especially painting. ' ● Colophon Page: The most crucial page
● This text introduces the art of in a set, containing details about the
image-making known as “Pratima patron, artist, scribe, date, and place
Lakshana”, which outlines the canons of work. Unfortunately, many colophon
of painting. ' pages have been lost over time.
● It also discusses techniques, tools, Challenges in Reconstructing Painting
materials, surfaces (like walls), History '
perception, perspective, and the ● Many paintings have faced damage
three-dimensionality of human due to mishandling, fire, humidity, and
figures. other calamities. '
● Different Limbs in Painting: Roopbheda ● Paintings were often gifted or traded,
focuses on looks and appearance, leading to their dispersal across
Pramana emphasizes measurements, various regions. For example, a Mewar
proportion and structure, Bhava painting could be found with the Bundi
focuses on expressions, Lavanya king, and vice versa. '
Yojana focuses on aesthetic ● Many paintings are undated, leading
composition, Sadrishya focuses on the to gaps in chronological records.
resemblance, Varnika Bhanga focuses ● Loose folios have been separated from
on the use of brushes and colors. their original sets and now reside in
● Through the centuries, Artists have various museums and private
adhered to these canons, making collections. '
them foundational to various styles
and schools of Indian painting.

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 ● 'These dispersed paintings ● Kalakacharyakatha: It tells the
occasionally resurface, challenging adventurous tale of Acharya Kalaka
established timelines and requiring on a quest to rescue his abducted
scholars to adjust historical sister from an evil king.
chronologies. ' ● Uttaradhyana Sutra: It outlines
● Updated sets are often assigned Mahavir’s teachings on the conduct
hypothetical timeframes based on monks should adopt. '
style and circumstantial evidence ● Sangrahani Sutra: A 12th-century
Western Indian School of Painting cosmological text detailing the
● The Western Indian School of Painting universe’s structure and space
primarily thrived in western India, with mapping '
Gujarat as its main hub. Other centers ● The Jain community produced
included southern Rajasthan and multiple copies of these texts, either
western parts of Central India. ' with minimal or abundant illustrations.
● Significant ports in Gujarat facilitated '
trade routes, empowering merchants, ● A typical folio is split into sections for
traders, and local chieftains as text and painting, secured together
influential patrons of art, owing to the with strings passing through a central
prosperity of trading. hole, and shielded with wooden covers
Jain School of Painting ' called “patlis”. '
● The Jain community, predominantly ● Initially, Jain paintings were on palm
merchants, became notable patrons leaves until the 14th century, when
of Jain-themed art, leading to the paper was introduced. The earliest
birth of the Jain School of Painting palm leaf manuscript from western
within the Western Indian School. ' India dates back to the 11th century. '
● Jain paintings saw growth due to the ● Due to space constraints on palm
concept of “shaastradaan” (donation leaves, early paintings mainly
of books). Donating illustrated adorned the “patlis”, evolving into a
paintings to monastery libraries or unique style emphasizing bright
“bhandars” (repositories) was seen as colours, textile patterns, and
a noble act of charity, righteousness schematic depictions
and gratitude. Evolution and Styles in Jain Painting '
Prominent Jain Texts for Artistic ● A period from 1350 to 1450 marks Jain
Interpretation paintings’ creative zenith,
Kalpasutra: It depicts events from the lives of transitioning from strict iconic
the 24 Tirthankaras, focusing on five key depictions to more diverse and
incidents - conception, birth, renunciation, intricate artwork, such as landscapes,
enlightenment, the first sermon, and figures, and musicians, adorned
salvation. lavishly with gold and lapis lazuli.
● Apart from canonical texts, other
artworks like Tirthipatas, Mandalas,
and secular tales were also popular
within the Jain community.
Indigenous Style of Painting
● Beyond Jain paintings, a parallel
painting tradition emerged in the late
15th and 16th centuries among the
feudal lords, wealthy citizens, and
others, capturing secular, religious,
and literary themes. '
● This style signifies the native painting
tradition before the Rajasthani court
styles and Mughal influences merged.

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 ● Works during this phase, representing Centers of Art and Learning during the Pala
subjects like Mahapurana, Period '
Chaurapanchasika, Bhagavata ● Renowned monasteries, including
Purana, and Gita Govinda, Nalanda and Vikramsila, emerged as
characterize this indigenous style, pivotal centers for Buddhist learning,
occasionally termed pre-Mughal or art, and the illustration of manuscripts
pre-Rajasthani. with Buddhist themes and images of
Vajrayana Bhuddhist Dities on palm
leaves. '
● These institutions also hosted
workshops dedicated to casting
bronze images.
● Students and pilgrims from regions
like Southeast Asia visited these
monasteries for education and
spiritual teachings. '
● They often returned home with Pala
Buddhist art specimens, such as
bronze artifacts and illustrated
manuscripts, facilitating the spread of
Pala art to locations like Nepal, Tibet,
Sultanate School of Painting ' Burma, Sri Lanka, and Java.
● Post the late 12th century, regions in Characteristics of Pala Paintings '
north, east, and west India came ● Pala paintings are distinct from Jain
under the rule of the Sultanate paintings, defined by their flowing,
dynasties from Central Asia, sinuous lines and subdued colour
introducing Persian, Turkic, and tones. '
Afghan influences. ' ● The Pala sculptural styles at
● Collaborations between Central Asian monasteries shared similarities with
artists and local artisans birthed the their painterly images, reminiscent of
Sultanate School of Painting, more a the art at Ajanta. '
‘style’ than a ‘school’, merging ● A prime example of a Pala Buddhist
indigenous and Persian elements. ' palm leaf manuscript is the
● “Nimatnama” (Book of Delicacies) “Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita”
from Mandu during Nasir Shah Khalji’s (found in Bodleian Library, Oxford),
reign (1500- 1510 CE) stands out as a also known as the ‘Perfection of
prime example, detailing recipes, Wisdom’ . This masterpiece, created at
hunting techniques, and instructions the Nalanda monastery during King
on medicine and cosmetics. Ramapala’s reign in the eleventh
Pala School of Painting century, boasts six illustrated pages
● The Pala School of Painting originates and wooden covers adorned with
from the illustrated manuscripts of the paintings on both sides.
Palas of eastern India during the Decline of Pala Paintings
eleventh and twelfth centuries. ● Pala art ended in the first half of the
● The Pala period (750 CE to mid-twelfth thirteenth century when Muslim
century) marked the final prominent invaders targeted and destroyed the
phase of Buddhist art in India monasteries.

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The Rajasthani Schools of Painting * Naturalism emphasize on styles that have
● The term ‘Rajasthani Schools of an affinity for naturalistic depictions, while
Painting’ refers to the painting styles others emphasized extreme mannerism.
that flourished in the princely states Materials and Techniques
and regions, primarily in modern-day ● Paintings were crafted on “waslis”,
Rajasthan and parts of Madhya which are layered, thin sheets of
Pradesh. ' handmade papers glued together for
● These regions include Mewar, Bundi, the desired thickness.
Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, ● The outline was first sketched in black
Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, and Sirohi, or brown on the wasli, followed by
among others, mainly from the colours.
sixteenth to the early nineteenth ● Colour pigments were primarily
centuries. derived from minerals and precious
Origin metals like gold and silver, mixed with
● In 1916, scholar Anand glue as a binding medium.
Coomaraswamy introduced the term ● Brushes were made using camel and
‘Rajput Paintings’ to categorise these squirrel hair. Once finished, paintings
artworks since most patrons and were burnished with agate to give
rulers of these areas were Rajputs. them a consistent shine and attractive
● This nomenclature was to distinguish radiance.
this style from the renowned Mughal Painting Process
School of Painting. ' Regions such as ● The master artist handled composition
Malwa and the Pahari Schools from and initial drawings. Pupils or
the Himalayan region were also specialists in colouring, portraiture,
encompassed under ‘Rajput Schools’. architecture, landscape, and animals
● The term was used to signify the would contribute.
indigenous painting tradition before ● The master artist would apply the final
the Mughal conquest. touches. A scribe would then write the
● Modern studies have moved away verse in the designated space.
from using ‘Rajput Schools’, preferring Themes of Rajasthani Paintings
specific categories like ‘Rajasthani’ ● By the sixteenth century, Vaishnavism,
and ‘Pahari’. particularly the cults of Rama and
Distinguishing Features of the Rajasthani Krishna, had gained prominence in
Style ' many parts of western, northern, and
● Despite being geographically close, central India due to the widespread
the painting styles across these Bhakti movement.
kingdoms showcased significant ● Krishna was revered not only as God
diversity in terms of: but also as the epitome of an ideal
* Execution such as fine or bold; lover, representing both sensuous and
* Colour preferences range from brilliant to mystical love.
gentle hues; ● This union of divine and human love
* Compositional elements focus on was best represented by Krishna and
variations in the depiction of architecture, Radha.
figures, nature, and storytelling techniques;

014
 ● Ragamala Paintings: These artworks
Key Texts and their Themes visually interpret various ragas and
● Gita Govinda: Composed by Jayadeva raginis, translating musical melodies
in the twelfth century, this Sanskrit into vivid paintings.
poem embodies the “shringara rasa”, ● Other Popular Themes in Paintings '
showcasing the ethereal love between Romantic tales like Dhola-Maru,
Radha and Krishna. Sohni-Mahiwal, Mrigavati, and more.
● Rasamanjari: Authored by Bhanu ● Sacred texts include the Ramayana,
Datta in the fourteenth century, this Bhagavata Purana, Mahabharata, and
Sanskrit treatise on rasa classifies Devi Mahatmya.
heroes and heroines based on age, ● Real-life depictions of court scenes,
appearance, and emotional states. historical moments, hunting
While Krishna is not explicitly expeditions, wars, picnics, rituals,
mentioned, he is often portrayed by portraits, and city views.
painters as the quintessential lover. Malwa School of Painting '
● Rasikapriya: Penned by Keshav Das in The Malwa School of Painting thrived from
1591, this work delves into the diverse 1600 to 1700 CE and stands as a hallmark of
emotional states between lovers, the Hindu Rajput courts. It presents a unique
symbolized by Radha and Krishna. blend,bridging

● Kavipriya: Another masterpiece by the styles of Jain manuscripts and

Keshav Das, this text pays tribute to Chaurpanchashika manuscript paintings. '
Rai Parbin, a renowned courtesan of Themes: Malwa Paintings had taken themes
Orchha, and vividly describes the from the Ramayana, the Bhagavata Purana,
emotions associated with different the Amaru Shataka, the Rasikapriya, the
seasons and festivals Ragamala, and the Baramasa. ' Notable
● Bihari Satsai: Comprising 700 verses, Artworks: Early-dated artworks from this
this work by Bihari Lal from around school include an illustrated poetic text by
1662 offers moralistic aphorisms and Amaru Shataka from 1652 CE and a
has been extensively painted in the Ragamala painting by Madho Das dated
Mewar and Pahari Schools. 1680 CE.

015
Geographical Extent ' ● Sahibdin’s major works encompass
● Contrary to the distinct geographical the Ragamala, Rasikapriya,
origins of Rajasthani schools, the Bhagavata Purana, and a part of the
Malwa School lacks a clear center of Ramayana titled Yuddha Kanda. '
origin. ' ● Manohar’s prominent contribution
● It is believed to span across a vast was the Bal Kanda of the Ramayana
territory in Central India, with from 1649. '
occasional mentions of places like ● By the 18th century, Mewar painting
Mandu, Nusrat Garh, and Nursing shifted focus from textual
Sahar. ' representations to depicting royal
● A significant collection of Malwa activities. '
paintings has been discovered in the ● Common themes included portraiture,
Datia Palace, suggesting Bundelkhand court scenes, hunting expeditions,
as a potential hub for this art form. festivals, and daily activities of the
● 'However, the mural paintings in Datia royalty. '
Palace display a clear Mughal A folio showcases Maharana Jagat
influence, which starkly contrasts the Singh II (1734-1752) touring the
indigenous, two-dimensional style countryside, highlighting the intricate
seen in the Malwa School’s paper narrative and expansive panoramic
works. ' view of the landscape.
● The lack of mention of patron kings ● Mewar artists preferred a bright colour
and their portraits in these artworks palette, predominantly featuring reds
hints at the possibility that Datia rulers and yellows.
might have purchased them from Bundi School of Painting
itinerant artists. ● Bundi School of Painting witnessed its
Mewar School of Painting ' zenith in the 17th century, known for its
● Mewar, in Rajasthan, is postulated as a impeccable color perception and
pivotal early center of Rajasthani design. '
painting. Wars with the Mughals likely ● The early phase of Bundi painting is
eradicated many early Mewar epitomized by the “Bundi Ragamala”
painting examples. The Mewar from 1591, painted during the reign of
School’s genesis is often linked to a set Bhoj Singh (1585-1607).
of Ragamala paintings from 1605 by ● The school thrived, notably under
Nisardin. ' rulers Rao Chattar Sal (1631-1659) and
● The reign of Jagat Singh I (1628–1652) Rao Bhao Singh (1659-1682), with
marked a transformative era for significant contributions from artists
Mewar paintings. ' like Sahibdin and Manohar.
● Notable artists during this period ● Later, despite facing political
included Sahibdin and Manohar. turbulence, Budh Singh continued to
Jagannath, another distinguished champion the art form. His son, Umed
artist, painted the Bihari Satsai in 1719. Singh (1749-1771), brought meticulous
Distinctive Features and Themes ' detailing to the paintings.
● Sahibdin’s major works encompass Key Features and Iconic Works
the Ragamala, Rasikapriya, ● The paintings of the 18th century
Bhagavata Purana, and a part of the adopted Deccani aesthetics with a
Ramayana titled Yuddha Kanda. ' preference for vivid colours. '
● Sahibdin’s Yuddha Kanda, a segment ● Rulers such as Bishen Singh and Ram
of the Ramayana, introduced a unique Singh showcased an inclination
pictorial technique of oblique aerial towards hunting, resulting in
perspective, particularly for portraying numerous huntingthemed artworks.
war scenes.

016
 ● Mural paintings depicting royal
processions and Krishna’s tales
adorned the chitrashalain of the Bundi
palace during Ram Singh’s reign.
Characteristics of Bundi (and Kota)
paintings: '
● Rich depiction of nature,
encompassing diverse flora, fauna,
and water bodies. ' Unique portraits
and unparalleled drawings of
elephants. '
● The specific standard for feminine
beauty such petite women with round
faces, sharp features, and a ‘pinched’
waist. '
● An iconic painting, Raga Dipak,
illustrates a night-time setting with a
couple in a warmly lit chamber,
emphasising the artistic process
where painting was prioritized over
inscriptions. '
● Themes and Influences: Baramasa, a
depiction of the 12 months based on
Keshav Das’s writings, remains a
popular theme in Bundi paintings.
Maru Ragini
The Ragamala painting series from Mewar Kota School of Painting
holds a special place, especially the "Maru ● The Kota School of Painting emerged
Ragini", housed in the National Museum, New from the illustrious tradition of the
Delhi. This painting has an inscription that Bundi School, with a unique emphasis
tells us it was created in 1628 by the artist on vivid hunting scenes. '
Sahibdin in Udaipur, under the patronage of ● Historically, Bundi and Kota were
Rana Shri Jagat Singh. Interestingly, the unified territories until 1625. '
inscription equates the act of painting with ● Emperor Jahangir, appreciating
writing, emphasizing the story the artist aims Madhu Singh’s valour, separated Kota
to tell. The story itself is captivating; it's from Bundi as a reward. '
about Dhola and Maru, a prince and princess ● Painting in Kota commenced around
from folklore. They face numerous the 1660s, during the reign of Jagat
challenges before they can be together. In Singh (1658–1683).
this particular artwork, the two are making Stylistic Evolution and Distinctiveness
their escape on a camel, a nod to their Initially, distinguishing between Bundi
enduring love and determination. and Kota paintings was challenging,
as Kota borrowed heavily from Bundi’s
artistic repertoire. '
● However, over time, Kota paintings
displayed a distinctive
non-conformity, especially in figural
and architectural representations.
● By Ram Singh I’s reign (1686–1708), the
variety of subjects in Kota paintings
had significantly expanded.

017
' Kota artists pioneered landscape-centric
compositions, making landscape the
primary subject.
Prominent Influences and
Characteristics ' Umed Singh’s reign
(1770–1819) is particularly notable.
Ascending the throne at a young age,
he was primarily engaged in hunting,
under the influence of his regent, Zalim
Singh. '
● This obsession with wildlife and
hunting is prominently reflected in the
paintings from his period, often
serving as records of his hunting
expeditions. '
● Even the women of the court actively
participated in these hunting-themed
social rituals.
Key features of Kota paintings
Spontaneity in execution, calligraphic
detailing, distinct shading techniques,
notably the double-lid eye representation,
mastery in depicting animals and combat
scenarios etc
Bikaner School of Painting
● Rao Bika Rathore founded Bikaner a
key Rajasthani kingdom, in 1488. ' The ‘Mandi’ System and Artistic Practices
● Under Anup Singh’s rule (1669–1698), ● Bikaner had a tradition of
Bikaner housed a library rich in establishing studios called “Mandis”
manuscripts and paintings. where artists worked under a master
● Due to prolonged ties with the artist’s guidance. There were known
Mughals, Bikaner’s painting style master artists like Ruknuddin,
imbibed Mughal grace and a subdued Ibrahim, and Nathu managed
colour palette several of these studios. '
Influential Artists and their Contributions ● Once a painting was finished, details
● Inscriptional evidence suggests of the master artist and date were
numerous Mughal atelier master inscribed on the artwork. Often, even
artists visited and contributed to if pupils painted the work, the master
Bikaner’s art during the 17th century. ' artist’s name was inscribed,
● Ustad Ali Raza, a master from Delhi, implying that the master might have
was employed by Karan Singh. His added final touches. This process
works mark the inception of the was termed “gudarayi” or “lift”. '
Bikaner School, dating back to circa ● Studios also performed “marammat”
1650. ' (repairs) and created “nakals”
● In Anup Singh’s era, master artist (copies) of older artworks.
Ruknuddin’s works blended Legacy of Bikaner School of Painting
indigenous, Deccani, and Mughal The Bikaner School stands out as one of the
styles.. most well-documented painting schools.
● He illustrated significant texts, “Bahis” the royal diaries, alongside
including the Ramayana, Rasikapriya, numerous inscriptions on Bikaner artworks,
and Durga Satpsati. ' offer a rich record of the school's history.
● Other notable painters in his atelier Inscriptions, primarily in Marwari and
included Ibrahim, Nathu, Sahibdin, occasionally Persian,
and Isa.

018
provide data on artists, dates, production Kishangarh School of Painting '
locations, and commissioning occasions. ● Kishangarh paintings are among the
Traits of the Bikaner School ' most stylised Rajasthani miniatures. '
● A unique Bikaner practice was to ● They’re known for their refined
include portraits of artists, often with elegance and unique facial depiction
inscriptions detailing their lineage. such as arched eyebrows, lotus
Such artists were titled “Ustas” or petal-shaped eyes with a pinkish
“Ustad”. ' tinge, drooping eyelids, sharp slender
● Ruknuddin’s works were notable for nose, thin lips etc.
their soft colour hues. ' Historical Origins and Evolution
● Ibrahim’s creations carried a dreamy ● Kishan Singh established Kishangarh
aura, with delicate figures and in 1609 after branching off from the
well-defined faces. Jodhpur monarchy. '
● Ibrahim’s studio was particularly ● By the mid-seventeenth century,
prolific, with various sets like under Man Singh’s patronage
Baramasa, Ragamala, and (1658–1706), a distinctive artistic style
Rasikapriya to its credit. began to emerge in the Kishangarh
Krishna Swinging and Radha in Sad Mood court. '
Artist and Date: Created by Nuruddin in 1683, ● This style was characterised by: an
an artist from the Bikaner court. inclination to elongate human forms, a
Composition: The painting is divided into two fondness for the colour green, a
sections: preference for panoramic landscapes.
Top: Krishna with a Gopi, swinging indoors. Bani Thani
Bottom: A desolate Radha outdoors under a ● Bani Thani was a singer known for her
tree, followed by a remorseful Krishna. unparalleled beauty and elegance.
Narrative: Radha learns of Krishna's time ● She was an attendant of Raj Singh’s
with a Gopi and retreats in sorrow. Their wife and was skilled as a poetess,
friend attempts to mediate between the singer, and dancer.
estranged lovers. ● Sawant Singh, who wrote poetry as
Location: The artwork is displayed at the Nagari Das, was deeply enamored
National Museum in New Delhi. with Bani Thani.
● She served as his muse for poems
celebrating Radha and Krishna's love.
● He eventually abdicated the throne in
1757 and moved to Vrindavan with
Bani Thani.
Artistic Representation
● Bani Thani's distinct facial features
inspired an unique Kishangarh
painting style.
● Artist Nihal Chand is credited for
creating this style, often depicting
Sawant Singh and Bani Thanis Krishna
and Radha.
● Key features of Bani Thani's depiction:
Curved eyes, Sharp eyebrows, Pointed
nose, Thin lips, Unique hair curl
spiralling down the cheek.
● The iconic painting of Bani Thani as
Radhanis housed at the National
Museum in New Delhi

019
 Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1638–1678) '
● He initiated a prolific era in the
mid-seventeenth century: '
● Began the trend of documentary
painting, which continued until the
advent of photography in the 19th
century. '
● Due to his inclination towards the
Vallabha cult of Shrinathji,
Krishna-related themes were
predominant, with Bhagvata Purana
being the most prominent.
Ajit Singh (1679–1724) '
● Ascended the throne after a 25-year
war against Aurangzeb, led by the
legendary warrior Veer Durgadas
Religious Influence ' Rathore.
● Raj Singh’s (1706–1748) initiation into ● 'Durgadas’s heroic feats were
the Pushtimargiya cult of celebrated in poems and court
Vallabhacharya paved the way for paintings, with equestrian portraits
Krishna Lila themes to become the becoming popular.
primary focus of Kishangarh art. '
● These themes, especially those Chaugan Players
centered on the divine lovers Radha It is a painting showcasing a princess
and Krishna, became deeply personal engaged in the game of Polo (Chaugan)
for Kishangarh’s rulers. Notable Artists alongside her companions.
and their Contributions Artist
● Nihal Chand stands out as the most ● Crafted by the artist Dana, showing
celebrated artist, working primarily for Jodhpur painting style during Man
Sawant Singh between 1735 and 1757. Singh’s reign.
● Nihal Chand’s compositions centered ● The painting boasts a confluence
on Sawant Singh’s poetry, which often of various artistic traditions:
depicted Radha and Krishna as divine ● Mughal Influence: Recognizable in the
lovers. These paintings portrayed: portrayal of women.
* The lovers set against courtly ● Deccani Influence: Manifested in the
backgrounds; depiction of horses.
* A vast, detailed panoramic ● Bundi and Kishangarh Influences:
landscape setting making the figures Evident in the facial features of the
appear diminutive in comparison; subjects.
* A vibrant use of accentuated colours. ● Indigenous Preference: The flat green
Jodhpur School of Painting ' backdrop highlights the local fondness
● While the Mughal influence since the for unembellished surfaces.
sixteenth century brought about
changes in portraiture and court
scenes, the indigenous folkish style of
Jodhpur resisted this influence,
maintaining its strong presence in
many illustrated sets of paintings.
● One of the early notable sets was a
Ragamala painted by Virji in Pali in
1623.

020
 Rama meets Members of his Family at
Chitrakut
● Painted between 1740 and 1750, this
Man Singh (1803–1843) ' artwork portrays a continuous
● Notable works from this period include narrative from the Ramayana.
the Ramayana (1804), Dhola-Maru, ● Depicts a rural setting with plain huts
Panchatantra (1804), and Shiva (parna kutir) in woods on foothills.
Purana. ' ● The narrative flows from left to right.
● Ramayana paintings are particularly Story Depicted
interesting for depicting Rama’s ● Bharat, after Dashratha’s death, visits
Ayodhya as Jodhpur, offering insights Rama in exile to persuade his return.
into the city’s architecture, bazaars, ● The three mothers and the princes’
and cultural life of the time. ' wives approach Rama, Lakshmana,
● Man Singh was a follower of the Nath and Sita.
Sampradaya, and paintings of him ● Emotional moments between Rama
with Nath gurus, as well as a set of and his mothers, particularly
Nath Charita (1824), were produced. ' Kaushalya.
● Inscription: Inscriptions on Marwar ● Rama’s profound grief upon hearing
paintings were generally limited until about Dashratha's death.
the nineteenth century, occasionally ● Conversations between the mothers,
providing dates, artist names, or Sita, and the sages.
places of painting. ● Each character is labeled.
Jaipur School of Painting ' ● An inscribed verse describes the story.
● The Jaipur School of Painting Location
originated in Amer, which was in close National Museum, New Delhi
proximity to the Mughal capitals, Agra
and Delhi.
● Jaipur School of Painting ' The Jaipur
School of Painting originated in Amer,
which was in close proximity to the
Mughal capitals, Agra and Delhi.
Evolution under Prominent Rulers '
Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743)
● He established the city of Jaipur in
1727, shifting from Amer. During his
reign, the Jaipur School thrived and
became a distinct entity.
● He brought Mughal painters from Delhi
to be part of his atelier. He reorganised Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743–1750): He
the Suratkhana, the place for creating continued the patronage of the arts. He
and storing paintings. commissioned paintings capturing leisure
● He commissioned many paintings on activities such as hunts and elephant rides.
Radha and Krishna themes. His sets Sawai Madho Singh (1750–1767): He focused
based on Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda, on documenting court life incidents in
Baramasa, and Ragamala were paintings. '
popular, often depicting the king as Sawai Pratap Singh (1779–1803):
the hero. * He marked a turning point where the
● Portrait painting flourished with dominant Mughal influence began to wane.
notable painters, like Sahibram and He introduced a unique Jaipur style, blending
Muhammad Shah Mughal and indigenous aesthetics. * He
employed around 50 artists. Being a scholar,
poet, and Krishna devotee, he revitalised
various literary and religious painting
themes.

021
Features of Jodhpur School of Painting ● The style did not emerge in isolation
● In the 18th century, many paintings but was influenced by various art
were reproduced using tracing and forms and schools. Both Indian and
pouncing methods. Mughal painting styles coexisted,
● By the early 19th century, there was an assimilating influences and talents.
extensive use of gold in paintings. ● Mughal patrons played an important
● The Jaipur School favoured larger role in the proliferation of the Mughal
format paintings, even producing painting style, with their distinct
life-size portraits. artistic preferences and sensibilities.
The Mughal School of Miniature Painting Now we will discuss the contribution of
● A miniature painting style that different rulers in Mughal paintings.
originated in the northern Indian
subcontinent between the sixteenth
and midnineteenth centuries. The Mughal atelier consisted of
● They are recognised for their refined calligraphers, painters, gilders and
techniques and diverse subjects, binders. Paintings recorded and
influenced by and found resonance in documented significant events,
other Indian painting styles. personalities and interests of the
● Holds a definitive position in the Indian emperors. These were meant to be seen
school of paintings due to its rich by the royals only. The paintings were
amalgamation of styles and themes. made to suit the sensitivity of the royals
● The Mughals were ardent patrons of or were often made as intellectual
various arts. Each Mughal ruler stimulation. The paintings were part of
contributed uniquely, elevating art manuscripts and albums.
forms like calligraphy, painting,
architecture, and bookmaking.
● To fully comprehend Mughal Painting, Did You Know?
one must consider the Mughal ● The pre-Mughal and parallel
dynasty’s political history and indigenous schools of paintings in
genealogy. India had their strong distinct
Influences on Mughal Painting style, aesthetics and purpose.
● The arts of the Mughal era reflect a The indigenous Indian style
fusion of foreign and local influences. emphasised on flat perspective,
Such as the amalgamation of strong use of lines, vivid colour
indigenous, Persian, and European palette, and bold modelling of
styles. figures and architecture.
● The peak era of Mughal painting ● The Mughal style offered subtlety
showcased a blend of Islamic, Hindu, and finesse, portrayed almost
and European aesthetics. The artworks threedimensional figures and
surpassed traditional Indian and created optical reality.
Iranian paintings of the same era due ● The royal court scenes, portraits,
to the convergence of various tastes, and depiction of accurate flora
philosophies, and faiths. and fauna were some of the
● Mughal courts formalised arts with favourite themes of the Mughal
workshops and Iranian artists, leading artists.
to a blend of Indo-Iranian styles. ● Thus, the Mughal painting
Mughal art thrived due to the ushered in a new style and
collaboration of Indian and Iranian sophistication to the Indian arts of
artists. that time.
Historical Roots
● The tradition of art in India has deep
historical roots. The Mughal style was
a result of interactions with preexisting
art schools in India and Persia.

022
POINTS TO PONDER Humayun
The Mughal style of miniature painting, ● Exile and Influence: After facing
with its fusion of various artistic influences political setbacks, Humayun’s sojourn
and cultural backgrounds, reflect the in the Safavid Persian court enriched
broader historical and political context of his artistic vision.
the Mughal dynasty. What role do you think ● Incorporation of Persian Artists: He
Mughal patrons and the collaboration of was amazed by the Safavid artist
Indian and Iranian artists play in the traditions, so he invited master artists
development and evolution of this like Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd Us Samad
distinctive painting style to foster the Mughal art scene.
● Foundations: He laid the groundwork
for a painting workshop called Nigaar
Khana and initiated the project
Babur ‘Hamza Nama’, an illustrious narrative
● Emergence in India: In 1526, Babur, of Hamza’s adventures.
hailing from present-day Uzbekistan,
introduced a blend of Persian and
Central Asian cultural and aesthetic
flavours to India.
● Versatile Patronage: Apart from his
military conquests, Babur showed a
dynamic appreciation for arts, be it
architecture, gardening, manuscript
creation, or painting.
● Baburnama’s Insights: His
autobiography, Baburnama, provides
a detailed account of his political
journey intertwined with his
deep-rooted passion for the arts.
● Artists and their Traits: Artists like
Bihzad, known for his sophisticated
compositions, and Shah Muzaffar
recognised for his portrayal of Akbar
hairstyles, found notable mentions in ● Cultural Integration: Akbar’s reign is
his memoirs. marked by efforts to amalgamate
various cultural elements.
● Monumental Projects: He
commissioned Persian translations
and illustrations of revered Sanskrit
texts, notably the Mahabharata
(dubbed Razm Nama) and the
Ramayana.
● European Touch: The European
influence, especially after contacts
with the Portuguese, started reflecting
in Mughal paintings.
● Varied Themes: Akbar’s era witnessed
paintings spanning from royal court
scenes to intricate illustrations of
Hindu mythologies and Persian tales.

023
 Jahangir
Noah’s Ark ● Aesthetic Transition: Jahangir shifted
● The painting “Noah’s Ark” is from a the artistic focus towards intricate
dispersed Divan-i Hafiz painted details and naturalism.
manuscript, dated 1590. ● Artists and Their Mastery: He
● The artwork is credited to Miskin, a employed eminent painters like Aqa
master artist in Emperor Akbar’s Riza, Abul Hasan, and later, Bichitra,
imperial atelier. each bringing their unique styles to
● The painting showcases a the court.
subdued colour palette, ● European Infusions: Paintings with
predominantly using pure white Christian themes and those influenced
with subtle shades of red, blue, by European elements became
and yellow. prominent. Iconic works like
● The depiction of water in the Jahangir’s Dream (Refer to Figure 3.18)
artwork is notably convincing. depict political fantasies with
● It employs a vertical perspective, European motifs.
adding dramatic energy to the ● Muraqqas: He popularized the trend of
scene creating albums of individual
Narrative of the Painting paintings, which were richly
● The central figure is Prophet Noah, illuminated.
situated in the ark.
● The ark carries animals in pairs,
symbolizing the preservation of
species after the Divine flood.
● This flood was sent by God as a
punishment for human
transgressions.
● A crucial action within the
painting is the sons of Noah
throwing out Iblis, the devil, who
intended to destroy the ark.
● This exquisite piece is housed in
the Freer Gallery of Art,
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington D.C., USA.

Zebra
● A zebra from Ethiopia, acquired by the
nobleman Mir Ja’far, was presented to
the Mughal emperor Jahangir.
● This unique animal had initially been
brought to India by the Turks
Jahangir’s Documentation
● Jahangir annotated the painting in
Persian, describing the zebra as a
mule from Ethiopia brought by the
Turks.

024
 ● The esteemed artist, “Wonder of The Marriage Procession of Dara Shikoh
the Age” (Nadir ul asr) Ustad ● The painting was crafted by the
Mansur was commissioned to artist Haji Madni.
capture the zebra's likeness. ● It dates back to the era of Shah
● In Jahangir’s chronicle, the Jahan, the Mughal emperor famed
“Jahangirnama”, it’s recorded that for constructing the Taj Mahal in
the zebra was gifted to him during Agra.
the Nowruz celebrations in March ● The artwork depicts the grandeur
1621. of the marriage procession of Dara
● Jahangir contemplated gifting the Shikoh, Shah Jahan’s eldest son.
zebra to Shah Abbas of Iran, a ● Dara Shikoh is illustrated riding a
ruler with whom he frequently brown stallion, adorned with the
exchanged exceptional presents, traditional sehra.
encompassing both fauna and ● Accompanying him is his father,
flora. Shah Jahan, who is distinguishably
● This tradition of exchanging gifts portrayed with a radiant nimbus
was evident in the previous around his head, mounted on a
presentation of a falcon from white horse.
Shah Abbas to Jahangir. ● The painting captures the essence
● The zebra, with its distinctive of Mughal celebrations:
stripes, not only intrigued the ● Musical performances.
Mughal court but also became a ● Dance routines.
testament to the flourishing art ● Exchange of gifts.
and diplomatic exchanges during ● Spectacular fireworks.
the Mughal era. ● The artist, Haji Madni, meticulously
detailed the opulence and
magnificence of the procession,
Shah Jahan encapsulating the grandiosity of
● Artistic Philosophy: Shah Jahan’s the event.
reign emphasized majestic beauty in ● This masterpiece is preserved and
Mughal art. showcased at the National
● Padshahnama: This magnum opus Museum in New Delhi, India.
under his reign is a testament to the
glorious days of Indian miniature
painting, showcasing royal and Aurangzeb
historical subjects. ● Emperor’s Focus: Aurangzeb’s primary
● European Inspirations: The Mughal interest lay in political and military
School under Shah Jahan was both an conquests, yet the flame of Mughal
influencer and an admirer of European artistry continued to burn. His focus
artists, with Rembrandt being a was on the expansion of the Mughal
noteworthy admirer of Mughal artistry. empire and its unification under his
Dara Shikoh leadership. Aurangzeb did not put in
● Keen Interests: As a prince deeply as much effort to elevate the
invested in Sufi mysticism and production of the Mughal atelier.
Vedantic thought, Dara’s art ● Artistic Continuation: Despite the
patronage reflected his diverse subdued emphasis, the royal
intellectual pursuits. workshop persisted in producing
● Memorable Artworks: Paintings like poignant artworks, reflecting the
Dara Shikoh with Sages in a Garden legacy of the Mughals.
immortalise him amidst scholarly
conversations.

025
 ● Adapting to New Patrons: Artists
recalibrated their works to cater to
evolving patrons and their
Later Mughal Painting preferences, thereby adapting to the
Decline in Royal Patronage shifting landscape of subject matters
● Artist Exodus: As fervent support for and visual aesthetics.
arts dwindled in the central Mughal ● Convergence with Other Styles: The
empire, adept artists sought refuge in once-dominant Mughal miniature
provincial courts. style began to merge with other
● Provincial Imitation: These provincial prevailing styles, eventually leading to
Mughal rulers, inspired by the the emergence of the Provincial and
grandeur of the central Mughal court, Company School of Art.
aimed to encapsulate their own
dynasty’s splendour through
paintings. “Krishna Lifts Mount Govardhan”
Contributions of Later Emperors ● The painting titled “Krishna Lifts
● Noteworthy Patrons: Despite the Mount Govardhan” comes from a
decline, emperors like Muhammad dispersed Harivamsa Purana and is
Shah Rangila, Shah Alam II, and dated between 1585–90.
Bahadur Shah Zafar continued to ● The artwork is attributed to the artist
support the arts, although not with the Miskin.
same vigor. ● It currently resides in the
● Bahadur Shah Zafar’s Significance: A Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
painting of Bahadur Shah Zafar from York, USA.
1838 stands out, marking him not just ● Harivamsa Purana and its Mughal
as the last Mughal emperor but also as Connection.
a distinguished poet, scholar, and art ● The Harivamsa Purana is among
aficionado. His exile to Burma by the several Sanskrit manuscripts
British after the Indian Revolt of 1857 translated into Persian under
symbolised the end of the Mughal era. Mughal patronage.
● Badauni, a prominent scholar and
noble at Akbar’s court, was
entrusted with translating this
specific volume on Lord Krishna into
Persian.
● It’s worth noting the contrast
between Badauni’s orthodox
religious views and the more liberal
perspectives of Abul Fazl, another
renowned scholar in Akbar’s court.
● The central figure in the painting is
Hari, or Lord Krishna.
● The artwork depicts the iconic scene
where Krishna lifts the Mount
Govardhan.
● This heroic act was done to shield
the villagers, their livestock, and all
creatures living on the mountain
from a torrential downpour
unleashed by the deity Indra.
Artistic Evolution in a Changing Political ● Krishna uses the mountain as an
Landscape ' enormous umbrella, providing
● Shift in Artistic Paradigm: The rising refuge for the entire village beneath
threat of English dominance and it.
political unrest across regional
kingdoms reshaped India’s artistic
milieu.

026
 The Deccani Schools of Painting
Origins and Recognition
“Falcon on a Bird Rest” ● The history of Deccani’s paintings
● The painting titled “Falcon on a Bird spans from the late sixteenth
Rest” is the creation of the renowned century until the 1680s, when the
Mughal artist Ustad Mansur . Mughals annexed the Deccan.
● Ustad Mansur was honored with the ● This art form persisted into the
title “Nadir-al-Asr” by Emperor nineteenth century, especially
Jahangir. under the Asafiya dynasty, and also
● The artwork is currently housed in the in the provincial courts of Rajas and
Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, USA. Nawabs in the State of Hyderabad
● Emperor Jahangir had a keen interest under the Nizam’s rule.
in falcons and often added exquisite ● For a long time, Deccani painting
specimens to his collection. was categorised under
● His passion extended to having these Indo-Persian art, with influences
magnificent birds painted, with the perceived as Middle Eastern,
images subsequently incorporated Safavid, Persian, Turkish, and
into his official biography, the Mughal.
“Jahangirnama” . ● While its distinctiveness was
acknowledged by art historians, it
took time for the style to gain
recognition as an independent
school of art.
● The Deccani style was backed by
rulers who had their own political
and cultural visions and who
fostered artists and art that
mirrored their individual
sensibilities and governance needs.
● Portraiture and depiction of
historical and religious figures,
while prevalent in the Deccani style,
were also common in
contemporary art schools.
● Mughal portraiture shared
similarities with Safavid and
Ottoman Schools of Painting.
● Unique documentary-style
A Memorable Falcon Episode portraits were a hallmark not only
● Jahangir recounted a notable incident of Mughal art in India but also of
involving a falcon gifted by the Persian broader Asian Islamic art.
emperor, Shah Abbas .
● Tragically, this falcon was attacked
and killed by a cat.
● Following the falcon’s death, Jahangir POINTS TO PONDER
expressed his wish for his court Do you think the challenges associated
painters to immortalize the bird in art, with reconstructing the history of
ensuring its memory would endure for medieval miniature paintings, including
future generations. issues related to damage, dispersal,
● Ustad Mansur’s “Falcon on a Bird Rest” and the absence of dates, impact our
from 1615 stands as a testament to the understanding of the evolution of
Mughal Empire’s rich artistic heritage artistic styles and the cultural contexts
and Jahangir’s deep appreciation for in which these paintings were created?
both art and falconry.

027
Deccani Style
● The southern plateau region of India,
● The Ahmednagar School and other
beyond the Vindhya mountain range,
Deccani kingdoms owe a
witnessed the flourishing of a
significant artistic debt to Persia,
distinctive school of painting in the
especially in their representation of
16th and 17th centuries.
landscapes.
● Prominent kingdoms that cultivated
Characteristic Features
this art form included Bijapur,
● The women’s attire, prominently
Golconda, and Ahmadnagar.
displayed in a series of Ragamala
Key features of Deccani paintings
paintings, epitomized the
● Rich in sensuality with vibrant colours
sixteenth-century Deccan Schools
that resonated with regional
of Painting:
aesthetics.
● Hair fashioned into a bun at the
● The dense composition that exuded
nape.
romance, expressed in natural and
● Landscapes devoid of horizons are
vivid idioms.
replaced by neutral grounds
Ahmadnagar School of Painting
adorned with stylized plants or
● The Ahmednagar School of Painting
symmetrically patterned
traces its earliest origins to a volume
architectural domes.
of poems celebrating the reign of
● Most of these artistic elements,
Hussain Nizam Shah I of Ahmadnagar
barring the hairstyle, carry imprints
(1553–1565).
of either north India or Persia.
● This volume comprises 12 miniatures,
Bijapur School of Painting
primarily illustrating battle scenes.
● The Bijapur School is renowned for
● While many of the battle scene
the richly illustrated encyclopedia,
miniatures may not captivate artistic
Nujum al-Ulum (1570).
attention, the illustrations portraying
● The volume comprises 876
the queen and her matrimonial
miniatures. Themes range from
ceremonies stand out due to vibrant
depicting weapons and utensils to
colours and graceful and sensuous
constellations.
lines.
● Characteristics: Female figures in
● These artworks evoke the pre-Mughal
the miniatures portrayed in South
painting traditions prevalent in
Indian attire, Exude elegance,
northern regions like Malwa and
resembling figures from Ragamala
Ahmedabad.
paintings.
Fashion and Costume Details
● The school thrived under the
● The women depicted in the
patronage of Ali Adil Shah I
Ahmadnagar paintings as a modified
(1558–1580), Ibrahim II (1580–
northern attire comprising a choli
1627), who was also an Indian
(bodice), and long braided pigtails
music enthusiast and penned
adorned with tassels, and wrap a long
Nauras-nama.
scarf around their bodies, a distinctly
● Bijapur’s artistry was influenced by
southern style also observed in the
its ties with Turkey, evident in the
Lepakshi frescoes.
astronomical illustrations in Nujum
Colour Palette and Influences
al-Ulum, possibly inspired by
● The colors employed in these
Ottoman Turkish manuscripts.
paintings diverge from the northern
* The Ragamala paintings are
manuscripts, predominantly drawn
predominantly Indian, with traces of the
from the Mughal atelier, as they
Lepakshi style.
exhibit richer and more vivid hues.
* They encapsulate the opulent
● The Deccani paintings share these
aesthetics of the Adil Shah court with
colour attributes such as the elevated
vibrant colouring and dynamic
circular horizon, the opulent gold sky,
compositions.
and the Unique Landscape Idiom.

028
Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II hawking The Throne of Prosperity
The artwork encapsulates tremendous ● A symbolic representation
energy and exquisite sensibility, showcasing a seventiered
showcasing Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II auspicious throne
riding a vibrant horse. ● Each level is supported by varying
Key Visual Features entities, from elephants, tigers, and
● The horse is depicted with brilliant peacocks, to primitive tribes.
red limbs and tail, making it a focal ● The foundational designs are
point. reminiscent of:
● Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II's flowing * Gujarati homes have wood-carved
garment adds to the painting's doorways and facades.
dynamic movement. * Deccani temples.
● A deep forest backdrop with ● The colour scheme and
varying shades of green – from arabesques reflect the Islamic
dark dense foliage to emerald and Persian tradition.
cobalt blue – complements the ● Distinctive features include
foreground. Deccani foliage set against a deep
● Cranes in the background and a blue sky and stylized plants that
sunlit golden-blue sky amplify the resemble margin decorations in
painting's depth and aesthetic. early sixteenthcentury Gujarati
● The white hawk and the sultan's manuscripts.
delicately rendered faces share Yogini
the limelight, anchoring the ● The Yogini, an embodiment of
viewer's attention. spiritual discipline and
● The artwork exhibits clear Persian renunciation, is an uncommon and
influences, especially in the extraordinary subject.
portrayal of the horse and the ● While the artist remains
rocky terrains. unidentified, the artwork stands out
● Native inspiration is evident in the for:
dense foreground landscape and ➢ Its vertical composition.
the unique plant representations. ➢ The Yogini’s engagement with a
● The galloping horse infuses the myna bird, suggests a dialogue.
painting with kinetic energy, ➢ Rich adornments and a distinct
visually invigorating the entire hair bun that accentuates her
landscape and captivating the stature.
viewer. ➢ Flowing scarves and surrounding
flora enhance the visual appeal.
Golconda School of Painting
● Golconda became an autonomous
state in 1512 and by the late
sixteenth century emerged as the
wealthiest Deccan kingdom.
● Factors contributing to its
prosperity:
❏ Trade from ports along the east
coast, exporting iron and cotton to
South East Asia.
❏ Extensive commerce with Persia,
especially painted cottons became
sought-after in Europe.
❏ Discovery of diamonds in the early
seventeenth century.

029
Characteristics Ragini Pathamsika of Raga Hindola
● A noticeable feature in Golconda’s art
is the gold jewellery adorned by both ● The painting titled ‘‘Ragini
genders. Pathamsika of Raga Hindola’’
● The school’s artistry gained popularity belongs to the renowned Ragamala
when Dutch merchants transported family of Indian musical modes.
sultan portraits to Europe in the late ● Dated to approximately 1590–95, it
seventeenth century. resides in the collection of the
● These portraits referenced royal National Museum, New Delhi.
paintings and were likely created for ● Some scholars attribute its origin to
the bazaar. Bijapur, a significant Deccani state.
● Early Golconda paintings, from around ● The artwork reflects the peak of
1635–1650, were grand, often eight feet painting artistry in the Deccani
tall, intended as wall hangings, and states, evolving in parallel with the
typically showcased figures within Mughal School of Painting.
architectural backdrops. ● Persian influences are evident,
Works particularly in the arabesque
● The earliest recognised Golconda decorations adorning the two
artworks are five miniatures from the domes at the painting's top.
Diwan of Hafiz (1463). ● These domes are interspersed with
● These depict courtly scenes with a Devanagari script letters.
young ruler, characterised by his long ● The painting showcases three
Deccani sword. elegantly attired and adorned
● These paintings are rich in gold, often women:
against a deep blue sky, and feature ● The central woman plays an Indian
entertainment in the form of dancing instrument, likely the veena.
girls. ● The other two women on the flanks
● The paintings notably lack Mughal seem to be rhythmically swaying,
influence, evident in their use of the possibly accompanying the central
colour purple and occasionally musician.
blue-toned animals, such as blue ● Vibrant colors, with red as the
foxes. primary hue complemented by
● A portrait of Muhammad Qutb Shah green, bring the scene to life.
(1611– 1626) displays the sultan in ● Figures exhibit a stylised form with
traditional Golconda attire. formulaic details, accentuated by
❏ * This artwork combines the strict pronounced dark lines. This style
symmetry of earlier works with evident can also be observed in the ancient
Mughal influences, particularly in the Ajanta mural paintings.
detailed drapery. ● A notable element is a small, dark
❏ * A manuscript of a Sufi poem, elephant in the painting's left corner,
embellished with over 20 miniatures, its raised trunk symbolising a warm
exhibits lavish use of gold. welcome. This elephant, though
❏ * Distinctive elements include skies diminutive in size, adds visual
painted in gold and blue bands, intrigue and disrupts the
costumes reflecting trends under architectural composition.
Ibrahim II of Bijapur, and uniquely
coloured Deccani trees.

030
Composite Horse About Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah
➢ The painting, titled ‘‘Composite ● He was a proficient ruler of the
Horse,’’ is a fusion of various renowned Deccani state of Bijapur.
artistic elements. ● Under his reign, Bijapur became a
➢ The artwork ingeniously hub that magnetized scholars and
intertwines human figures to artists globally.
form the majestic shape of a Artistic Depiction
galloping horse against a ● The painting portrays Sultan
detailed backdrop. Abdullah Qutb Shah in a regal pose
➢ The painting incorporates: on his throne.
❖ Flying cranes and lions, ● He holds a sword in one hand, a
symbolizing majesty and grace. potent emblem of his political
❖ Chinese-inspired clouds, adding dominion.
an ethereal touch. ● A halo surrounds his head,
❖ Large-leafed plants, enhancing indicating his divine status.
the surrealism.
➢ Despite the floating, airy
essence of the composition, two
rocky formations at the bottom
corners ground the scene,
providing a solid foundation.
➢ This juxtaposition creates a
dislocation in the viewer's sense
of space, elevating the
painting's intrigue. Color Palette
➢ The artwork employs a
restrained color scheme.
➢ Dominant shades of brown with
hints of blue provide a
harmonious visual experience. Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and Amir
Khusrau
➢ The painting is housed in the
National Museum, New Delhi.
➢ Originates from Hyderabad,
Deccan.
➢ Represents a notable event from
the thirteenth century.
➢ Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya: A
venerated Sufi saint.
➢ Hazrat Amir Khusrau: His disciple, a
distinguished Indian poet, and
Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah scholar.
● The portrait of Sultan Abdullah ➢ Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya is
Qutb Shah resides in the portrayed listening to the music
collection of the National played by Hazrat Amir Khusrau.
Museum, New Delhi, India.
● A Persian inscription adorns the
top of the painting.

031
Contemporary Relevance The Pahari Schools of Painting
● The dargah (shrine) of Hazrat ● Pahari translates to ‘hilly or
Nizamuddin Auliya in New Delhi mountainous’ in origin. Pahari
continues to resonate with paintings originated in towns
Khusrau’s qawwali in honor of located in the western Himalayas
his pir (spiritual guide). between the 17th and 19th
● Devotees globally visit to centuries.
experience this enduring Centers of Origin
cultural tradition. Key centers include Basohli, Guler,
Artistic Perspective Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mankot, Nurpur,
● The artwork is candid and Mandi, Bilaspur, Jammu, and others.
elementary. Evolution of Style
● Lacks the intricate artistry ● Began in Basohli with a vibrant,
characteristic of court flamboyant style.
paintings. ● Evolved into the sophisticated
● Yet, its simplicity captures a Kangra School via the Guler or
beloved Indian theme, making pre-Kangra phase.
it endearing. Challenges in Classification
● Unlike Mughal, Deccani, and
Rajasthani schools, Pahari
paintings pose challenges to
Chand Bibi playing Polo territorial categorization.
● The painting is preserved in the ● While individual centers exhibited
National Museum, New Delhi, specific artistic features, they did
India. not evolve into independent
Subject schools with unique styles.
● Chand Bibi: The Queen of ● Dated materials and inscriptions
Bijapur, a thriving and culturally are scarce, hindering precise
rich Deccani state. categorization.
● Resisted Emperor Akbar's Influences and Emergence
Mughal efforts to annex Bijapur. ● Uncertain origins exist, though
● Celebrated as a capable and theories suggest influences from
respected ruler. Mughal and Rajasthani painting
Scene Depiction styles.
● Chand Bibi is portrayed playing ● Basohli style is considered the
chaugan. earliest prevalent pictorial
● Chaugan is also known as the language.
equestrian polo game. ● B. N. Goswamy’s research suggests
● Polo was a favoured royal sport that the Pahari style evolved from
during her era. the simplicity of Basohli to the
poetic lyricism of Kangra, driven
mainly by the artistic family of
Pandit Seu (Shiv).
● Goswamy argues for considering
families as style bearers rather
than regions, given the fluid
political boundaries.
● By the mid-18th century, the style
had transitioned through the
pre-Kangra phase to mature into
the Kangra style.

032
 ● This transformation is attributed to the ● Originating in Basohli, the art form
influx of new painting styles, possibly spread to Mankot, Nurpur, Kullu,
introduced by rulers, traders, or artists. Mandi, Bilaspur, Chamba, Guler,
Stylistic Features and Kangra.
● Compositions are often showcased Influence of the Ramayana
from a relative viewpoint. ● The Sanskrit epic, Ramayana, was
● Themes portrayed the daily lives of a favourite text for hill artists in
kings, introduced a new prototype for Basohli and Kullu.
the female form, and created an ● A specific set of paintings, named
idealised face. after ‘Shangri’, a place associated
● The evolution led to the mature with the Kullu royal family,
Kangra phase, characterised by its showcased the influence of Basohli
refined naturalism. and Bilaspur styles.
Basohli School of Painting ● Paintings depict scenes like Rama’s
● Basohli School is an art form from the exile, his acts of charity, and the
hill states, most prominently emotional turmoil of the
recognised in Basohli. characters.
● Kirpal Pal, the prince who ruled from ● Another painting illustrates Rama
1678 to 1695, cultivated a unique and and Lakshmana’s journey with
splendid style in Basohli. Sage Vishvamitra, where the
Features depiction of animals adds depth
● Strong use of primary colours, and intrigue to the narrative.
particularly warm yellows, stylized Guler School
representation of vegetation. ● Guler School represents a
● Use of raised white paint for pearls in significant shift from the Basohli
ornaments Unique use of shiny green style, marking the beginning of the
particles from beetle wings to mimic Guler–Kangra phase in Pahari
emeralds in jewellery. painting.
● Elegance and vibrant palette are Historical Context
reminiscent of the Chaurpanchashika ● The transformation began in the
paintings of Western India. early 18th century in Guler, under
Popular Themes and Artists the patronage of Raja Govardhan
● The most cherished theme was Chand (1744–1773).
“Rasamanjari” by Bhanu Datta. In ● Guler had a longstanding painting
1694-95, a series was created by tradition, with evidence suggesting
Devida, a tarkhan, for his patron, Kirpal artists worked there during the
Pal. reigns of Dalip Singh (1695–1743)
● Other themes included Bhagvata and his son Bishan Singh,
Purana and Ragamala. Portraits of predating the Guler– Kangra
kings, their consorts, courtiers, and phase.
other significant figures were also Prominent Artists and their Contributions
popular. ● The artist Pandit Seu and his sons,
● The style expanded to other hill states Manak (or Manaku) and Nainsukh,
like Chamba and Kullu, leading to played pivotal roles in this
local variations. transformation around 1730–40.
Evolution and Expansion ● Manak’s Notable Work: A set of Gita
● From the 1690s to 1730s, a new style Govinda painted in 1730, that
emerged known as the Guler–Kangra retained certain Basohlistyle
phase. elements.
● This phase was marked by
experimentation, which eventually led
to the formation of the Kangra style.

033
 ● Nainsukh’s Distinction: Renowned for ● Characteristics: Profound poetic
his unique portraiture, especially of his and lyrical essence, serene beauty
patron, Balwant Singh of Jasrota .His intertwined with delicate execution,
works captured Balwant Singh in unique portrayal of the female
various activities, showcasing a face, especially the straight nose in
detailed visual record. His palette was line with the forehead, which
marked by delicate pastel shades and became popular around the 1790s.
bold expanses of white or grey. Popular Themes and Artists
Artistic Evolution ● Renowned themes encompassed
● This new style was more refined, religious and cultural tales from the
elegant, and subdued compared to Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda,
the bold vitality of Basohli. Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai,
● By the 1780s, the matured version of Ragamala, and Baramasa.
this style transitioned into the Kangra ● Fattu, Purkhu, and Khushala stand
School, though Basohli’s influence out as notable painters, leaving
persisted in places like Chamba and enduring legacies in the Kangra
Kullu. style.
Patrons and Their Influence ● The royal court and its activities,
● Manaku painted numerous portraits of especially those of Raja Sansar
his enthusiastic patron, Raja Chand, were frequent subjects,
Govardhan Chand, and his family. capturing the essence of the era.
● Raja Prakash Chand, Govardhan Influences, Expansion, and Challenge
Chand’s successor, was also an art ● The art of the Kangra School
enthusiast. He had the sons of Manaku proliferated extensively under
and Nainsukh, namely Khushala, Sansar Chand, reaching regions
Fattu, and Gaudhu, as artists in his from Tira Sujanpur to Garhwal and
court. even extending to Kashmir.
Kangra School ● However, the Gurkha invasion
● The Kangra School thrived under the around 1805 severely hampered
esteemed patronage of Raja Sansar artistic endeavours until their
Chand (1775–1823), an important expulsion in 1809 with Ranjit Singh’s
figure in the region’s art history. intervention. Despite this,
● Amidst financial struggles, Prakash post-1805, the artistic brilliance
Chand of Guler’s leading artist, couldn’t match its previous zenith.
Manaku, and his sons found refuge Achievements
and patronage under Raja Sansar ● Among the myriad of artistic
Chand, enriching the Kangra art creations, the Bhagvata Purana
landscape. series stands tall, especially the
● Kangra’s rich history is rooted in the depiction from Rasa Panchdhyayi,
Katoch dynasty’s reign, which was which vividly illustrates the gopis’
interrupted when Jahangir took profound love for Krishna.
control in the 17th century. The ● The depiction of Ashta Nayikas, or
resurgence came after the the eight heroines in diverse
post-Mughal decline, initiated by Raja emotional states, embodies the
Ghamand Chand. intricacy and depth of Pahari
● Prominent Art Centers: Tira Sujanpur, paintings.
on the banks of the Beas River, rose as
a notable center for art under
Ghamand Chand and later became
the epicentre under Sansar Chand.
Other significant centers included
Alampur and Nadaun, both located
beside the Beas River.
034
Local Styles and Influences ● Mandi, governed by rulers devoted
● The Basohli style, which predated to Vishnu and Shiva, naturally saw
Kangra, saw offshoots and an influx of both Krishna Lila
adaptations in numerous regions like themes and Shaivite subjects.
Chamba, Kullu, Nurpur, Mankot, ● In Garhwal, Molaram stands out as
Jasrota, Mandi, Bilaspur, and Jammu, an artist deeply influenced by the
each adding their own distinct Kangra style, particularly from the
characteristics. Sansar Chand era.
● For instance, Kullu carved its identity Inter-regional Variations and Legacy
with distinctive facial features in its ● While the Kangra School began its
figures and the prevalent use of grey journey in the 1780s, variations of
and terracotta red hues. The renowned the Basohli style continued to
Shangri Ramayana set, believed to influence regions like Chamba,
have multiple artistic contributors due Kullu, Nurpur, and more.
to varying styles, was born in the Kullu ● Nainsukh, with his distinctive style,
Valley in the late 17th century. bridged Basohli simplicity with
● The Nurpur artists blended the newfound sophistication, giving
vibrancy of Basohli colours with the birth to the Guler–Kangra style.
finesse of Kangra figures ● As the art moved and evolved,
● Due to marital alliances between regions like Mandi, influenced by
Basohli and Mankot, some Basohli their rulers’ devotion to Vishnu and
artists transitioned to Mankot, leading Shiva, brought in new thematic
to a fusion school of painting. dimensions.
● Jasrota had the influential patronage ● Molaram of the Garhwal School
of Balwant Singh, with many of his and the influences to Sansar
portraits being the handiwork of his Chand’s Kangra style signify the
court artist, Nainsukh. This led to a widespread impact and adaptation
bridge between the simplistic Basohli of Kangra art.
style and a more sophisticated one,
often referred to as the Guler–Kangra
style Balwant Singh looking at a
Painting with Nainsukh
● The painting portrays Prince
Awaiting Krishna and the Hesitant Radha Balwant Singh of Jasrota
● Pandit Seu had two significant sons: engrossed in examining a
Manak (Manaku) and Nainsukh, who painting.
transitioned Pahari painting from the ● The figure differentially
Basohli to Kangra phase. standing behind the prince
Guler-Kangra Phase Highlights is believed to be the artist,
● This era experienced substantial Nainsukh.
artistic evolution. ● This is a rare instance where
● Manaku's work on Gita Govinda Nainsukh has included
stands out, detailing Radha and himself alongside his patron
Krishna's divine love. in his artwork.
Artistic Depiction of Gita Govinda ● The scene is set in the
● The story captures Radha's palace with a verdant
hesitation and Krishna’s anticipation backdrop, possibly during
of their union. early evening.
● Inscriptions on the painting narrate ● The painting exudes
Radha's journey from shyness to calmness, symbolizing the
embracing her love for Krishna. prince's peaceful disposition.

035
Additional Details The Company Paintings and Cultural
Balwant Singh is depicted enjoying his Nationalism
hukka during a leisurely break. ● Company painting refers to the
Musicians subtly placed in the painting's style that emerged when local
perimeter are hinting at a serene musical Indian artists adapted their
background. traditional techniques to cater to
The focus of Prince's attention is a painting the tastes and interests of British
portraying Krishna. colonial officials during the 18th
century.
● Pre-colonial Indian art was diverse,
seen in temple statues, miniature
Nanda, Yashoda and Krishna
paintings, and village wall
The painting in question illustrates a scene
decorations.
from the Bhagavata Purana, depicting
● The British, intrigued by India’s
Nanda and his family, including Krishna
unique customs, flora, and fauna,
and Balaram, as they travel to Vrindavan.
commissioned paintings for
The story behind the painting involves their
documentation and appreciation.
decision to leave Gokul due to the
● It was created largely on paper by
presence of troublesome demons
artists, some from former courts
bothering Krishna. In the painting, Nanda
like Murshidabad, Lucknow, or
leads the group on a bullock cart, followed
Delhi.
by another cart with Krishna, Balaram,
● The shift from relying on memory
Yashoda, and Rohini. Accompanying them
and rule books (traditional art) to
are men, women, and children carrying
close observation (European art). It
household items. The artwork is notable for
resulted in a blend of Indian and
its detailed and expressive portrayal of the
European art techniques.
characters, with observers noting the tilt of
● It was favored by the British in
their heads during conversation, the
India. The albums of these
fatigue evident in their downcast eyes due
paintings were highly sought-after
to carrying heavy loads, and the taut
in Britain.
stretching of arms as they hold items on
The Bengal School
their heads. The Kangra painters
● The Bengal School of Art was an art
responsible for this work are known for
movement and style that, although
their keen observation of the natural
initiated in Calcutta, Bengal,
landscape, which they represent
extended its influence throughout
realistically, and the painting has a
India, reflecting nationalist
composition that resembles a
sentiments in art.
photograph, adding to its sense of
● The movement began in Calcutta,
naturalism
the then center of British power. It
was not confined to Bengal,
influencing artists across India,
including in Shantiniketan, the site
of India’s first national art school
Key Figures
● Spearheaded by Abanindranath
Tagore (1871–1951), a prominent
figure in the nationalist (Swadeshi)
movement.
● Supported by E.B. Havell
(1861–1934), the British
administrator and principal of the
Calcutta School of Art.

036
Inspirations
● Both Tagore and Havell criticised the Raja Ravi Varma
colonial art schools and their ● Raja Ravi Varma was a
promotion of European tastes. self-taught artist from the
● It aimed to foster an art form that was Travancore Court in Kerala,
distinctly Indian in both style and known for his fusion of European
subject matter. academic realism with Indian
● They drew inspiration from traditional mythological and historical
Indian art forms like Mughal and themes.
Pahari miniatures, rejecting the Evolution of Art in India
influences of the Company School of ● The popularity of Company
Painting and the European academic Painting declined with the
style prevalent in colonial art schools. advent of photography in the
Abanindranath Tagore and E.B. Havell mid-19th century.
● The year 1896 is important for Indian ● British art schools promoted the
visual arts, marked by the academic style of oil painting,
collaboration of E.B. Havell and blending European mediums
Abanindranath Tagore. with Indian subjects.
● Their primary mission was to Indianise Raja Ravi Varma's Contribution
art education, which began in earnest ● He learned by imitating
at the Government Art School in European paintings found in
Calcutta, now known as the Indian palaces.
Government College of Art and Craft, ● He successfully depicted scenes
Kolkata. from epics like the Ramayana
● Unlike other art schools in cities like and Mahabharata using
Lahore, Bombay, and Madras, which academic realism.
emphasised crafts, Calcutta’s ● His works gained immense
institution leaned towards fine arts. popularity, reproduced as
● Havell and Tagore reimagined the oleographs for sale and became
curriculum, embedding techniques widespread as calendar
and themes from Indian art traditions. images.
● Abanindranath’s “Journey’s End” Impact on Nationalism
epitomises the influence of Mughal ● Towards the end of the 19th
and Pahari miniatures, showcasing his century, as nationalism surged
aspiration for a distinctive Indian style in India, Raja Ravi Varma's style
in painting. faced criticism for being too
"westernised" for Indian subjects.
● This led to the emergence of the
Bengal School of Art in the early
20th century, reflecting
nationalist sentiments in art.

037
Recovering India’s Artistic Language Radhika
● Art historian Partha Mitter noted that ● A wash and tempera painting
Abanindranath’s first-generation on paper.
students were committed to reviving ● Abdul Rehman Chughtai (1899
the “lost language” of Indian art. –1975), a descendant of the
● To reinforce the notion that modern chief architect of iconic
Indians could draw from their rich structures like the Taj Mahal, was
artistic past, Abanindranath played a influenced by renowned Indian
pivotal role in the Indian Society of artists like Abanindranath
Oriental Art journal. Tagore.
Swadeshi Values and the Birth of the Bengal ● The artwork blends the wash
School of Art technique with calligraphic lines,
● Abanindranath emerged as a chief reminiscent of Mughal
proponent of Swadeshi values in manuscripts and Persian
Indian art. paintings.
● His vision culminated in the ● Radhika is depicted in a
establishment of the Bengal School of melancholic setting, walking
Art, laying the foundation for modern away from a lamp, drawing
Indian painting. inspiration from Hindu
● The innovative direction set by mythology.
Abanindranath was embraced by ● Chughtai's style showcases
subsequent artists, including elements from Indo-Islamic,
Kshitindranath Majumdar (with works Rajput, and Mughal narratives,
like “Rasa-Lila”) and M.R. Chughtai and has similarities with Chinese
(famed for “Radhika”). and Japanese masterworks.
● The painting exudes a poetic
Rasa-Lila charm, characteristic of
● A watercolour piece portraying the Chughtai's other works like
Gloomy Radhika and Musician
divine moments of Sri Krishna. Lady.
● Created by Kshitindranath
Majumdar, an early student of
Abanindranath Tagore.
● Features rustic, slender figures in
idyllic settings with delicate
watercolors.
● The painting depicts Krishna
dancing with Radha and sakhis
amidst a village backdrop inspired
by Bhagvata Purana and Gita
Govinda.
● Notable for its simple, flowing lines
and the portrayal of humans and
God on an equal footing, reflecting
Majumdar's Bhakti Marga
influence.

038
Shantiniketan: Early Modernism Jamini Roy
● Kala Bhavana was India’s first national ● Jamini Roy, after his academic
art school, established as part of the training, embraced the vibrant and
Visva-Bharati University in simplistic style of village folk art.
Shantiniketan and founded by poet ● His artworks, emphasising themes
and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore. of women, children, and rural life,
● Nandalal Bose, a disciple of were designed for broad
Abanindranath Tagore, headed the accessibility and replication.
painting department at Kala Bhavana. Continued Struggle between Indian and
● He cultivated an Indian artistic style by European Art '
drawing inspiration from folk art forms ● The British Raj’s art policy mirrored
prevalent in Shantiniketan and the ongoing tension between
emphasising the language of art. Indian and European artistic
● His integration of art into education sensibilities.
was evident in his woodcut ● While students from the Bombay
illustrations for Bengali primers. School of Art, mentored by Principal
Nandalal Bose’s Contribution to Nationalism Gladstone Solomon in realism,
● Mahatma Gandhi commissioned Bose were tasked with mural
to create art panels for the 1937 decorations for Lutyen’s Delhi,
Congress session in Haripura, known artists from the Bengal School were
as the ‘Haripura Posters’. assigned to adorn the Indian House
● These posters portrayed everyday in London, albeit under stringent
rural individuals — musicians, farmers, British oversight.
women — engaged in diverse
activities, symbolising their
contribution to nation-building, the Legacy of Kala Bhavana
tiller of the soil as the famous painting. ● Kala Bhavana emerged as a
● They resonated with Gandhi’s vision of hub for nurturing artists with
inclusive nation-building through art. a nationalist vision.
● Many of its alumni, like K.
Venkatappa from South
India, spread its teachings
across the country.
Tiller of the Soil
● The institution aimed to
● ‘‘Tiller of the Soil’’ was crafted in
democratise art, targeting a
1938 for the Haripura Congress.
broad audience beyond just
● It depicts a farmer ploughing,
the elite class.
symbolizing the essence of village
life.
● Bose employed a style reminiscent
of folk art, specifically the patuas or
scroll painters.
● The piece echoes Mahatma
Gandhi's vision of the village's
central role in India.
● Beyond being mere art, the panel
places the common man at the
forefront of nation-building,
showcasing Bose’s alignment with
Gandhi's philosophy.

039
Pan-Asianism and Modernism ● Conversely, E. B. Havell, an
● The colonial art policy created a rift Englishman, championed a return
between proponents of the European to native art as the path to genuine
academic style and advocates of the modern Indian art. His
Indian style. collaboration with Abanindranath
● Post the 1905 Partition of Bengal, the Tagore is seen in this light.
Swadeshi movement reached its ● Amrita Sher-Gil exemplifies the
zenith, influencing art perspectives. melding of Western and Indian art
Ananda Coomaraswamy, a notable perspectives.
art historian, penned articles on ● Drawing inspiration from styles
Swadeshi in art. showcased in the Bauhaus
● Kakuzo Okakura, a Japanese exhibition, she portrayed Indian
nationalist visiting Rabindranath scenarios.
Tagore in Calcutta, introduced ideas of Modern Art in India: Colonialism vs.
pan-Asianism, aiming to unite India Nationalism
with other eastern nations against ● Modern Indian art is shaped by the
Western imperialism. tension between colonial and
● Two Japanese artists who nationalist influences.
accompanied Okakura to Calcutta ● Colonialism introduced novel art
went on to teach the wash technique institutions: art schools, galleries,
of painting in Shantiniketan, offering magazines, and societies.
an alternative to Western oil painting. ● Nationalist artists, while adapting
Introduction of Modern European Art to India to these novelties, emphasised a
● 1922 stands out as the year when an distinctly Indian flair in art,
exhibition featuring works by artists occasionally embracing a broader
like Paul Klee and Kandinsky from the Asian identity.
Bauhaus School in Germany was ● The clash between
showcased in Calcutta. internationalism (borrowing ideas
● They rejected academic realism; these from the West) and indigeneity
artists introduced abstract art (staying true to native legacies and
elements like squares, circles, and traditions) would persistently
colour patches to India, offering the influence the trajectory of modern
nation its first direct exposure to such Indian art.
modern art.
Gaganendranath Tagore
● Gaganendranath Tagore, City in the Night
Abanindranath Tagore’s sibling, was ● A watercolour painting from 1922,
influenced by the modern Western art showcasing the artist’s unique
style. adaptation of Cubism
● His paintings demonstrated the Cubist ● Gaganendranath Tagore
style, using geometric patterns to (1869-1938), an early adopter of
depict building interiors. Cubism in India, melded its
● Additionally, he was known for his formal geometry with suggestive
caricatures that humorously critiqued human outlines.
affluent Bengalis who blindly ● The painting externalizes inner
embraced European lifestyles. turbulence using Cubism's
Modernism in Indian Painting multifaceted shapes and jagged
Perspectives on Modernism in Painting edges.
● Benoy Sarkar, a Bengali intellectual,
aligned with Anglicists, perceived
European modernism as authentic
and the Bengal School of Art as
regressive.

040
 ● Imaginary cities, such as Dwarka ● This intense, momentous
and Swarnapuri, are portrayed depiction is characteristic of
through prismatic colors and Varma's style, capturing major
fragmented luminosity, evoking the moments in an epic
mountainous landscapes of these sequence.
cities. ● Other notable works by Varma
● Notable features include zigzag include "Release of Ahalya",
planes and artificial stage lighting, "Rama Breaking the Sacred
hinting at the painter's association Bow of Shiva", and "The
with theatrical productions, Coronation of Rama", each
especially those of his uncle, narrating different chapters of
Rabindranath Tagore. the Ramayana.
● Elements like corridors, pillars,
doors, and staircases are layered
on a single plane, creating a Woman with Child
captivating, magical world. ● Jamini Roy, renowned as the
pioneer of the folk renaissance
in India, sought to craft a
distinct modern Indian identity.
● In the 1920s, he ventured to
Bengal's countryside to
immerse himself in folk
paintings and absorb the
artisans' expressive line work.
● The painting showcases a
mother and child,
characterized by:
● Bold simplifications and
pronounced outlines.
● Vibrant colors like dull yellow
against a brick-red backdrop,
reminiscent of the terracotta
relief from his native Bankura.
● Two-dimensional style,
Rama Vanquishing the Pride of the reminiscent of pat paintings.
Ocean ● Roy's artistry evolved from
● Raja Ravi Varma was pioneering monochrome brush drawings
in utilizing oil paint for to a palette of seven
mythological themes and fundamental colors derived
mastered lithographic from organic materials.
reproduction. ● He crafted his canvases using
● The painting portrays a pivotal home-spun fabric, diverging
scene from the Valmiki from traditional pat materials.
Ramayana: ● Roy's embrace of village
● Rama, needing a bridge to Lanka, community themes served as
prays to the Ocean God, Varuna. both an artistic resistance to
● When unheeded, an angered Rama colonial influence and a means
prepares to shoot a fiery arrow at the to elevate local symbols to
ocean. national significance.
● Varuna promptly emerges to pacify
Rama.

041
Journey’s End
● Abanindranath Tagore, esteemed
as a pioneer of Indian art
modernism, rejuvenated Indian
and oriental painting traditions.
● He innovated the wash painting
technique, known for its soft,
misty, and impressionistic
landscapes.
● The painting showcases:
● A fallen camel set against a red dusk
backdrop, symbolizing the conclusion of
a journey paralleled with day’s end.
● Fine lines and delicate tones vividly
capture the camel’s features, and its
sensory texture adds depth to the
painting’s interpretation.
● Abanindranath skillfully
intertwined symbolic aesthetics
with literary references in his
works.
● Other notable paintings by him
include ‘‘The Forest,’’ ‘‘Coming of Follow us on :
Night,’’ and a 45-piece series
based on ‘‘The Arabian Nights.’’

042
 ● These paintings, characterised by
4. Folk Painting
bright colours, are largely painted
in three areas of the house –
central or outer courtyards, the
Introduction eastern part of the house, which is
Our country has always been a repository of the dwelling place of Kuladevi,
indigenous knowledge, which has been usually, Kali, and a room in the
transferred from one generation to another. southern part of the house, which
Artists in each generation have created the houses the most significant
best works out of available materials and images.
technology. Many scholars named these art ● In the inner verandah, where the
forms as minor arts, utility art, folk art, tribal family shrine – devasthana or
art, people’s art, ritual art, crafts, and so on. gosain ghar is located, griha
Examples: Prehistoric cave paintings or devatas and kula devatas are
works of pottery, terracotta, bronze, ivory, painted.
etc., of the Indus period. In India, ● The most extraordinary and
post-Independence, a revival of the colourful painting, however, is done
handicraft industry took place. The art and in the part of the house known as
craft traditions of India showcase the the kohbar ghar or inner room,
tangible heritage of the country with a where magnificent representations
history of more than five thousand years. of kohbar, a lotus with a stalk in full
Painting of India bloom having metaphoric and
● Paintings are the aesthetic expression tantric connotation, along with
which is made to decorate walls and images of gods and goddesses, are
floors and do many more artistic painted on the freshly plastered
things to fulfill daily needs. walls of the room.
● They are made on pots and dresses, ● Themes that are painted are
jewellery and ritual or votive episodes from the Bhagavata
sculptures. There is symbolism, Purana, and the Ramayana, stories
specific use of motifs, materials, of Shiva-Parvati, Durga, Kali and
colours and methods of making. Rasa-Lila of Radha and Krishna.
Types of Paintings ● Mithila artists do not like empty
During ancient times, there were many types spaces. They fill in the entire space
of paintings developed in various regions. decoratively with elements from
Among the many popular traditions of nature like birds, flowers, animals,
painting, Mithila or Madhubani painting of fish, snakes, the sun and the moon,
Bihar, Warli painting of Maharashtra, Pithoro which often have symbolic intent,
painting of North Gujarat and western signifying love, passion, fertility,
Madhya Pradesh, Pabuji ki Phad from eternity, well-being, and
Rajasthan, Pichhwai of Nathdwara in prosperity.
Rajasthan, Gond and Sawara Paintings of Warli Painting
Madhya Pradesh, Pata Chitra of Orissa and ● This painting is done by the Warli
Bengal, etc., are a few examples. Here, a few community, who inhabit Northern
of them have been discussed in detail. Maharashtra around the north
Mithila Painting Sahyadri range. Married women
● It derives its name from Mithila, the play a central role in creating their
ancient Videha and birthplace of Sita. most important painting called
It is also called the Madhubani Chowk, to mark special occasions.
painting. It is a widely recognised folk
art tradition. The origin of this art form
dates back to the time of Princess Sita
getting married to Lord Rama.

043
 ● It is closely associated with the rituals Pithoro Painting
of marriage, fertility, harvest and the ● This painting was painted by
new season of sowing, Chowk is Rathva Bhils of the Panchmahal
dominated by the figure of the mother region in Gujarat and Jhabua in the
goddess, Palaghat, who is chiefly neighboring state of Madhya
worshipped as the goddess of fertility Pradesh. These paintings are done
and represents the corn goddess, on the walls of houses to mark
Kansari. special or Thanksgiving occasions.
● She is enclosed in a small square ● These are large wall paintings,
frame decorated with ‘pointed’ representing rows of numerous and
chevrons along the outer edges that magnificently coloured deities
symbolise Hariyali Deva, i.e., the God depicted as horse riders.
of Plants. ● The rows of horse-riding deities
● Her escort and guardian are visualised represent the cosmography of the
as a headless warrior, riding a horse or Rathvas. The uppermost section
standing beside her with five shoots of with riders represents the world of
corn springing from his neck, and gods, heavenly bodies, and
hence, called Panch Sirya Devata mythical creatures.
(five-headed god). He also symbolises ● An ornate wavy line separates this
the guardian of the fields, Khetrapal. section from the lower region,
● The central motif of Palaghat is where the wedding procession of
surrounded by scenes of everyday life, Pithoro is depicted with minor
portraying acts of hunting, fishing, deities, kings, goddesses of destiny,
farming, dancing, mythological stories archetypal farmers, domestic
of animals, where the tiger is animals, and so on, which
conspicuously visible, scenes of buses represent the earth.
plying, and the busy urban life of Pata Painting
Mumbai as people from Warli see It is generally done on fabric, palm leaf or
around them. paper, scroll painting is another example
● These paintings are traditionally of an art form practised in different parts
painted with rice flour on the of the country, especially, in Gujarat and
earth-coloured walls of their homes. Rajasthan in the West and Odisha and
These paintings avert diseases, West Bengal in the East. It is also known
propitiate the dead, and fulfill the as Pata, Pachedi, Phad, etc.
demands of spirits. A bamboo stick,
chewed at the end, is used as the
Do You Know?
paintbrush.
Patuas, also called chitrakars, belong to
Gond Painting
communities largely settled around
● Paintings of Gonds of Mandla and its
Midnapore, Birbhum and Bankura
surrounding regions have recently
regions of West Bengal, parts of Bihar
been transformed into a colourful
and Jharkhand.
depiction of animals, humans and
flora. ' The votive paintings are Bengal Patas
geometric drawings done on the walls ● It comprises the practice of
of huts, portraying Krishna with his painting on cloth (pata) and
cows surrounded by gopis with pots storytelling in regions of West
on their heads to which young girls Bengal. It is the most receptive oral
and boys make offerings. tradition, constantly seeking new
themes and formulating novel
responses to major incidents in the
world.

044
 ● The vertically painted pata becomes a ● After completion, the painting is
prop used by a patua (performer) for held over charcoal fire and lacquer
performance. is applied to the surface to make it
● Handling the pata is their hereditary water resistant and lend it a sheen.
profession. They travel around ● The colours are organic and locally
villages, displaying the paintings and procured. For example, black is
singing the narratives that are obtained from lamp black, yellow
painted. Performances happen in the and red from haritali and hingal
common spaces of the village. The stone, respectively, and white from
patua narrates three to four stories powdered conch shells.
each time. After the performance, the ● Palm manuscripts are illustrated
patua is given alms or gifts in cash or on a palm variety called
kind. Khar-taad. Paintings on these are
Puri Patas or Paintings not painted with brush but incised
➢ It acquired its recognition from the by a steel stylus, and then, filled in
temple city of Puri in Odisha. It largely with ink, and sometimes, tinted
comprises the pata (initially, done on with paint.
palm leaf and cloth but now done on Phads Paintings
paper as well). ● Phads are long, horizontal cloth
➢ Theme of Puri Patas scrolls painted to honour folk
● Daily and festival veshas (attires) of deities of pastoral communities
Jagannath, such as Balabhadra and inhabiting the region around
Subhadra. Bhilwara in Rajasthan.
● Rasa paintings, Ansara patti (this ● These were designated by the
substitutes the icons in the broad term bhomia, these heroes
Garbhagriha when they are removed are honored, worshiped and
for cleaning and fresh colouring is remembered for their acts of
done after Snanayatra); martyrdom.
● Jatri patti for pilgrims to take away as ● Illustrating the valorous tales of
memorabilia and put them in personal these bhomias, the phads are
temples at home. carried by bhopas, the itinerant
● Episodes from the myths of bards, who travel the territory,
Jagannath, such as the Kanchi Kaveri displaying them while narrating
Pata, tales and singing devotional songs
● Thia-badhia pata, is a combination of associated with these hero deities
aerial and lateral views of the temple in nightlong storytelling
with the icons and temples around or performances.
depiction of festivals around it. ● A lamp is held against the phad to
Pattachitra Paintings illuminate the that are being
● These paintings are done on small spoken about. The bhopa and his
strips of cotton cloth, which is companion perform to the
prepared by coating the cloth with soft accompaniment of musical
white stone powder and glue made instruments, such as ravanahattha
from tamarind seeds. ' and veena, and employ the Khyal
● There is a practice of making the style of singing.
borders first. A sketch of the figures is, ● Through the phads and phad
then, made directly with a brush and banchan, the community
flat colors are applied. Colours, such remembers the hero as a martyr
as white, black, yellow and red are and keeps his story alive. Phads,
usually used. however, are not painted by the
bhopas.

045
 Do You Know? ● The clay form is, then, covered with
For communities of Bhilwara in layers, first of fine clay, then, with a
Rajasthan, livestock is very important mixture of clay and cow dung, and
and so they worship gods who are finally, with clay obtained from ant
deified cattle heroes, who are brave hills mixed with rice husk.
men who sacrificed their lives while ● The molten metal was then poured
protecting the community’s cattle from into the space once occupied by
robbers. resin, which would by now have
evaporated. The molds are allowed
to cool and the clay layer is
Sculptural Traditions hammered away to reveal the
These refer to the popular traditions of metal image.
making sculptures in clay (terracotta), metal Terracotta
and stone. There are numerous such ● Usually made by potters, terracotta
traditions across the country. Some of them pieces are votives, or offered to
are: local deities or used during rituals
Dhokra Casting and festivals.
● Dhokra or metal sculptures made from ● They are made from local clay
lost wax or cire perdue technique is found on riverbanks or ponds. The
one of the most prominent metal terracotta pieces are baked for
crafts of Bastar, Chhattisgarh, parts of durability.
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and ● Whether it is Manipur or Assam in
Midnapore in West Bengal. the North-East, Kuchchha in
● Dhokra casting is an elaborate Western India, Hills in the North,
process. It involves the casting of Tamil Nadu in the South, Gangetic
bronze through the lost wax method. plains or Central India, there is a
Black soil from the riverbank is mixed variety of terracotta made by
with rice husk and kneaded with people of different regions.
water. The core figure or mould is ● They are moulded, modeled by
made from this. On drying, it is hand or made on a potter’s wheel,
covered with a second layer of cow coloured or decorated.
dung mixed with clay. ● Their forms and purposes are often
● Resin collected from the saal tree is, similar. They are either the images
then heated in a clay pot till it of gods or goddesses.
becomes liquid, which is then added
with mustard oil
● The boiling liquid is then allowed to
solidify but remains soft and
malleable. It is, then, taken apart in
small pieces, heated slightly over
low-burning coal and stretched into
fine threads or coils.
● Such threads are joined together to
form strips. The dried clay form is,
then, overlaid with these resin strips or
coils and all decorative details and
eyes, nose, etc., are added to the
figures.

046
 5.Modern Indian Art
● This journey through time reveals
how Indian art has continually
adapted, reflecting the
Introduction ever-changing cultural, social, and
In the 19th century, British colonial technological landscape of the
perceptions labeled fine arts as European nation.
and questioned the artistic sensibilities of We will analyze this artistic evolution of
Indians. Art schools were established in Modern Indian Art in detail
major Indian cities, promoting traditional Emergence During Nationalist Struggle
crafts and Victorian-influenced academic ● Modern art in India was
art. The Bengal School of Art, nurtured by undoubtedly influenced by the
Abanindranath Tagore and E.B. Havell, West but exhibited significant
emerged as a prime example of nationalist differences.
art against this colonial bias. Kala Bhavana, ● It arrived in India during British
India’s first nationalist art school, was colonial rule, with artists like
founded in 1919 as part of Visva-Bharati Gaganendranath, Amrita Sher-Gil,
University in shantiniketan, conceptualised and Jamini Roy being considered
by Rabindranath Tagore. In the backdrop of modern as early as the 1930s.
World War I, Indian artists were influenced by ● In contrast to Europe, where
modern European art through magazines, modern art arose in rebellion
leading to a shift towards abstraction and against academic realism, Indian
the belief that art could create its own world modernity was intertwined with
through forms, lines, and color patches. colonialism and cultural
Tracing the Modern Indian Art nationalism.
● Modern Indian art has evolved through ● Artists like F. N. Souza and J.
different dynamic shifts and Swaminathan rebelled against art
influences over the years, marked by institutions and identified with
distinct artistic changes. Western avant-garde artists.
● It found its nascent voice during the ● Modernity and colonialism were
nationalist struggle of the 1930s,when closely linked in India, giving rise to
artists sought to express the spirit of a cultural nationalism and the idea
nation striving for independence. of swadeshi in art.
● During this era, figurative art emerged ● Modern Indian artists carefully
as a potent means of storytelling, selected elements from Western
drawing from indigenous traditions art rather than blindly imitating it.
and folklore to narrate the Indian ● The roots of nationalism in Indian
experience. art can be traced to the Bengal
● The art world witnessed a transition School under Abanindranath
towards figurative art and modern art Tagore’s leadership and later took
in the 1980s, where Indian artists a unique form at Kala Bhavana,
explored diverse styles, narratives, Shantiniketan, where artists like
and mediums, breaking away from Nandalal Bose drew inspiration
traditional constraints. from traditional Indian art forms.
● Further, the 1990s ushered in the era of ● However, it was artists like
new media art, as technology opened Gagendranath Tagore,
up fresh avenues for artistic Rabindranath Tagore, Jamini Roy,
exploration. Today, modern Indian art Amrita Sher-Gil, Ramkinker Baij,
continues to thrive, reflecting the and Benode Behari Mukherjee who
dynamism and diversity of the infused a distinctly modern
nation’s cultural landscape. ' attitude into Indian art

047
Artistic Journeys in Early 20th Century India ● Jamini Roy: Influenced by folk art
● Gaganendranath Tagore: He and modern European masters,
developed a unique style influenced used simple colours and rural
by Cubism, featuring mysterious halls themes, differentiating himself with
and rooms with vertical, horizontal, personal signatures. Like village
and diagonal lines, distinct from Pablo artists, he also made his own
Picasso’s geometrical facets. colours from vegetables and
● Rabindranath Tagore: Late to visual minerals.
art, Tagore created patterns out of ● Amrita Sher-Gil (1913-1941): She
doodles and developed a unique, was trained in Paris, combining
calligraphic style out of crossed out Indian and European art influences,
words from his poems, incorporating leaving behind a remarkable body
human faces and landscapes with a of work that impacted the next
limited palette. His palette was limited generation of Indian modernists.
with black, yellow ochre, reds and Her art fused Indian themes with
browns. He created a small visual European modernism, contributing
world, which often drew inspiration significantly to modern Indian art.
from Mughal and Pahari miniatures After deciding to make India her
along with Ajanta frescoes. base, she worked to develop art
● Nandalal Bose (1921-1922): He was with Indian themes and images.
influenced by nationalism, and
allowed artistic exploration at Kala
Bhavana. His training under
Abanindranath Tagore made him
familiar with nationalism in art.
● Bose’s students, Benode Behari
Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij
developed their own styles, capturing
their environment, Santhal tribe, and
medieval saints in their works,
departing from the elegant Bengal
School style.
● Benode Behari’s mural “Medieval
Saints” in Shantiniketan highlights the
humane teachings of saints like Tulsi Modern Ideologies and Political Art in
Das and Kabir. Rather than making India
paintings around well-known epics ● Following Amrita Sher-Gil’s death
like Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Bengal famine during
Benode Behari Mukherjee was drawn World War II, artists in Calcutta
to the lives of medieval saints. formed the Calcutta Group under
● Ramkinkar Baij: His art celebrated the leadership of Prodosh Das
nature and everyday experiences, with Gupta. These artists include Nirode
sculptures like the Santhal Family Mazumdar, Paritosh Sen, Gopal
reflecting the daily life of a Santhal Ghose and Rathin Moitra.
family using modern materials. His ● They sought universal and
style contrasted with earlier sculptors contemporary art, distancing
like D. P. Roy Choudhury, who themselves from the
employed academic realism to sentimentalism of the Bengal
celebrate the labour of the working School of Art.
classes, The Triumph of Labour.

048
 ● The group simplified their visual Abstraction – A New Trend
expressions, emphasizing elements ● In the realm of Indian modern art,
like material, surface, forms, colors, while M.F. Husain remained
shades, and textures. primarily a figurative artist, S.H.
● Many of these artists were drawn to Raza transitioned towards
socialism and Marxism due to the abstraction, particularly focusing
poverty and social issues they on landscapes and utilizing a wide
witnessed. range of colors.
● Chittoprasad and Somnath Hore, ● Raza’s abstract works drew from
political artists, used printmaking to mandala and yantra designs and
depict the plight of the poor, with incorporated the bindu as a symbol
Chittoprasad’s works on the Bengal of oneness from Indian philosophy.
Famine published as “Hungry Bengal,” ● Later, artists like Gaitonde, K.K.
causing annoyance to the British Hebbar, S. Chavda, Akbar
authorities. Padamsee, Tyeb Mehta, and
● Chittoprasad’s etchings, linocuts and Krishen Khanna would move
lithographs showed the deplorable between abstraction and figurative
condition of the poor. It is not styles.
surprising that he was asked by the ● Abstraction also found prominence
Communist Party of India to travel to among sculptors like Piloo
villages worst affected by the Bengal Pochkhanawala and printmakers
Famine and make sketches. like Krishna Reddy, who
The Progressive Artists’ Group of Bombay emphasized the significance of
and the Multifaceted Indian Art materials in their creations.
● After witnessing independence from ● The appeal of abstraction extended
British rule, young artists sought across various art forms, including
political and artistic freedom. painting, printmaking, and
● In Bombay, The Progressives, led by sculpture, during the 1960s and
Francis Newton Souza and including 1970s.
artists like M. F. Husain, K. H. Ara, S. A. ● In South India, K.C.S. Paniker
Bakre, H. A. Gade, and S. H. Raza pioneered abstraction and
emerged in 1946. showcased its historical roots by
● Souza challenged conventional art incorporating motifs from Tamil
school norms, focusing on and Sanskrit scripts, floor
experimental works, particularly decorations, and rural crafts,
exaggerated nude portrayals of demonstrating the longstanding
women. ' presence of abstraction in Indian
● M.F. Husain aimed to make modern art art
relatable to an Indian context, using Quest for Distinct Indian Art
Western expressionist techniques with ● By the late 1970s, a tension between
vibrant Indian colors and drawing internationalism (embracing
inspiration from Indian mythology, Western modern trends) and
religious themes, miniature paintings, indigenous art emerged in Indian
village crafts, and folk toys. modern art.
● His ability to blend modern style with ● Artists like Amarnath Sehgal and
Indian themes established him as a Mrinalini Mukherjee found a
representative figure of Indian modern balance between abstraction and
art on the global stage, exemplified by figurative elements in their works.
his depiction of Mother Teresa in a ● Concerns about imitating Western
modern artistic context. art led to a quest for establishing a
distinct Indian artistic identity.

049
 ● Biren De, G.R. Santosh, and K.C.S. ● Artists like Arpita Singh, Nalini
Paniker turned to local artistic Malani, and Sudhir Patwardhan
traditions, creating what became focused on the challenges faced by
known as Neo-Tantric art, urban dwellers and sought to
characterized by geometrical designs understand the world from the
inspired by meditation diagrams. perspective of the oppressed.
● This style found success in the West ● In the 1980s, the Baroda Art School
and India, combining Indian influences witnessed a significant shift as
with abstraction. artists began to engage with their
● Eclecticism, borrowing from various immediate surroundings and
sources, became a notable feature of address social and political
Indian modernists, including Ram concerns. They combined fact with
Kumar, Satish Gujral, A. fiction, autobiography with fantasy,
Ramachandran, and Meera and drew inspiration from various
Mukherjee. art historical styles.
● Artists began writing manifestos to ● Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, for
articulate their artistic aims. With example, painted the bustling
Group 1890, led by J. Swaminathan, streets of Baroda while invoking the
emphasized the importance of texture atmosphere of a medieval town in
and surface in their works. Sienna, Italy, using the style of
● This movement influenced the Italian painters like the Lorenzetti
Cholamandalam School near Madras brothers.
and left a lasting impact on ● This period marked a heightened
subsequent generations of artists. awareness among artists of their
The New Figurative Art and Modern Art from role as citizens in a democracy,
the 1980s resulting in a diverse and socially
● Since the 1970s, many Indian artists engaged artistic production.
turned to recognizable figures and
stories, reflecting their concerns about
social issues following the
Indo-Pakistan war in 1971 and the birth
of Bangladesh.
● Artists like K.G. Subramanyan, Gulam
Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakar, Do You Know?
Jogen Chowdhury, Bikash The subject matter in painting and
Bhattacharjee, and Ganesh Pyne used sculpture was largely drawn from
storytelling in their paintings to rural India. This was the case even
address social problems. with the Bombay Progressives and the
● They drew inspiration from old Calcutta group during the 1940s and
miniature paintings, calendars, and 1950s. City and urban life rarely
folk art to make their stories appeared in the works of Indian
accessible to a wider audience. artists. Perhaps it was felt that real
● Printmakers like Jyoti Bhatt, Laxma India lives in villages. The Indian artists
Goud, and Anupam Sud Jyoti Bhatt of the 1940s and 1950s rarely looked at
(Devi), Laxma Goud (Man their immediate cultural milieu.
Women,Tree) and Anupam Sud (of
Walls) depicted conflicts between
men and women and social inequality
through their work.

050
 POINTS TO PONDER ● In Mumbai, younger painters drew
Do you think the fusion of various artistic inspiration from popular images on
influences and a growing social calendars, advertisements, and
awareness in the 1980s led to a more film hoardings, even using
engaged and socially conscious group of photographic images on canvas.
Indian artists, and can you think of ● This style relied on double
examples where their works addressed meanings and experimental
pressing issues in society? techniques, often emulating the
appearance of photographs but
conveying deeper messages.
New Media Art: From 1990s
The Public Role of Indian Artists ● The liberalization of the Indian
● K.G. Subramanyan, a founding economy in the 1990s brought the
member of the Baroda Art School with impact of globalization, along with
roots in Shantiniketan, learned about social and political issues, to the
the public role of art from his teachers, forefront, particularly in big cities.
Benode Behari Mukherjee and ● Artists sought new ways to react to
Ramkinker Baij. these changing times. Traditional
● He has drawn mural art on large public mediums like easel painting and
buildings, aiming to make art sculpture gave way to video and
accessible to everyone. photography, which allowed for
● He adopted the technique of sand wider dissemination of their work.
casting from Rajasthani artists, ● However, the most contemporary
creating large-scale relief sculptures. art form became installation,
● Subramanyan’s work included a offering an immersive experience
famous mural on the outer wall of Kala that engaged multiple senses.
Bhavana, emphasizing art’s presence ● Installation artists like Nalini Malani
in public spaces. and Vivan Sundaram from major
● The concept of public art extended to cities tackled thoughtprovoking
the exhibition “Place for People” in subjects.
1981, featuring artists like Bhupen ● Photography, often seen as a rival
Khakhar, Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, to painting, inspired the
Vivan Sundaram, Nalini Malani, Sudhir development of photorealism, used
Patwardan, and Jogen Chowdhury. by artists like Atul Dodiya.
● This exhibition, shown in Delhi and ● Younger artists such as T.V.
Bombay, highlighted the role of art Santosh and Shibu Natesan used
critics like Geeta Kapur in interpreting this technique to comment on
the artists’ intentions. societal changes and
● Khakhar and the Baroda narrative technological advancements.
painters celebrated popular art forms ● Photography and video also
visible in everyday life, from trucks documented marginalized
and auto rickshaws to small shops. individuals and environmental
● This exhibition, shown in Delhi and concerns, championed by artists
Bombay, highlighted the role of art like Sheba Chachi, Ravi Agarwal,
critics like Geeta Kapur in interpreting and Atul Bhalla.
the artists’ intentions. ● Contemporary art in India
● Khakhar and the Baroda narrative continues to evolve, with artists
painters celebrated popular art forms and curators experimenting with
visible in everyday life, from trucks technology and redefining the role
and auto rickshaws to small shops. of art to better understand the
world.

051
 ● Art galleries, both private and public, ● In the center, Mother Teresa is
can be found in major cities, and seated, cradling a grown-up man
artists use a wide range of media, on her lap in a horizontal position,
including digital paintings. reminiscent of Michelangelo’s
● Social media has played a significant Pieta.
role in shaping local art scenes, ● Husain’s art combines elements of
making it crucial for visual arts traditional European art, such as
students to explore local artists’ work, the Pieta, with modern flat shapes
visit galleries, and understand their that resemble paper cutouts.
contributions to society. ● The artist does not aim for a
Impactful Modern Indian Artworks The Lives realistic depiction of Mother
of Medieval Saints Teresa’s life but instead provides
● Benode Behari Mukherjee created the suggestive imagery.
mural “The Lives of Medieval Saints” in ● Viewers are invited to interpret the
Hindi Bhavana, Shantiniketan, around narrative through the clues left by
the time of India’s independence in the artist.
1946-1947. ● The presence of a kneeling woman
● This mural, covering nearly 23 meters in the scene hints at the story’s
of the upper half of three room walls, is setting in India and conveys the
a stunning example of the fresco theme of healing and caring for the
buono technique. helpless.
● Despite his poor eyesight, Mukherjee Haldi Grinder
sketched directly on the walls without ● Created in 1940, Amrita Sher-Gil’s
preliminary compositional sketches. painting titled ‘Haldi Grinder’
● The mural depicts the lives of reflects her quest for inspiration in
medieval saints and reflects the India’s serene rural settings.
syncretic and tolerant tradition of ● The artwork portrays Indian women
Indian life, as inspired by Bhakti poets engaged in the traditional activity
like Ramanuja, Kabir, Tulsidas, and of grinding dry turmeric and is
Surdas. executed in an Indian style.
● The artwork is characterized by a ● Sher-Gil employs vibrant, rich
modern style, with each figure pigments to capture the essence of
composed of minimal lines. the scene.
● Yet, there is a rhythmic network of ● Despite her European modern art
lines connecting each figure, training, Sher-Gil draws parallels
resembling a woven tapestry, a craft between North Indian miniature
often associated with the saints traditions and the work of the artist
depicted. she admires, Paul Gaugin.
● Benode Behari Mukherjee was one of ● This influence is evident in her use
the early artists in modern India to of close-knit, bright colour patches
recognize the potential of murals as a that define figures through color
form of public art. contrast rather than outlines, akin
Mother Teresa to the style seen in Basohli’s
● This painting by M.F. Husain, created in paintings from North India.
the 1980s, pays tribute to the saintly ● In ‘Haldi Grinder,’ both the women
figure, Mother Teresa, in the artist’s and trees are depicted as flat
distinctive style that represents a new shapes, and Sher-Gil consciously
language of modern Indian art. avoids creating depth in the
● The painting features the figure of landscape
Mother Teresa several times, each
time holding a baby with a strong
focus on her hands.

052
 ● Instead, she embraces a ● In viscosity printing, different colors
semi-abstract pattern, showcasing are applied to the same metal
her identity as a modern artist deeply printing plate, with each color
rooted in Indian artistic traditions. mixed with linseed oil in varying
Fairy Tales from Purvapalli concentrations to ensure that
● Created in 1986 by K.G. Subramanyan, colours do not run into each other.
“Purvapalli” is a painting that reflects ● This technique mimics the
the work of a prolific artist, scholar, behavior of water and oil, making it
teacher, and art historian. apt for the subject matter of the
● Subramanyan draws inspiration from print, which revolves around water
various art traditions found in India currents.
and around the world. ● It is a celebrated print held in the
● The title of the artwork refers to his collection of the Metropolitan
home in Purvapalli, Shantiniketan, a Museum of Art in New York, USA.
place that seems to serve as the Children
launching point for his imaginative ● This graphic print on paper,
journey across the globe. created by Somnath Hore
● In this imaginative landscape, (1921–2006) in 1958, is a
humans coexist with birds, animals, monochromatic etching with
and peculiar trees that bear feathers aquatint.
instead of leaves. ● Hore’s experience during the
● Subramanyan’s painting style is Bengal Famine of 1943 deeply
sketchy, featuring quick brush strokes influenced his artistry. During this
and an earthy palette of ochres, period, he produced sketches and
greens, and browns. drawings depicting the suffering
● The male and female figures depicted and plight of famine victims,
at the top of the painting evoke including peasants, destitute
elements of urban folk art, reminiscent individuals, and various portraits.
of the Kalighat paintings popular in ● His early works consisted of precise
Colonial Calcutta during the late and lifelike depictions of these
nineteenth century. subjects, following
● Additionally, the arrangement of representational contours and
figures on top of one another creates a tonal techniques.
flat space, characteristic of modern ● In this particular etching, Hore drew
art. inspiration from the memories of
● “Purvapalli” embodies children affected by the 1943
Subramanyan’s unique blend of famine.
diverse art traditions, showcasing his ● The composition is tightly knit,
imaginative and artistic prowess featuring five standing figures
Whirlpool devoid of any background,
● Created in 1963 by the celebrated perspective, or contextual
Indian printmaker Krishna Reddy, surroundings.
“Whirlpool” is a remarkable print that ● The figures appear to be engrossed
showcases an intricate composition in their own thoughts and
predominantly in shades of blue. conversations
● The artwork employs a new technique ● These linear figures exhibit skeletal
in printmaking called “viscosity torsos, resembling enlarged
printing,” which Reddy co-developed malaria spleens and ribcage for
with renowned printmaker Stanley thoraxes.
William Hayter in the renowned studio
known as ‘Atelier 17.’

053
 ● Each figure supports a substantial ● The two-dimensionality of the
skull with a small face, and their entire words and motifs surrounding the
bodies rest on slender, stick-like legs. portrait conveys the essence of
● The pronounced lines, etching every Tantric philosophy, invoking the
rib of the thorax and cheekbone, evoke power of self-evolution and
the impression of deep, gashing self-involution.
wounds. ● This philosophy perceives reality as
● This emphasis on the bone structure the intertwined interplay of
just beneath the skin effectively dynamic and static principles
conveys the devastating impact of embodied in Shakti.
malnutrition on these individuals. ● Jyoti Bhatt also made other
● Hore’s artwork imparts a narrative notable artworks such as
quality to the composition without “Kalpvruksha,” “Self-Portrait,”
relying on situational context or visual “Forgotten Monuments,” “Sita’s
data, adhering to a reductionist and Parrot,” “Still Life with Two Lamps,”
simplification approach. “Scattered Image under the Warm
● The children depicted in this artwork Sky,” “Tirthankara,” and more.
represent the most vulnerable Of Walls '
segment of society. ● This etching, created in 1982, is the
● Some of Hore’s other notable works result of Anupam Sud’s artistic
include “Peasants’ Meeting,” endeavour.
“Wounded Animal,” “The Child,” ● Crafted from a zinc plate and
“Mother with Child,” “Mourners,” and printed onto paper, Sud’s work
“The Unclad Beggar Family.” showcases her dedication to
Devi printmaking, honed during her
● Created in 1970, this etching on paper studies at the Slade School of Fine
is the work of Jyoti Bhatt (born 1934), Art, University College, London, in
who received inspiration from his the early 1970s.
mentor K.G. Subramanyan. ● Upon returning to India, she felt a
● Bhatt’s artistic journey encompassed strong pull towards capturing the
the realms of painting, printmaking, country’s everyday reality.
and photography, and he developed a ● Sud’s artistic pursuits delved into
unique artistic language rooted in folk the profound social issues affecting
traditions and popular practices. marginalized communities in
● His artworks masterfully fuse diverse Indian society.
visual elements into a composite ● Her work often served as a medium
narrative. for exploring and understanding
● They strike a delicate balance these issues in an artistic context.
between traditional heritage and ● In this particular piece, she
modernity, where the vibrancy of the employs a unique technique that
past forms seamlessly translates into involves hollowing out the face,
the dynamics of contemporary art. creating a visually intriguing form
● In this particular print, Bhatt of a woman.
reimagines and recontextualizes the ● The absence of a face in the
pictorial image of Devi (the Goddess) portrayal lends the figure a
alongside a linear drawing of a contemplative and somber
woman’s frontal face, folk motifs, and expression.
patterns.
● The central placement of the Devi’s
portrait lends it an iconic status within
the composition.

054
 ● The artwork portrays a solitary woman Triumph of Labour
seated on the pavement, positioned ● This large-scale outdoor sculpture,
before a crumbling wall. In the crafted in bronze, is the work of
foreground, only the lower part of a Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury
destitute man sleeping on the ground (1899–1975). It was unveiled at
is visible. Marina Beach in Chennai on the
● This contrast between the clothed eve of Republic Day in 1959.
woman and the sleeping man ● The sculpture depicts four men
intensifies the overall sadness of the engaged in the formidable task of
print relocating a massive rock,
Rural South Indian Man-Woman symbolizing the paramount role of
● This etching print on paper was human labor in the nation’s
created by Laxma Goud in 2017. Goud, development.
renowned for his exceptional ● These indomitable men are
draftsmanship and printmaking skills, depicted grappling with nature’s
pursued studies in mural painting and challenges with unwavering
printmaking at M. S. University in determination and raw power.
Baroda. ● The sculpture captures the essence
● He was profoundly influenced by his of human labour in the face of the
mentor, K.G. Subramanyan, who was natural elements, a subject that
known for his innovative explorations resonates with the romantic ideals
of narrative modes and figural of the 19th century.
elements drawn from a rich tapestry of ● Chowdhury had a profound
visual traditions, including classical, fascination with the robust
folk, and popular cultures musculature of his laborers,
● Goud seeks to erase rigid boundaries intricately rendering their bones,
between major and minor art forms, veins, and flesh.
infusing them with a linguistic ● He masterfully portrays the sheer
essence. physical exertion required to
● This approach has enabled him to dislodge an immovable boulder.
traverse across various artistic ● The arrangement of the human
mediums, including glass painting, figures in the sculpture creates
terracotta, and bronze sculpture. viewers’ curiosity, inviting them to
● In this particular etching, Goud explore it from all angles.
portrays human figures against a ● Placed atop a substantial pedestal,
backdrop of trees, drawing inspiration this depiction of collective labour
from his childhood memories deeply replaces the conventional portraits
immersed in nature. of kings or British dignitaries,
● The artwork combines detailed highlighting the significance of
contours, a realistic portrayal of shared effort in the nation’s
peasants, and a subtle stylization that progress.
imparts a puppet-like quality to the Santhal Family
depicted figures. ● This open-air, large-scale
● Executed primarily through lines and sculpture was created by
infused with color, this print reflects Ramkinker Baij in 1937.
Goud’s artistic vision. Among his other ● It is crafted from a metal armature
notable creations are artworks such as and cement mixed with pebbles,
“Woman,” “Man,” “Landscape of and it is prominently displayed
Turkey,” “Untitled,” and “Xiyan China.” within the compound of Kala
Bhavana, India’s inaugural
national art school located in
Shantiniketan.
055
 ● The sculpture portrays a Santhal man ● Notably, the socialist poet Mulk Raj
carrying his children in a double Anand penned a moving
basket affixed to a pole, with his wife commentary on this artwork.
and dog walking alongside him. ● It is now housed in the collection of
● It likely depicts a family engaged in the National Gallery of Modern Art
migration, transporting their modest in New Delhi.
belongings from one place to another. Ganesha
● For the artist, residing amidst rural ● This oxidized copper sculpture was
surroundings, such scenes were part created by P.V. Janakiram in 1970
of everyday life. However, he chose to and is currently part of the NGMA
elevate this ordinary sight to a collection in Delhi.
monumental status. ' One notable ● Janakiram employed sheets of
aspect of this sculpture is that it is copper to craft this pictorial
created in the round, allowing viewers sculpture in the form of
to observe it from all angles. freestanding figures.
● Placed on a low pedestal, it imparts a ● He adorned the surface of these
sense of shared space, drawing figures with intricate linear
viewers into its realm. elements. These lines serve dual
● This work holds historical significance purposes, functioning as both
as it is considered India’s first public facial features and decorative
modernist sculpture. motifs, inviting viewers to engage
● An additional noteworthy feature is its in intimate contemplation.
accessibility, as it is situated outside ● Janakiram drew inspiration from
Kala Bhavana, eliminating the need for the ancient temple sculptures of
a museum visit to appreciate it. South India, evident in the frontal
● Unlike traditional mediums like portrayal of Ganesha, a prominent
marble, wood, or stone, Ramkinker Baij figure in indigenous cave and
chose to use cement for this sculpture, temple art.
symbolizing modernization. ● In this sculpture, Ganesha is
Cries Un-Heard depicted playing the vina, a
● This bronze sculpture, crafted by musical instrument.
Amarnath Sahgal in 1958, primarily ● The attention to detail in the
employs abstraction. sculpture and the skillful
● In this artwork, three figures are combination of materials reflect
portrayed with stick-like forms craftsmanship.
arranged in flat, rhythmic planes. ● Furthermore,Janakiram
● Despite the abstract style, viewers can experimented with the concept of
readily interpret them as a family “open-endedness” often found in
comprising a husband, wife, and child. indigenous craftsmanship.
● These figures are depicted with ● Ganesha embodies his deep
outstretched arms, appearing to cry understanding of traditional
out for help in vain. imagery, where he transformed
● Through the sculptural medium, their intricate linear details into an
helplessness, conveyed through their overarching form.
hand gestures, is transformed into a ● Rather than emphasizing
lasting form. three-dimensionality, the sculpture
● This sculpture can be seen from a is conceived in terms of linear
socialist perspective, where the artist silhouettes, creating a sense of
pays tribute to the countless destitute rhythm and growth through lyrical
families in dire need of assistance, stylization.
whose pleas often go unanswered.

056
 ● Overall, it represents a harmonious
blend of folk and traditional
craftsmanship.

Vanshri
● This artwork, titled Vanshri”, or
‘Goddess of the Woods,’ was created
by Mrinalini Mukherjee in 1994.
● What makes this sculpture unique is
the unusual material Mukherjee used
to craft it: hemp fiber.
● She began experimenting with this
medium in the early 1970s, and her
mastery of it is evident in the intricate Follow us on :
and complex shape she has woven
and knotted together using jute fiber.
● For many years, her works in this style
were often dismissed as crafts rather
than fine art.
● However, in recent times, her fiber
works have garnered significant
attention and acclaim for their
originality and bold imaginative
expression.
● In “Vanshri,” Mukherjee transforms
this ordinary material into a
monumental form.
● If you closely examine the figure’s
body, you’ll notice its distinctive
features—a face with an introspective
expression, protruding lips, and, above
all, a powerful presence of natural
divinity.

057
 ● The priestly figure is draped in a
6. Arts of the Indus Valley shawl adorned with trefoil patterns,
displaying elongated, half-closed
Introduction eyes indicative of meditative
The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation, concentration.
flourishing in the second half of the third ● Detailed facial features include a
millennium BCE, reveal a rich tapestry of well-formed nose, an
creativity. Across sites like Harappa and average-sized mouth with a
Mohenjo Daro, artists expressed their fine close-cut moustache and short
sensibilities and vivid imagination through beard, and distinctive
sculptures, seals, pottery, jewellery, and double-shell-like ears with a hole
meticulous terracotta figures. Notably, their in the middle.
realistic portrayal of human and animal ● The hair is neatly parted, and a
forms showcased unique anatomical details. plain woven fillet encircles the
Beyond art, these cities stand as early head, while accessories like an
marvels of civic planning, with gridlike armlet and necklace are evident.
arrangements of houses, markets, and
public facilities. The advanced drainage
system further underscores the In this red sandstone figure, there
sophistication of these ancient societies, with are socket holes in the neck and
key sites extending from Pakistan’s Harappa shoulders for the attachment of
and Mohenjodaro to India’s Lothal and head and arms. The frontal
Dholavira (Gujarat), Rakhigarhi (Haryana), posture of the torso has been
Ropar (Punjab), and Kalibangan consciously adopted. The
(Rajasthan). shoulders are well baked and the
abdomen is slightly prominent.

Bronze Casting
● The Harappans were prolific in the
art of bronze-casting, employing
the ‘lost wax’ technique.
● This involved covering wax figures
with clay, heating to remove the
wax, creating a hollow mold filled
with molten metal, and ultimately
revealing the cast bronze object.
● Noteworthy in bronze are human
and animal figures, exemplified by
the famous ‘Dancing Girl’ statue.
Bronze animals, including a buffalo
and a goat, showcase artistic
merit.
Stone Statues
● The statues discovered in Harappan
sites, though not abundant, are
characterised by refinement.
● Notably, stone statues from Harappa
and Mohenjodaro exemplify
exceptional three-dimensional
craftsmanship.

058
 ● Bronze casting was widespread across ● These seals feature intricate
major Indus Valley Civilisation centers, depictions of animals such as the
with examples like the copper dog and unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger,
bird from Lothal and the bronze bull elephant, bison, goat, and buffalo,
from Kalibangan. showcasing remarkable realism
● This tradition persisted in late and varied moods.
Harappan and Chalcolithic sites like ● Primarily used for commercial
Daimabad, where metalcast purposes, these seals also served
sculptures of human and animal as amulets, potentially acting as
figures continued the rich legacy of identity cards for their owners.
figure sculpture. ● The standard Harappan seal was a
Terracotta 2 × 2 square-inch plaque made of
● Terracotta images crafted by the steatite, engraved with a
Indus Valley people, while yet-to-be-deciphered
comparatively crude in representing pictographic script.
the human form, exhibit realism, ● Some seals, discovered in ivory,
especially in Gujarat sites and exhibit a wide range of motifs, often
Kalibangan. featuring animals like bulls,
● Notable among these figures are elephants, tigers, goats, and
representations of the mother monsters, along with trees or
goddess human figures.
● The terracotta collection also includes ● Notably, the Pashupati Seal
figurines of bearded males with coiled depicting a cross-legged human
hair, characterized by a rigidly upright figure surrounded by animals,
posture, slightly parted legs, and arms stands out.
parallel to the body—a repetition
suggesting their deity status.
● Additionally, a terracotta mask
depicting a horned deity has been
discovered.
● Beyond figurines, terracotta artifacts
encompass toy carts with wheels,
whistles, rattles, birds, animals,
gamesmen, and discs, showcasing the
diversity of artistic expression in this
medium ● Copper tablets, featuring animal or
human figures on one side and
inscriptions on the other (or both
sides), have also been found.
● Dated between 2500 and 1900 BCE,
these tablets, considered amulets,
display carefully cut figures and
Seals signs associated with the
● Archaeologists have unearthed portrayed animals.
thousands of seals, primarily made of
steatite and occasionally of other
materials like agate, chert, copper,
faience, and terracotta.

059
Pottery ● Discoveries at Mohenjo Daro and
● The extensive pottery findings from Lothal revealed hoards of
excavation sites provide insights into well-crafted jewellery, including
the progressive evolution of design gold and semi-precious stone
motifs, shapes, and styles in the Indus necklaces, copper bracelets, gold
Valley. earrings and head ornaments,
● Predominantly wheelmade, the faience pendants and buttons, and
pottery consists mainly of fine wares, beads made of steatite and
with a minority being handmade. gemstones.
● Plain pottery, more common than ● Notably, a cemetery in Farmana,
painted ware, is typically red clay with Haryana, revealed bodies buried
or without a fine red or grey slip, with ornaments.
featuring knobbed ware adorned with ● The bead industry, evident in
rows of knobs. Chanhu Daro and Lothal factories,
● Black-painted ware involves a red slip produced beads from various
base with geometric and animal materials, showcasing technical
designs executed in glossy black skill and diverse shapes.
paint. ● Naturalistic models of animals,
● Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly especially monkeys and squirrels,
comprises small vases, displays served as pinheads and beads.
geometric patterns in red, black, ● Spindles and spindle whorls found
green, and occasionally white and in Indus Valley houses indicate
yellow. Incised ware is infrequent, with widespread spinning of cotton and
incised decoration limited to the bases wool.
of pans and the dishes of offering ● Fashion consciousness was evident
stands. in different hairstyles, beard
● Perforated pottery likely used for popularity, and the use of cinnabar,
straining beverages, features a large face paint, lipstick, and collyrium.
hole at the bottom and small holes ● Stone structural remains at
throughout the wall. Dholavira showcased the use of
● Household pottery comes in diverse stone in construction.
shapes and sizes, favouring graceful ● The skilled artists and craftsmen of
curves over straight and angular the Indus Valley excelled in various
forms. Notably, miniature vessels, crafts, including metal casting,
often less than half an inch in height, stone carving, pottery making and
showcase remarkable craftsmanship, painting, and terracotta image
evoking admiration. creation with simplified motifs of
Beads and Ornaments animals, plants, and birds.
● Harappan men and women adorned
themselves with a diverse array of
ornaments crafted from materials
such as precious metals, gemstones,
bone, and baked clay.
● Both sexes commonly wore necklaces,
fillets, armlets, and finger rings, while
women additionally adorned girdles,
earrings, and anklets.

060
 7. Arts of the Mauryan Period Many mauryan They were
pillars were assembled piece
engraved with by piece by
inscriptions. masons. It was
Introduction Capital figures most likely a
Around the 6th century BCE, the Gangetic like bull, lion, masonry
Valley buzzed with fresh ideas. New religions elephant, etc. construction.
like Buddhism and Jainism sprang up, The Lion Capital
challenging traditional Hindu beliefs. These symbolises the
religions, part of the shraman movement, Dhammachakra
took a stand against certain Hindu practices. pravartana. The
Meanwhile, Magadha grew as a powerhouse, abacus design
paving the way for the Mauryas. By the 3rd was mainly
century BCE, the Mauryan king Ashoka was in square or
the limelight, championing Buddhism. But it circular
wasn’t just about big empires and new abacuses
religions. People had diverse ways to decorated with
connect with the divine, like worshipping stylized lotuses.
Yakshas and mother-goddesses. As
Buddhism gained steam, it absorbed some
of these local beliefs, showcasing the rich ● All the figures on the pillars were
tapestry of ancient Indian spirituality. vigorously carved, standing
Pillars proudly on either square or circular
● Pillars are vertical structural members abacuses adorned with stylized
in architecture and building lotuses.
construction. They can be made of a ● Renowned examples of such pillars
single piece of stone or wood, or built have been unearthed at locations
up of units, such as bricks. including BasarahBakhira,
● Pillars, usually made of chunar Lauriya-Nandangarh in Bihar, and
sandstone, are a symbol of the state. It Sankisa and Sarnath in Uttar
assumed great significance Pradesh.
throughout the entire Mauryan Empire. The Sarnath Lion Capital
● Objectives: To propagate the Buddhist ● The Mauryan pillar capital found at
ideology and court orders in the entire Sarnath, Varanasi, popularly
Mauryan Empire. known as the Lion Capital, is the
Difference between Mauryan and finest example of Mauryan
Achaemenian architecture. It is also our national
Pillar construction dates back to the emblem.
Achaemenian empire Table 7.1 shows the ● It was commissioned by Ashoka, it
difference between Mauryan vs. commemorates Buddha’s first
Achaemenian pillars: sermon, known as
Dhammachakrapravartana.
Components of the Capital
● Originally, the capital had five main
Mauryan Pillars Achaemenian Pillars parts: The shaft (currently
fragmented), a lotus bell base, a
They originated in They originated in drum with four animals in a
India. They used a Persia (Modern-day clockwise arrangement, four grand
rock-cut design, Iran). They were lions facing away from each other,
carved from single predominantly found and the crowning Dharmachakra
blocks of stone. The in Achaemenian (a large wheel). This wheel is now
pillars displayed Empire damaged and showcased in the
site museum at Sarnath.

061
 ● The National Emblem of Independent ● A significant number of these
India features the capital, excluding statues, especially those of
the wheel and the lotus base. Yakshas and Yakhinis, have been
● Currently, the lion capital is housed in discovered in places like Patna,
the archaeological museum at Vidisha, and Mathura.
Sarnath.
● Lions: They are impressively large and
monumental. They have strong facial Do You Know?
features and lifelike details. They have ➢ Abacus: It features a chakra
a heavily polished surface, which is (wheel) with 24 spokes in each
typical of Mauryan art. They have direction. It is accompanied by a
curly, protruding manes and finely carved bull, horse, elephant,
well-defined muscles. and lion between every chakra.
The chakra motif is pivotal in
Buddhist art as a symbol of
Dhammachkra. In the abacus,
each animal, despite limited
space, exudes a sense of
movement.
➢ Lotus Base: Each petal is crafted
with attention to its natural density.
It is supported by a beautifully
sculpted inverted lotus capital

Yaksha and Yakshini Sculpture and its

influence
● Large statues of Yakshas and
Yakshinis are found in many places
like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura.
These monumental images are
mostly in the standing position.
● Yaksha and Yakshini sculptures
found in different parts of India
demonstrate their popularity and
their visible influence in Buddhist
and Jaina monuments.
● The prominent statues of yaksha
and yakshini were found in Patna,
Vidisha, and Mathura, with a
Comparison and Legacy standout Yakshi figure from
● A similar lion capital was found at Didarganj, Patna.
Sanchi, though it is deteriorated. ● One of the finest examples is a
● The lion-capital-pillar motif persisted Yakshi figure from Didarganj,
in subsequent periods, showcasing its Patna, which is tall and well-built. It
lasting influence. shows sensitivity towards depicting
Sculptures the human physique. The image
● The Mauryan period, during the 3rd has a polished surface
century BCE, was renowned for its
monumental sculptures, including
impressive representations of
Yakshas, Yakhinis, and various
animals
062
The Didarganj Yakshini Bodily Features and Ornaments
● The life-sized Yakshini from Didarganj, ● The hairs are neatly tied in a knot.
near contemporary Patna, stands as a The bareback contrasts with the
testament to the Mauryan sculptural drapery covering the legs.
excellence. The statue is showcased in ● The chauri’s incised lines continue
the Patna Museum. onto the statue’s back, showcasing
● It is crafted from sandstone, boasts a continuity in design.
polished surface and embodies a ● The lower garment clings to the
free-standing sculpture in the round. legs, producing a
Artistic Features semi-transparent effect. The
● The figure holds a chauri (flywhisk) in middle band of the garment
her right hand; the left is unfortunately cascades down to the feet. A thick
broken. bell ornament embellishes her feet.
● The face features round, plump cheeks Rock-cut Architecture
with sharp eyes, nose, and lips. ● Apart from the traditionally built
● The sculptor’s expertise shines in the stupas and viharas, the art of
depiction of a muscular body and a carving rock-cut caves flourished
relatively small neck. during this period.
● Necklace beads hang gracefully to the ● Noteworthy examples from the
belly, and the garment’s tight fit third century BCE have been found
accentuates a protruding belly. across India, underscoring the
widespread popularity of Yaksha
worship.
POINTS TO PONDER ● One of the most distinguished
The Buddhist architecture that rock-cut caves is the Lomus Rishi
developed during the Mauryan period cave, located near the Barabar hills
was hugely symbolic in the sense that close to Gaya in Bihar.
they lacked the images of Buddha. ● Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli,
However it changed over a period of Odisha, exemplifies Ashoka’s
time. Can you think of reasons why influence and artistic finesse.
the symbolism and narratives in ● Stupa, vihara and chaitya are part
Buddhist art evolved over time, and of Buddhist and Jaina monastic
how did these artistic changes reflect complexes but the largest number
the development of Buddhism itself ? belongs to the Buddhist religion.
● Their construction proliferated due
to Buddhism’s and Jainism’s
popularity.
● Notable stupas housed Buddha’s
relics, such as Rajagraha, Vaishali,
and Kushinagar.
● The great stupa at Sanchi
symbolises this tradition, initially
built during Ashoka’s reign and
later expanded.
Patronage and Artistry
● It is a second-century BCE
inscription that reveals a diverse
range of donors, from lay people to
kings.

063
 ● Few inscriptions mention artisans, like
Kanha at Pitalkhora and Balaka at
Kondane caves in Maharashtra.
● Craftsmen categories, including stone
carvers and goldsmiths, are also cited.
● Monuments often reflect collective
efforts, with specific sections
attributed to individual patrons.
● Traders, while donating, made a point
to record their places of origin.
Stupa Architecture
● By the subsequent century, stupas
saw enhancements.
● They started building enclosed
circumambulatory paths with railings
and decorative sculptures.
● Though many stupas existed, the
second century BCE marked
significant expansions and additions.
● Stupas typically had a cylindrical
drum, a circular anda, and a harmika
with a chhatra on top. Minor variations
arose in shape and size over time.
● Gateways became a new addition to
stupas, allowing architects and
sculptors more creative freedom
Early Symbolic Depictions of Buddha
● In Buddhism’s initial phase, Buddha’s Follow us on :
representation was symbolic. The
symbols included footprints, stupas,
lotus thrones, and chakras. These
symbols either signified worship,
reverence, or historical events from
Buddha’s life.
Narratives in Buddhist Art
● As Buddhism evolved, storytelling
became integral. The events from
Buddha’s life and Jataka tales found
their way onto stupa railings and
torans. The narrative styles
incorporated includes synoptic,
continuous, and episodic narratives
Prominent themes in Buddhist art
● The key events from Buddha’s life were
birth, renunciation, enlightenment,
dhammachakrapravartana, and
mahaparinibbana.
● Popular Jataka stories depicted
include Chhadanta Jataka,
Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi
Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, and
Shama Jataka

064
 8 .Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian ● Due to shallow carving of the
Art and Architecture picture surface, projection of hands
and feet was not possible, hence,
Introduction the folded hands and awkward
From the second century BCE onwards, position of the feet.
various rulers established their control over ● There is a general stiffness in the
the vast Mauryan Empire: The Shungas, body and arms. But gradually, such
Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north visual appearance was modified
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, by making images with deep
Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and Vakatakas in carvings, pronounced volume and
southern and western India. Incidentally, the a very naturalistic representation
period of the second century BCE also of human and animal bodies. For
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical Example, Sculptures at Bharhut,
sects, such as the Vaishnavas and the Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and
Shaivas. Examples of the finest sculptures Jagayyapetta.
are found at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya
Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta Narrative of Jataka Story
(Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), ● Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near how artisans used the pictorial
Pune and Pavani near Nagpur language very effectively to
(Maharashtra). communicate stories
Sculptures in Northern India ● The depiction of a Jataka story is
Bharhut Sculptures very simple—narrated by clubbing
● Bharhut sculptures are tall, like the the events according to the
images of Yaksha and Yakhshini in the geographical location of the story,
Mauryan period. The modeling of the like the depiction of Ruru Jataka,
sculptural volume is in low relief where the Bodhisattva deer is
maintaining linearity. In the relief rescuing a man on his back. The
panels depicting narratives, the other event in the same picture
illusion of three-dimensionality is frame depicts the King standing
shown with a tilted perspective. with his army and about to shoot
● At Bharhut, narrative panels are an arrow at the deer, and the man
shown with fewer characters but as who was rescued by the deer is
time progresses, apart from the main also shown along with the king
character in the story, others also start pointing a finger at the deer.
appearing in the picture space. ● One main characteristic in all the
● At times more than one event at one male images of the first and
geographical place is clubbed in the second centuries BCE is the knotted
picture space or only a single main headgear. In many sculptures, it is
event is depicted in the pictorial very consistent.
space. Availability of the space is ● One such Jataka story is also
utilized to the maximum by the shown as Queen Mayadevi’s
sculptors. (mother of Siddhartha Gautam)
Physical Feature of Bharhut Sculpture dream, with a descending
● Folded hands in the narratives as well elephant. The queen is shown
as single figures of the Yakshas and reclining on the bed whereas an
Yakshinis are shown flat clinging to elephant is shown on the top
the chest. But in some cases, heading towards the womb of
especially in later times, the hands are Queen Mayadevi.
shown with the natural projection
against the chest.

065
 ● Such Jataka stories became part of
stupa decoration. Interestingly, with ● In Mathura, images of this period
the rise in the construction of stupas in bear the same quality but are
various parts of the country, regional different in the depiction of facial
stylistic variations also began to characteristics.
emerge. Some of the sculptures found School of Sculptures
at Bharhut are displayed in the Indian Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara were
Museum in Kolkata. three schools of sculpture.
Sanchi Sculpture Emergence of School of Sculptures:
The next phase of sculptural development ● First century CE onwards:
happened at Sanchi, Mathura, and Vengi in Gandhara (now in Pakistan),
Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District) and is Mathura in northern India and
noteworthy. Vengi in Andhra Pradesh emerged
Physical Feature of Sanchi Sculpture as important centres of art
● The stupa at Sanchi has an upper as production.
well as lower pradakshinapatha or ● Second century CE: Images in
circumambulatory path. It has four Mathura got sensual, rotundity
beautifully decorated toranas increased, and they became
depicting various events from the life fleshier.
of the Buddha and the Jatakas. ● Fourth century CE: In the late fourth
● Depiction of posture gets naturalistic century CE, the massiveness and
and there is no stiffness in the body. fleshiness are reduced further and
Heads have a considerable projection the flesh becomes more tightened,
in the picture space. Rigidity in the the volume of the drapery also gets
contours gets reduced and images are reduced.
given movement. The narration gets ● Fifth and sixth centuries CE: The
elaborated. drapery is integrated into the
● Carving techniques appear more sculptural mass. In this period, two
advanced than Bharhut. Symbols important schools of sculpture in
continue to be used to represent the northern India are worth noting.
Buddha.

● The traditional center, Mathura,

Narrative of Sanchi remained the main art production
● At Sanchi Stupa, narratives get more site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi
elaborated; however, the depiction of also emerged as important centres
the dream episode remains very of art production.
simple showing the reclining image of ● Many Buddha images in Sarnath
the queen and the elephant at the top. have plain transparent drapery
● The historical narratives such as the covering both shoulders, and the
siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to halo around the head has very little
Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the ornamentation whereas the
Ramgrama Stupa are carved with Mathura Buddha images continue
considerable details. to depict folds of the drapery in the

066
 ● Buddha images and the halo around
the head is profusely decorated. ● Myths mentioned in the Puranas
● Among the important stupa sites became part of the narrative
outside the Gangetic Valley is representation of the Brahmanical
Devnimori in Gujarat. religion. Each temple had a
Fusion of Different Traditions principal image of a god.
● Buddha in the symbolic form got a The shrines of the temples were of three
human form in Mathura and kinds:
Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in ➢ Sandhara type (without
Gandhara had the confluence of pradikshinapatha),
Bactria, Parthia and the local ➢ Nirandhara type (with
Gandhara traditions. pradakshinapatha), and
● The local sculptural tradition at ➢ Sarvatobhadra (which can be
Mathura became so strong that the accessed from all sides).
tradition spread to other parts of ● Some of the important temple sites
northern India. The best example in of this period are Deogarh in Uttar
this regard is the stupa sculptures Pradesh, Eran, NachnaKuthara and
found at Sanghol in Punjab. Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya
Feature of Sculpture Pradesh.
● The Buddha image at Mathura is ● These temples are simple
modeled on the lines of earlier Yaksha structures consisting of a veranda,
images whereas in Gandhara it has a hall and a shrine at the rear.
Hellenistic features. Early Jain ● Among the important stupa sites
Teerthankar images and portraits of outside the Gangetic Valley is
kings, especially the headless Devnimori in Gujarat. In the
Kanishka are also found in Mathura. subsequent centuries, sculptures
● Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu had little variations while slender
and his various forms) and Shaiva images with transparent drapery
(mainly the lingas and mukhalingas) remained a dominant aesthetic
faiths are also found at Mathura but sensibility.
Buddhist images are found in large Buddhist Monuments of South India
numbers. It may be noted that the Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa
images of Vishnu and Shiva are sites like Jagayyapetta, Amaravati,
represented by their ayudhas Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, Goli, etc.
(weapons). Amaravati Stupa
● There is boldness in carving the large Amaravati has a mahachaitya and many
images, the volume of the images is sculptures which are now preserved in
projected out of the picture plane, the many museums around the world
faces are round and smiling, and Feature of Amravati Stupa
heaviness in the sculptural volume is ● Like the Sanchi Stupa, the
reduced to relaxed flesh. They are Amaravati Stupa also has
clearly visible and they cover the left pradakshinapatha enclosed within
shoulder. a vedika on which many narrative
● Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, sculptures are depicted.
Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite ● The Torana of the Amaravati Stupa
deities and portrait statues are has disappeared over a period of
profusely sculpted. time. Events from the life of the
Early Temples Buddha and the Jataka stories are
● While the construction of stupas depicted.
continued, Brahmanical temples and ● Like Sanchi, the early phase is
images of gods also started being devoid of Buddha images but
constructed. Often temples were during the later phase, in the
decorated with the images of gods. second and third centuries CE, the

067
 ● Buddha images are carved on the
drum slabs and at many other places. Cave Tradition in Western India
● Sculptural form in this area is In western India, many Buddhist caves
characterized by intense emotions. dating back to the second century BCE
Figures are slender, have a lot of onwards have been excavated. There are
movement, bodies are shown with mainly three architectural caves:
three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the ● Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls
sculptural composition is more found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja;
complex than at Sanchi. ● Apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall
Narrative of Amaravati Stupa found at Thana-Nadsur in
● Narratives are profusely depicted Maharashtra;
which include events from the life of ● Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with
the Buddha and the Jataka stories. a circular chamber at the back
● The animated movement in the (found at Kondivite in
figures was reduced in the sculptures Maharashtra).
of Nagarjunkonda and Goli in the third Features of Western Cave
century CE. Even within the relatively ● The front of the chaitya hall is
low relief volume than in the dominated by the motif of a
Amaravati sculptures, artists at semi-circular chaitya arch with an
Nagarjunkonda and Goli managed to open front that has a wooden
create the effect of protruding facade and, in some cases, there is
surfaces of the body which is no dominating chaitya arch
suggestive in nature and looks very window, such as found at
integral. Kondivite. In all the chaitya caves a
Others Buddhist Site stupa at the back is common.
● Independent Buddha images are also ● In the first century BCE, the
found at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda standard plan of the apsidal
and Guntapalle in Andhra Pradesh. vault-roof variety where the hall
● Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave site near becomes rectangular, like at
Eluru. Small apsidal and circular Ajanta Cave No. 9 with a
chaitya halls have been excavated stone-screen wall as a facade. It is
belonging to the second century BCE. also found at Bedsa, Nashik, Karla
● The other important site where and Kanheri
rock-cut stupas have been excavated
is Anakapalle near Vishakhapatnam. Viharas: They resting places for
● In Karnataka, Sannati in Gulbarga monks, having a quadrangular
district is the largest stupa site plan.
excavated so far. Chaitya: A small chamber,
● Along with the images of the Buddha, usually at the back, are the
other Buddhist images of prayer halls.
Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara,
Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and
Maitreya Buddha started getting Karla Cave
sculpted. In Karla, the biggest rock-cut chaitya hall
However, with the rise of Vajrayana was excavated.
Buddhism, many Boddhisattva images were Feature of Karla Chaitya Hall
added as part of the personified ● The cave consists of an open
representations of certain virtues or qualities courtyard with two pillars, a stone
as propagated by the Buddhist religious screen wall to protect from rain, a
principles for the welfare of the masses. veranda, a stone-screen wall as a
facade, an apsidal vault-roof
chaitya hall with pillars, and a
stupa at the back.

068
 ● Karla Chaitya Hall is decorated with
human and animal figures. They are Ajanta Caves
heavy in their execution and move in ● It is located in the Aurangabad
the picture space. District of Maharashtra State.
● The quadrangular flat-roofed variety Ajanta has twenty-nine caves. It
became the most preferred design has four chaitya caves datable to
the earlier phase, i.e., the second
and the first century BCE (Cave 10
and 9) and the later phase, i.e., the
fifth century CE (Cave 19 and 26).
● It has large chaitya viharas and are
decorated with sculptures and
paintings.
Viharas ● Cave number 10, 9, 12 and 13 belong
● The viharas are excavated at all the to the early phase, Cave number 11,
cave sites. The plan of the viharas 15 and 6 upper and lower, and Cave
consists of a veranda, a hall and cells No. 7 belong to the phase earlier
around the walls of the hall. than the late fifth century CE. The
● Many of the early vihara caves are rest of the caves belong to the late
carved with interior decorative motifs fifth century CE to the early sixth
like chaitya arches and vedica designs century CE.
over the cell doors of the cave. ● The Chaitya Cave number 19 and
● Facade design in Nashik Caves 3, 10, 26 are elaborately carved. Their
and 17 became a distinct facade is decorated with Buddha
achievement. Kalyanasundara Murti and, Boddhisattva images. They
at Nashik were excavated with front are of the apsidal-vault-roof
pillars carved with ghata-base and variety.
ghata-capital with human figures. ● Cave number 26 is very big and the
entire interior hall is carved with a
variety of Buddha images, the
biggest one being the
Mahaparinibbana image.
● Many paintings have survived in
Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16 and 17
Patrons kings of Ajanta
● Varahadeva (patron of Cave No.
16), the prime minister of the
Vakataka king,
● Harishena; Upendragupta (patron
● One such vihara cave was also of Cave Nos. 17–20) the local king of
excavated at Junnar in Maharashtra, the region and feudatory of the
which is popularly known as Vakataka king,
Ganeshleni because an image of ● Harishena; Buddhabhadra (patron
Ganesha belonging to a later period of Cave No. 26); and Mathuradasa
was installed in it. Painting in Ajanta cave
● Junnar has the largest cave ● Paintings have a lot of typological
excavations— more than two hundred variations. Lines are clearly defined
caves around the hills of the town— and are very rhythmic. Body colour
whereas Kanheri in Mumbai has a gets merged with the outer line
hundred and eight excavated caves. creating the effect of volume. The
● The most important sites are Ajanta, figures are heavy like the
Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Bhaja, sculptures of western India.
Junnar, Karla, and Kanheri
069
 ● Phase of Paintings
➢ The first phase of painting: Paintings in No. 10 with many details and events
Cave number 9 and 10 belong to the grouped according to their
first century BCE. The figures are broad geographical locations. Events that
with heavy proportions and arranged happened in the jungle and events
in the picture space in a linear way in that happened in the palace are
Cave number 9. Lines are sharp. separated by their locations.
Colours are limited. Figures in these ● In Cave No. 10, Chaddanta faithfully
caves are painted with considerable follows the Pali text whereas the
naturalism and there is no one painted in Cave No. 17 is very
overstylisation. different.
➢ The second phase of paintings: Can be ● The other important paintings are
studied from the images of the the famous Padmapani and
Buddha painted on the walls and Vajrapani in Cave No. 1. However, it
pillars of Cave number 10 and 9 (Refer may be observed that the images
to figure 8.10). These Buddha figures of Padmapani and Vajrapani are
are different from the figures painted very common in Ajanta but the
in the fifth century CE. best preserved paintings are in
➢ Next stage of development: It is Cave No. 1.
observed mainly in the paintings of ● It may also be observed that
Cave Nos. 16, 17, 1, and 2. However, it various skin colors are used in the
does not mean that pictures had not paintings such as brown, yellowish
been painted in other caves. In fact, in brown, greenish, yellow ochre, etc.,
almost all the finished excavations, which represent a multicolored
pictures have been painted but very population. Attempts are also
few have survived. Paintings have made to give highlights in the
typological variations in these caves. figural compositions.
● Some figures in Cave No. 2 have
affiliation with the Vengi sculptures
and at the same time, the influence
of the Vidarbha sculptural tradition
is also observed in the delineation
of some sculptures. The
subsequent development of the
painting tradition has been
discussed in the next chapter
Features of Paintings Ellora Caves
● The paintings of Cave number 1 and 2 ● Ellora cave site is located in
are very orderly and naturalistic, well Aurangabad District in
integrated with the sculptures in the Maharashtra. It is located a
caves. Half-closed, elongated eyes are hundred kilometres from Ajanta
employed. and has thirty-four Buddhist,
● Naturalistic postures and Brahmanical and Jain caves.
unexaggerated facial features are Fusion of Religions
used as exceptional types. The themes ● It is a unique art-historical site in
of the paintings are the events from the country as it has monasteries
the life of the Buddha, the Jatakas and associated with the three religions
the Avadanas. dating from the fifth century CE
● Some paintings such as Simhala onwards to the eleventh century
Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka and CE.
Vidhurpundita Jataka cover the entire
wall of the cave. ' It is worth noting that
Chaddanta Jataka was painted in the
early Cave
070
 ● It is also unique in terms of stylistic
eclecticism, i.e., the confluence of
many styles at one place. The caves of
Ellora and Aurangabad show the
ongoing differences between the two
religions—Buddhism and
Brahmanical.
● There are twelve Buddhist caves
having many images belonging to
Vajrayana Buddhism, like Tara,
Mahamayuri, Akshobhya,
Avalokiteshwara, Maitrya, Amitabha, Bagh Caves
etc. Buddhist caves are big in size and ● It consists of Buddhist mural
are of single, double and triple storeys. paintings and is located 97 km
Features of Ellora Cave from the Dhar district of Madhya
● Their pillars are massive. Ajanta also Pradesh.
has excavated double-storeyed caves ● These rock-cut cave monuments
but at Ellora, the triple-storey is a are not natural but carved over a
unique achievement. The shrine period of time in ancient India,
Buddha images are big in size; they mostly during the Satvahana
are generally guarded by the images period.
of Padmapani and Vajrapani. ● The Bagh caves, like those at
● On the other hand, the only Ajanta, were excavated by master
double-storey cave of the craftsmen on a perpendicular
Brahmanical faith is Cave No. 14. Pillar sandstone rock face of a hill across
designs grow from the Buddhist caves the seasonal stream of Baghani.
and when they reach the Jain caves ● Out of the original nine caves, only
belonging to the ninth century CE, they five have survived, all of which are
become very ornate and the viharas or resting places for monks,
decorative forms gain heavy having a quadrangular plan.
protrusion. ● The most significant of the five
● The Brahmanical Cave Nos. 13–28 caves is Cave No. 4, commonly
have many sculptures. Many caves known as the Rang Mahal,
are dedicated to Shaivism, but the meaning the Palace of Colours,
images of both Shiva and Vishnu and where paintings on the wall and
their various forms according to ceilings are still visible.
Puranic narrative are depicted. ● Over the plaster, lime-priming was
● Among the Shaivite themes, Ravana done, on which paintings were
shaking Mount Kailash, made. Some of the most beautiful
Andhakasurvadha, and paintings were on the walls of the
Kalyanasundara are profusely portico of Cave 4.
depicted, whereas among the Elephanta Caves and Other Sites
Vaishnavite themes, the different ● The Elephanta Caves, located near
avatars of Vishnu are depicted. . Mumbai, are dominated by the
● The images are heavy and show Shaivite faith. It is contemporary
considerable sophistication in the with Ellora, and its sculptures show
handling of sculptural volume. Various slenderness in the body, with stark
guilds at Ellora came from different light and dark effects.
places like Vidarbha, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu and carved the sculptures.
● Cave No. 16 is known as Kailash Leni .
The plan of Cave No. 29 is almost like
that of the main cave at Elephanta.
071
 ● The tradition of rock-cut caves
continued in the Deccan and they are Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves (Odisha)
found not only in Maharashtra but also ● These caves are scattered and
in Karnataka, mainly at Badami and have inscriptions of Kharavela Jain
Aihole, executed under the patronage kings. According to the inscriptions,
of the Chalukyas, in Andhra Pradesh in the caves were meant for Jain
the area of Vijayawada, and in Tamil monks.
Nadu, mainly at Mahabalipuram, ● There are numerous single-cell
under the patronage of the Pallavas. excavations. Some have been
● They show a parallel tradition with the carved in huge independent
religious lithic sculptures as well as the boulders and given the shape of
independent local tradition. animals.
● Many terracotta figures of various ● The big caves include a cave with a
sizes are found, which shows their pillared veranda with cells at the
popularity. They are toys, religious back. The upper part of the cells is
figurines as well, and figurines made decorated with a series of chaitya
for healing purposes as part of the arches and narratives that still
belief systems. continue in the folklores of the
Cave Tradition in Eastern India region.
Like in western India, Buddhist caves have Feature of Udaygiri-Khandagiri caves
also been excavated in eastern India, mainly ● The figures in this cave are
in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh, and voluminous, move freely in the
in Odisha. picture space, and are an excellent
Guntapalle Caves (Andhra Pradesh) example of qualitative carving.
The caves have been excavated in the hills Some caves in this complex were
along with the structured monasteries. excavated later, sometime in the
Perhaps it is among the unique sites where eighth–ninth centuries CE.
the structured stupas, viharas and caves are Some Famous Examples of Post-Mauryan
excavated in one place. Art & Architecture
Features of Guntapalle Caves Sanchi Stupa
● The Guntapalle chaitya cave is ● Sanchi, about 50 km from Bhopal,
circular with a stupa in the circular hall the capital of Madhya Pradesh, is a
and a chaitya arch carved at the world heritage site. Along with
entrance. other relatively small stupas, there
● The cave is relatively small when are three main stupas at Sanchi.
compared to the caves in western ➢ Stupa-1 is presumed to have the
India. A number of vihara caves have relics of the Buddha.
been excavated. ➢ Stupa-2, the relics of ten famous
● The main vihara caves, despite the arhats belonging to three different
small dimensions, have been generations. Their names are found
decorated with chaitya arches on the on the relic casket. * Stupa-3 has
exterior. They are rectangular with a the relics of Sariputta and
vaulted roof and are carved Mahamougalayana. ' Stupa-1,
singlestoreyed or double-storeyed known for the carvings on its
without a large central hall. gateways, is one of the finest
● These excavations date back to the examples of stupa architecture.
second century BCE. There are some ● Originally the stupa was covered
excavations which were added in the with stone, vedica and the torana
subsequent centuries but all are of the (gateways).
vihara type. ● The Ashokan lion capital pillar with
an inscription is found on the
southern side of the stupa

072
 ● The pradakshinapath around the
stupa is covered with the vedica. ● The shoulders are broad. The
● Buddha is shown symbolically as an sanghati (garment) covers only
empty throne, feet, chhatra, stupas, one shoulder and has been made
etc. Toranas are constructed in all four prominently visible covering the
directions. left hand whereas while covering
● The figures at Sanchi, despite being the torso, the independent volume
small in dimension, show considerable of the garment is reduced to the
mastery of sculpting. Their body’s torso.
physiognomic treatment of the body ● The Buddha is seated on a lion’s
shows both depth and dimension throne. The attendant figures are
which are very naturalistic. identified as the images of the
● There are guardian images on pillars Padmapani and Vajrapani
and the shalbhanjika (i.e., the lady Boddhisattvas, as one holds a lotus
holding the branch of a tree) and the other a vajra (thunderbolt)
sculptures are remarkable in their ● They wear crowns and are on either
treatment of volume. side of the Buddha. The halo
● Each torana consists of two vertical around the head of the Buddha is
pillars and three horizontal bars on the very large and is decorated with
top. Each horizontal bar is decorated simple geometric motifs.
with different sculptural themes on the ● There are two flying figures placed
front as well as at the back. diagonally above the halo. They
bear a lot of movement in the
picture space.
POINTS TO PONDER ● The face is round with fleshy
The artistic and architectural cheeks. The bulge of the belly is
developments during the Post-Mauryan sculpted with controlled
period were more evolved and musculature.
sophisticated. Can you list out how the ● It may be noted that there are
Post-Mauryan features were different numerous examples of sculptures
from the Mauryan architecture? from the Kushana Period at
Mathura, but this image is
Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura representative and is important for
● A large number of images dating back the understanding of the
to the Kushana Period are from development of the Buddha image
Mathura. The image of the Buddha in the subsequent periods.
from the Katra mound belongs to the Buddha Head, Taxila
second century CE. ● The Buddha head from Taxila in the
● It represents the Buddha with two Gandhara region, now in Pakistan,
Boddhisattva attendants. The Buddha dates back to the second century
is seated in padmasana (cross-folded CE and belongs to the Kushana
legs) and the right hand is in the period.
abhayamudra, raised a little above ● The image shows hybridised
the shoulder level, whereas the left pictorial conventions that
hand is placed on the left thigh. developed during the Gandhara
● The ushanisha, i.e., hair knot, is shown period. It has Greco-Roman
with a vertically raised projection. elements in the treatment of
Mathura sculptures from this period sculpture.
are made with a light volume having a ● The Buddha’s head has typical
fleshy body. Hellenistic elements that have
grown over a period of time. The
curly hair of the Buddha is thick,
having a covered layer of sharp
and linear strokes over the head.
073
 ● The forehead plane is large, having
protruding eyeballs, the eyes are ● This Buddha image is a fine
half-closed and the face and cheeks example of the Sarnath school of
are not round like the images found in sculpture. The body is slender and
other parts of India. well-proportioned but slightly
● There is a certain amount of heaviness elongated. The outlines are
in the figures of the Gandhara region. delicate, very rhythmic. Folded legs
The ears are elongated especially the are expanded in order to create a
earlobes. The treatment of the form visual balance in the picture space.
bears linearity and the outlines are ● Drapery clings to the body and is
sharp. transparent to create the effect of
● The interplay of light and dark is given integrated volume. The face is
considerable attention by using the round, the eyes are half-closed, the
curving and protruding planes of the lower lip is protruding, and the
eye socket and the planes of the nose. roundness of the cheeks has
The expression of calmness is the reduced as compared to the earlier
central point of attraction. The images from the Kushana Period at
modeling of the face enhances the Mathura.
naturalism of threedimensionality. ● The hands are shown in
● Assimilating various traits of dhammachakrapravartana mudra
Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian placed just below the chest. The
traditions into the local tradition is the neck is slightly elongated with two
hallmark of the Gandhara style. incised lines indicating folds.
● It may also be observed that the ● The ushanisha has circular curled
north-western part of India, which is hair. The aim of the sculptors in
now Pakistan, always had continuous ancient India had always been to
habitation from proto-historic times. represent the Buddha as a great
● It continued in the historical period as human being who achieved
well. A large number of images have Nibbana (i.e., cessation of anger
been found in the Gandhara region. and hate).
They consist of narratives of the life of ● The central part of the halo is plain
the Buddha, narrations from the without any decoration. It makes
Jataka stories, and Buddha and the halo visually impressive.
Boddhisattva images. Decoration in the halo and the back
Seated Buddha, Sarnath of the throne indicates the artisan’s
● This image of the Buddha from sensitivity.
Sarnath belonging to the late fifth ● Transparent drapery becomes part
century CE is housed in the site of the physical body. Such
museum at Sarnath. It has been made refinement comes over a period of
in Chunar sandstone. time, and these features continued
● The Buddha is shown seated on a in subsequent periods
throne in the padmasana which
represents
dhammachackrapravartana as can
be seen from the figures on the throne.
● The panel below the throne depicts a
chakra (wheel) in the centre and a
deer on either side with his disciples.

074
Padmapani Bodhisattva Ajanta Cave No. 1
● This painting on the back wall of the
interior hall before the
shrine-antechamber in Cave No. 1 at
Ajanta dates back to the late fifth
century CE.
● The Bodhisattva is holding a padma
(lotus), has large shoulders, and has
three bents in the body creating a Mara Vijaya, Ajanta Cave No. 26
movement in the picture space. The ● The theme of Mara Vijaya has been
modeling is soft. Outlines are merged painted in the caves of Ajanta. This
with the body volume creating the is the only sculptural
effect of three dimensionality. representation sculpted on the
● The head is slightly bent to the left. The right wall of Cave No. 26. It is
eyes are half-closed and are slightly sculpted near the colossal Buddha
elongated. The nose is sharp and image of Mahaparinibbana.
straight. ● The panel shows the image of the
● Light colour all over the projected Buddha in the centre surrounded
planes of the face is aimed at creating by Mara’s army along with his
an effect of three-dimensionality. The daughter. The event is part of the
beaded necklace too has similar Enlightenment. It is a
features. personification of the commotion
● Broad and expanded shoulders create of mind that the Buddha went
heaviness in the body. The torso is through at the time of
relatively round. Lines are delicate, enlightenment.
and rhythmic, and define the contours ● Mara represents desire. According
of the body. The right hand is holding a to the narrative, there is a dialogue
lotus and the left hand is extended in between the Buddha and Mara,
space. and the Buddha is shown with his
● The Bodhisattva is surrounded by right hand pointing towards the
small figures. The foreshortened right earth as a witness to his generosity.
hand of the Bodhisattva makes the
image more solid, and effectively
dense.
● Each and every part of the body is
given equal attention.
● On the other side of the image,
Vajrapani Bodhisattva has been
painted. He holds a vajra in his right
hand and wears a crown. This image
also bears the same pictorial qualities
as the Padmapani. ● The image of Mara is shown
● Cave No. 1 has many interesting contemplating how to disturb
paintings of Buddhist themes such as Siddhartha, the name of the
Mahajanak Jataka, Umag Jataka, etc. Buddha before enlightenment. The
The Mahajanak Jataka is painted on army of Mara is shown marching
the entire wall side and is the biggest towards the Buddha in the first half
narrative painting. of the panel, whereas the lower half
of the panel shows the departing
army of Mara giving him
adorations.

075
 ● The centrally placed Buddha is in
padmasana, and a tree at the back is ● Each face has a different crown as
shown by dense leaves. per its iconographic prescription.
● This is the largest sculptural panel at This sculpture has been sculpted
Ajanta. Though there are several big on the south wall of the cave along
images in the caves of Ajanta, with the sculpture of
especially located in the shrine Ardhanarishwara and the
antechamber as well as the facade Gangadhara panel.
walls, such a complex arrangement of ● Elephanta sculptures are known for
figures is unique. their remarkable qualities of
Maheshmurti, Elephanta surface smoothness, elongation
● The image of Maheshmurti at and rhythmic movement. Their
Elephanta dates back to the early sixth composition is very complex. The
century CE. It is located in the main iconographic arrangement of this
cave shrine. It is one of the best cave is replicated in Cave No. 29 at
examples of qualitative achievement Ellora.
in sculpting images in rock-cut caves. Mural Traditions of India
● The image is large in size. The central ● Anantha from
head is the main Shiva figure whereas Ananthapadmanabh Temple,
the other two visible heads are of Kasarghod.
Bhairava and Uma. ● Shiva chasing the boar—a scene
● The central face is in high relief, having from Kiratarjuniya, Lepakshi
a round face, thick lips and heavy temple.
eyelids. The lower lip is prominently ● Chola king Rajaraja and court poet
protruded, showing a very different Karuvar Dever, Thanjavoor,
characteristic. eleventh century.
● The face of Shiva-Bhairava is clearly ● Shiva killing Tripuraasura,
shown in profile in anger, with bulging Thanjavoor.
eyes and a moustache. ● Rama kills Ravana, a scene from
Ramayana panel, Mattancheri
Palace.
● Shasta, Padmanabhapuram
Palace, Thakkala.

● The other face showing feminine

characters is of Uma, who is the
consort of Shiva.
● One of the Shilpa texts mentions five
integrated faces of Shiva and this
image, despite being shown with only
three faces, is considered as of the
same variety and the top and back
faces are deemed as invisible.

076
 9. Temple Architecture and 1. Sandhara ( without pradikshinapatha)
Sculpture 2. Nirandhara( with pradakshinapatha)
3. Sarvatobhadra (accessible from all
Introduction sides).
The architecture of Indian temples and the Notable temple sites from this era include
art of bronze sculpture hold a special place in Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran,
the rich heritage of Indian art and culture. Nachna-Kuthara, and Udaygiri near
Indian temple architecture is a testament to Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. These
the nation’s deep-rooted spiritual and temples, characterized by simplicity,
architectural traditions. These sacred typically comprised a veranda, a hall, and
structures, known for their intricate designs a shrine at the rear.
and spiritual significance, reflect the diverse
cultural and regional influences that have
shaped India over the centuries. Along with
them, Bronze sculpture showcases the
exceptional skill of Indian artisans in crafting
intricate and lifelike sculptures, often
depicting deities, legends, and mythological
stories. These sculptures, cast using the lost
wax technique, are renowned for their artistic
finesse and religious symbolism. In this
chapter, we will analyze the beauty and
significance of these art forms, shedding
light on their historical evolution, cultural The Basic Form of the Hindu Temple
significance, and enduring legacy in the ● Sanctum (Garbhagriha): The
modern world. sanctum, initially a small cubicle
with a single entrance, evolved into
a larger chamber over time. It is
designed to house the main icon,
which becomes the focal point of
significant ritual attention.
● Entrance (Mandapa): The entrance
to the temple, whether a portico or
collonaded hall, serves as a space
for accommodating a large
number of worshippers.
● Architectural Elements: In
freestanding temples, a
mountain-like spire is featured,
taking the form of a curving
Shikhar in North India and a
pyramidal tower known as a
Early Temples vimana in South India.
During this period, alongside the ongoing ● Vahan and Dhvaj: Positioned
construction of stupas, Brahmanical temples axially before the sanctum, the
and divine images gained prominence. vahan represents the mount or
Temples were often adorned with depictions vehicle of the main deity,
of gods, incorporating myths from the accompanied by a standard pillar
Puranas into the narrative representation of or Dhvaj.
Brahmanical religion. Each temple featured a
principal deity image. The temple shrines
came in three types—
077
Temple Orders
● Nagara (North) and Dravida (South): Outer Wall Depictions
Two distinct orders of temples ● Various forms or aspects of the
prevail—Nagara in the north and main divinity adorn the outer walls
Dravida in the south. They differ in of sanctums.
architectural features and spire ● Ashtadikpalas, representing the
shapes, which we will study about in deities of directions, face the eight
later parts of the chapter. key directions on the outer walls of
● Vesara Style: Some scholars recognize the sanctum and/or the temple.
the Vesara style, as an independent Subsidiary Shrines
form resulting from the selective ● Subsidiary shrines around the main
integration of Nagara and Dravida temple are dedicated to the family
elements. or incarnations of the main deity,
Sculpture, Iconography and Ornamentation adding layers of significance to the
Iconography in Art History temple complex.
● The study of images of deities is a Ornamental Elements in Temples
facet of art history known as ● Distinct elements of
‘iconography.’ This field involves the ornamentation, such as gavaksha,
identification of images based on vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka,
specific symbols and mythologies kalasha, are used in specific ways
associated with them. and places within a temple,
● While the fundamental myth and contributing to its overall aesthetic
meaning of a deity may endure for and symbolic richness.
centuries, its specific usage in a This diverse iconography not only serves
particular location often responds to as artistic expression but also reflects the
local, social, political, or geographical intricate interplay of cultural, social, and
contexts geographical influences over time. As
Regional Variations in Iconography temples grew more complex, additive
● Every region and period has produced geometry was employed. This involved
distinct styles of deity images, adding rhythmically projecting,
showcasing regional variations in symmetrical walls and niches without
iconography. deviating from the fundamental shrine
● Temples, integral to this artistic plan. This structural evolution can be
expression, are adorned with seen in changes that occurred within
elaborate sculptures and ornaments different variations of Nagara and
that form a fundamental part of their Dravida temples. Let’s study in detail
conception. about sub-styles within Nagara and
Strategic Placement in Temples Dravida orders.
● The placement of deity images within The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style
a temple is carefully planned. ● The prevalent style of temple
● For instance, in Nagara temples, river architecture in northern India is
goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are known as nagara.
commonly found at the entrance of a ● Northern temples are often
garbhagriha. Dravida temples feature constructed on a stone platform
dvarapalas (doorkeepers) guarding with steps leading up to it.
gateways or gopurams. ● Unlike South India, there is typically
● Erotic images (mithunas), the nine an absence of elaborate boundary
auspicious planets (navagrahas), and walls or gateways.
yakshas are strategically placed at ● The temple architecture’s form is
entrances for protective purposes influenced by ancient building
forms existing before the fifth
century CE

078
 ● The Valabhi type of Shikhara, for
instance, finds similarities with the Valabhi Type Building
ground plan of Buddhist rockcut ● The Valabhi type is characterized
chaitya caves. by rectangular buildings with a roof
● This evolution in Nagara temple rising into a vaulted chamber.
architecture showcases the dynamic ● The edge of the vaulted chamber is
development and diversification of rounded, resembling ancient
styles in response to regional and bamboo or wooden wagons.
temporal influences ● Often referred to as
‘wagon-vaulted buildings.’
Variations in the shape of the shikhara
lead to different subdivisions of Nagara
temples
Central India
● Ancient temples in Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan
share common traits.
● Gupta Period shrines in Madhya
Pradesh, notably at Udaigiri and
Evolution of Temple Towers (Shikhara) Sanchi, are made of sandstone.
● Early temples had a single tower ● Early Gupta temples are relatively
(shikhara), but later ones featured modest with four pillars supporting
multiple towers. a mandapa and garbhagriha.
● The garbhagriha (sanctum) is always ● The two surviving temples, one in
situated directly under the tallest Udaigiri near Vidisha and the other
tower or shikhara. in Sanchi near the stupa represent
● Multiple types of shikhara evolved a significant architectural
over time. development, featuring a flat roof
Latina Type Shikhara and indicating shared design
● This is a simple shikhara, famously elements in Hindu and Buddhist
known as the ‘latina’ or temple construction
‘rekha-prasada’ type. Deogarh Temple Architecture
● It has a square base and walls that ● Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, dating to
curve or slope inward, culminating in a the early sixth century CE,
point at the top. exemplifies late Gupta Period
● It is often considered as a basic form temple architecture.
of shikhara. ● Deogarh temple follows the
● Latina buildings evolved to support panchayatana (a total number of
many smaller towers, clustered five shrines, hence the name,
together like rising mountain peaks. panchayatana) style with a main
Phamsana Type Shikhara shrine (built on a rectangular
● Phamsana buildings are broader and plinth) and four subsidiary shrines
shorter than latina ones. (at the four corners)
● Their roofs consist of several slabs ● The curvilinear shikhara (curving
gently rising to a single point, latina or Rekhaprasada type of
presenting a different profile shikhara) indicates an early
compared to the sharply rising towers example of the classic nagara
of the latina type. style.
● In many North Indian temples, ● This west-facing temple has a
phamsana design is applied to grand doorway featuring
mandapas (halls), while the main sculptures of Ganga and Yamuna.
garbhagriha is housed in a latina
building
079
 ● The temple’s depictions of Vishnu in
various forms led to the ● Sculptures at Khajuraho are highly
misconception that it was a stylized, often in full relief with
Dasavatara temple (Refer to figure sharp features like noses, chins,
9.5) with our subsidiary shrines and slanting eyes.
housing Vishnu’s avatars. ● Erotic sculptures, including Mithun
● However, the original dedication of (embracing couple) sculptures, are
these shrines remains unknown, while considered auspicious and are
main reliefs of Vishnu, such as integral to the temples.
Sheshashayana , Nara-Narayan, and Diversity in Khajuraho Temples
Gajendramoksha, adorn the ● Khajuraho has numerous Hindu
west-facing temple walls. temples, Jain temples, and a
Chausanth Yogini temple; most of
them devoted to Hindu gods.
● Chausanth Yogini temple predates
the tenth century and is dedicated
to goddesses associated with
Tantric worship.
● Temples in Khajuraho showcase
the coexistence of spiritual and
erotic expressions in Hindu temple
art.
● Built between the seventh and
Development in Khajuraho Temples tenth centuries, a number of
● Temples at Khajuraho, constructed by temples dedicated to the cult of
Chandela Kings in the tenth century, yoginis are scattered across
show significant evolution . Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and
● Lakshmana temple (dedicated to extending as far south as Tamil
Vishnu) , built in 954 CE, by the Nadu.
Chandela king, Dhanga, displays a West India
curved pyramidal fashion in shikharas ● Temples in north-western India,
and prominent amalak (a horizontal spanning Gujarat, Rajasthan, and
fluted disc) and kalash (or vase). western Madhya Pradesh,
● All Nagara temples from this period showcase a variety of stones.
feature the standard crowning ● Sandstone is common, while grey
elements of amalak and kalash, and to black basalt appears in tenth to
distinctively, this temple exhibits twelfth-century temple sculptures.
projecting balconies and verandahs, ● Soft white marble, manipulatable
setting it apart from Deogarh. and exuberant, is seen in Jain
temples in Mount Abu (tenth to
twelfth century) and the
fifteenth-century temple at
Ranakpur.
Art-Historical Site: Samlaji in Gujarat
● Samlaji in Gujarat is a significant
art-historical site, blending earlier
regional traditions with a
post-Gupta style.
Khajuraho’s Sculpture Style ● Grey schist sculptures in the region,
● Kandariya Mahadeo temple in dating between the sixth and
Khajuraho epitomizes Central Indian eighth centuries CE, showcase a
temple architecture during the distinctive style influenced by the
medieval period. mix of traditions.

080
Surya Kund and Sun Temple at Modhera
● The Sun temple at Modhera , built in Assam’s Architectural Evolution
1026 CE by Raja Bhimdev I of the ● In Assam, a sixth-century sculpted
Solanki Dynasty, is a prominent door frame from DaParvatia, a
eleventh-century structure small village near Tezpur reflects
● A massive rectangular stepped tank, Gupta influences.
Surya Kund , is situated in front of the ● A post-Gupta style persisted until
temple, showcasing the influence of the tenth century, followed by the
water bodies in sacred architecture. emergence of a distinct Assamese
● The temple tank, measuring a style by the twelfth to fourteenth
hundred square meters, features 108 centuries.
miniature shrines carved between its ● The Ahom style, influenced by Tais
steps. from Upper Burma and Pala style
● The sabha mandapa, open on all from Bengal, is evident in the
sides, follows the fashion of western seventeenth-century Kamakhya
and central Indian temples in the early temple (a Shakti Peeth dedicated
eleventh century. to Goddess Kamakhya) in
● The temple’s intricate carving and Guwahati.
sculpture work reflect the influence of Evolution of Styles in Bengal
Gujarat’s wood carving tradition ● Bengal’s temple styles vary from
(evident in the lavish carving and the Pala style (ninth to eleventh
sculptures, showcasing a blend of centuries) to the Sena style
artistic styles). (eleventh to thirteenth centuries).
● The central small shrine, facing east, ● Pala rulers, patrons of Buddhist
remains plain to allow the sun to shine monastic sites, influenced the local
directly into it during the equinoxes. Vanga style in temples, such as the
● Proximity to water bodies, such as Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in
tanks, rivers, or ponds, becomes Barakar, evolving into loftier forms
integral to temple architecture in the in subsequent centuries.
region. Characterized by a tall curving
● The deliberate plainness of the central shikhara crowned by a large
shrine highlights the solar alignment amalaka, it shares similarities with
during equinoxes, emphasizing the contemporary temples in Odisha.
temple’s connection with celestial ● Terracotta brick temples in Bengal ,
events. influenced by local vernacular
East India traditions and Islamic architecture,
● The history of temple architecture in proliferated in the seventeenth
the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha century.
reveals distinct styles. ● Temples submerged in Telkupi,
● The history of architecture in the Purulia District, showcased
North-East and Bengal is complex due architectural styles aware of
to renovations, with later brick or prevalent nagara sub-types in
concrete temples now surviving. North India.
● Terracotta was a prevalent medium, ● The black-to-grey basalt and
molding plaques depicting Buddhist chlorite stone pillars, along with
and Hindu deities until the seventh arched niches in these temples,
century in Bengal. significantly influenced the earliest
● Assam and Bengal showcase Bengal sultanate buildings at Gaur
significant regional schools through and Pandua.
sculptures, reflecting diverse ● Local vernacular building traditions
influences and developments. played a key role, especially the
shape of the curving or sloping side
of the bamboo roof seen in Bengali
huts.
081
 ● This distinctive feature, known as the
Bangla roof, later found adoption in ● A massive sculpture of Surya
Mughal buildings, becoming a carved out of green stone and
recognizable architectural element strategically placed images
across North India. captured the sun’s rays in the
● During the Mughal period and beyond, garbhagriha.
scores of terracotta brick temples The Hills
were constructed across Bengal and ● The hills of Kumaon, Garhwal,
Bangladesh. Himachal, and Kashmir gave rise to
● The architectural influence also a distinctive form of architecture.
extends to incorporating forms of ● Proximity to Gandhara sites like
arches and domes taken from Islamic Taxila and Peshawar influenced
architecture. Kashmir, blending with Gupta and
● Prominent locations for these temples post-Gupta traditions from
include Vishnupur , Bankura, Burdwan, Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat, and
and Birbhum, with most dating to the Bengal.
seventeenth century. ● Frequent travels of Brahmin
Architectural Features in Odisha pundits and Buddhist monks
● Odisha’s temples, classified into contributed to the intermingling of
rekhapida, pidhadeul, and khakra Buddhist and Hindu traditions in
orders, form a distinct sub-style within the hills.
the nagara order.
● Most of the main temple sites are
located in ancient Kalinga—modern
Puri District , including Bhubaneswar
or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and
Konark.
● Shikharas (called deul) in Odisha
temples are vertical until the top, Wooden Tradition in the Hills
sharply curving inwards, with square ● Hills maintained their own tradition
ground plans. of wooden buildings with pitched
● Deuls are preceded, as usual, by roofs.
mandapas called jagamohana in ● Temples often showcase a blend of
Odisha. styles, with the main garbhagriha
● Odisha temples often include and shikhara in rekhaprasada or
boundary walls, distinguishing them latina style, while the mandapa
from other styles. reflects an older form of wooden
● The Sun temple at Konark, built around architecture.
1240, is a colossal creation with a ● Some temples adopt a pagoda
colossal shikhara that reached 70 m shape, highlighting the uniqueness
before collapsing in the nineteenth of hill architecture.
century. The Karkota Period in Kashmir
● The vast complex is within a ● The Karkota period in Kashmir,
quadrilateral precinct of which the especially during the eighth and
jagamohana or the dancepavillion ninth centuries, is significant for
(mandapa) has survived. temple architecture.
● The temple, resembling a chariot, has ● Pandrethan temple, possibly
walls covered in detailed ornamental dedicated to Shiva, exemplifies
carvings, including twelve pairs of Kashmir’s wooden building
enormous wheels representing the tradition, featuring a peaked roof
Sun god’s chariot wheels. slanting outward

082
 ● Moderately ornamented, it deviates
from post-Gupta aesthetics, ● Entrance sculptures typically
emphasizing simplicity with a row of depict fierce dvarapalas
elephants and a decorated doorway. (door-keepers) guarding the
Chamba Sculptures and Tradition Fusion temple.
● Chamba exhibits an amalgamation of ● Temple complexes often include
local traditions with a post-Gupta large water reservoirs or temple
style, seen in sculptures like tanks.
Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha Evolution of Temple Size
at the Laksna-Devi Mandir. ● Unlike North Indian temples with
● Influenced by the metal sculpture clusters of shikharas, South Indian
tradition of Kashmir, these sculptures temples often have the main
in yellow color possibly feature an temple with one of the smallest
alloy of zinc and copper. towers, indicating its historical
● An inscription at the temple, built significance.
during the reign of Meruvarman in the ● Over time, as towns expanded, new
seventh century, indicates its boundary walls with loftier
historical significance. gopurams were constructed
Nagara Architecture in Kumaon around the temple.
● Temples at Jageshwar near Almora ● Examples like the Srirangam
and Champavat near Pithoragarh in temple in Tiruchirapally showcase
Kumaon represent classic examples of multiple concentric rectangular
nagara architecture in the region. enclosure walls, each with
● These temples showcase the regional gopurams of varying heights.
adaptation of architectural styles, Urbanization and Administrative Centers
contributing to the rich heritage of hill ● Temples in Tamil Nadu, such as
architecture those in Kanchipuram, Thanjavur,
The Dravida or South Indian Temple Style Madurai, and Kumbakonam,
● Dravida temples, in contrast to nagara became focal points of urban
temples, are enclosed within a architecture.
compound wall. ● Temples transformed into rich
● The entrance wall boasts a central administrative centers, exerting
gateway known as a gopuram. control over extensive land areas
● The vimana, the main temple tower in during the eighth to twelfth
Tamil Nadu, takes the form of a centuries.
geometrically rising stepped pyramid, Classification of Dravida Temples
differing from the curving shikhara of ● Dravida temples are categorized
North India. into five shapes:
➢ Square (kuta or caturasra),
➢ Rectangular (shala or ayatasra),
➢ Elliptical (gaja-prishta or
vrittayata),
➢ Circular (vritta), and
➢ Octagonal (ashtasra).
● The choice of temple plan and
Distinctive Features vimana shape is influenced by the
● In South Indian temples, the term iconographic nature of the
‘shikhara’ refers only to the crowning consecrated deity.
element, usually shaped like a small
stupika or an octagonal cupola
(equivalent to the amlak and kalasha
of North Indian temples).

083
Pallavas: Pioneers of South Indian
Architecture POINTS TO PONDER
● The Pallavas, active from the second Indian temple architecture is broadly
century CE in the Andhra region, classified as Nagara style and Dravida
migrated south to Tamil Nadu, leaving style which developed in North and
a significant architectural legacy. South of India respectively .Can you list
● Initially, rock-cut structures attributed out the differences in these two styles?
to Mahendravarman I coexisted with Also have you heard about the
structural buildings, showcasing early Amaravati style of temple
mastery in both forms. architecture?
● Narasimhavarman I, also known as
Mamalla, ascended the Pallava throne
around 640 CE, expanding the empire
and initiating building works at
Mahabalipuram.
● The shore temple at Mahabalipuram ,
possibly built in the reign of
Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha),
presents three shrines—two to Shiva Architecture in the Deccan: Development
and one to Vishnu (Anantashayana). of Vesara and Other Regional Styles
● The compound includes evidence of a ● The temple architecture in the
water tank, early gopuram, and Deccan region, particularly in
sculptures of Nandi, though erosion Karnataka, exhibits a blend of
has affected some carvings. North and South Indian influences.
Chola Dynasty: Architectural Marvels ● Scholars acknowledge a hybridized
● The Rajarajeswara or Brihadishvara style called vesara, which emerged
temple , completed around 1009 CE by around the mid-seventh century,
Rajaraja Chola, stands as the largest distinct from the nagara and
and tallest Indian temple. Dravida styles.
● Characterized by a massive pyramidal Rashtrakutas and the Kailashnath
vimana rising 70 meters, it features a Temple
monolithic octagonal dome-shaped ● In the late seventh or early eighth
stupika. century, the Rashtrakutas took
● Two large gopurams with intricate control of the Deccan, showcasing
sculptural programs were conceived grand architecture at Ellora.
along with the temple. ● The Kailashnath temple at Ellora,
● Chola temples, including dedicated to Shiva (with a Nandi
Rajarajeswara, surpassed their shrine and a gopuram-like
predecessors in scale. ' The temple’s gateway, surrounding cloisters,
sanctum houses a two-storeyed subsidiary shrines, staircases and
lingam of Shiva. an imposing tower or vimana rising
● Elaborate mythological narratives to thirty metres), is a complete
adorn the walls, depicted through dravida building carved entirely
painted murals and sculptures. from living rock.
● Stucco figures on the vimana, while ● One portion of the monolithic hill
possibly added during the Maratha was carved patiently to build the
Period, contribute to the temple’s Kailashnath temple.
grandeur. ● Rashtrakuta sculptures at Ellora
display dynamism, grandeur, and
overwhelming energy

084
Chalukyan Legacy and Experimental Styles
● Pulakesin I founded the western ● The Lad Khan temple at Aihole in
Chalukya kingdom around Badami in Karnataka is inspired by
543 CE. wooden-roofed hill temples but
● The early western Chalukyas constructed entirely in stone.
dominated most of the Deccan until
the mid-eighth century, eventually
succeeded by the Rashtrakutas.
● In Karnataka, the western Chalukyas
blended various styles, leading to
experimental hybrid vesara
architecture.
● Early Chalukyan architectural activity Hoysalas and the Stellate-Plan Temples
included rockcut caves, which evolved ● Hoysalas, succeeding the Cholas
into structural temples . and Pandyas, became prominent
● The Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole patrons in South India.
showcases a distinctive sculptural ● In the southern Deccan,
style, featuring a significant depiction approximately a hundred temples
of Nataraja surrounded by have been discovered, with the
larger-than-life saptamatrikas, Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid,
characterized by graceful, slim bodies Karnataka, standing out among
and unique attire details. them.
● Constructed in 1150 CE by the
Hoysala king using dark schist
stone, it is one of the three most
frequently discussed temples,
alongside those at Belur and
Somnathpuram .
● Temples at Belur, Halebidu, and
Somnathpuram are characterized
by stellate-plan, growing
extremely complex with soapstone
● Chalukyan buildings showcase a carvings, feature a unique vesara
hybridization of styles, with the style, blending dravida and nagara
Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal elements.
being a notable example, exhibiting ● The Halebidu temple, dedicated to
elaborate Dravida tradition. Shiva as Nataraja , is a dual
● The Papnath temple at Pattadakal is structure with a mandapa for
dedicated to Lord Shiva and music and dance, featuring
exemplifies the Dravida tradition. intricate carvings of animals and
● Eastern Chalukyan temples, like deities.
Mahakuta and Swarga Brahma
temples, show the assimilation of
northern styles from Odisha and
Rajasthan.
● The Durga temple at Aihole is unique
with an early apsidal shrine
reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya halls,
surrounded by a later veranda with a
stylistically nagara shikhara.

085
Vijayanagara Synthesis
● Founded in 1336 CE, Vijayanagara, the ● It is narrow, like a Nagara temple,
‘city of victory,’ drew international but it rises without curving, like a
travelers like Niccolo di Conti, Dravida one.
Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz, Duarte
Barbosa, and Abdur Razzaq
Samarqandi, who provided vivid
accounts of the city.
● Additionally, Sanskrit and Telugu
works attest to the vibrant literary
tradition within this kingdom.
● Vijayanagara synthesized Dravida
temple architecture with Islamic styles
from neighboring sultanates.
● The ruins from the late fifteenth and Nalanda
early sixteenth centuries reflect a ● Nalanda, a monastic university ,
period of cultural fusion, wealth, and served as a center for Buddhist
exploration. teachings, attracting scholars and
● Vijayanagara’s eclectic architecture pilgrims from various regions.
embodies a synthesis of centuries-old ● It is a mahavihara as it is a
traditions with occasional foreign complex of several monasteries of
influences. various sizes.
Buddhist and Jain Architectural ● Most information about Nalanda is
Developments derived from Xuan Zang’s
Pala Empire in Magadha (Hsuan-tsang) records, indicating
● The Gupta Empire’s decline in the sixth that Kumargupta I laid the
century led to Rajput principalities in monastery’s foundation in the fifth
the west and the Pala Empire’s rise in century CE.
Magadha (Bihar and Bengal).
● Dharmapala, the second Pala ruler,
established a powerful empire in the
eighth century through victories over
Rajput Pratiharas.
● Empire’s wealth derived from
agriculture in the fertile Ganges plain
and international trade.
Bodhgaya and Mahabodhi Temple ● Subsequent monarchs developed it
● Bodhgaya, a pilgrimage site, holds into a renowned university where
significance as the place where all three Buddhist
Siddhartha achieved enlightenment. doctrines—Theravada, Mahayana,
● Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya , and Vajrayana—were taught.
initially built by King Ashoka, ● Monks from various regions,
underwent modifications over time. including China, Tibet, Central Asia,
● The vedika around the shrine is said to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, and
be post-Mauryan, about 100 BCE. others, traveled to Nalanda for
● The current temple structure reflects education, making it a prominent
the Colonial Period reconstruction of center for Buddhist learning.
the original seventh-century design. ● Sculptural art at Nalanda
● The design of the temple is unusual. It developed from Gupta traditions,
is, strictly speaking, neither Dravida showcasing a synthesis of local
nor Nagara. Bihar and central Indian influences.

086
● Nalanda sculptures, in stucco, stone,
and bronze, depict Mahayana and Jain Architectural Legacy
Vajrayana deities, reflecting a shift in ● Jains, like Hindus, were prolific
focus during the late eleventh and temple builders, with sacred sites
twelfth centuries. found across India, except in the
● Nalanda sculptures, dating between hills.
the seventh and twelfth centuries, ● Bihar hosts some of the oldest Jain
show distinctive facial features, pilgrimage sites, often associated
three-dimensional forms, and detailed with early Buddhist shrines.
back slabs ● Ellora and Aihole in the Deccan
feature architecturally significant
Jain sites.
● Central Indian towns like Deogarh,
Khajuraho, Chanderi, and Gwalior
showcase exemplary Jain temples.
● Karnataka boasts a rich Jain
heritage, with Shravanabelagola
hosting the world’s tallest
monolithic free-standing
structure—the statue of
Gomateshwara .
● The Nalanda bronzes, dating from the ● Jain temples at Mount Abu ,
7th to 12th centuries, form a significant constructed by Vimal Shah, exhibit
collection of Pala Period metal a simplistic exterior with rich
sculptures, surpassing discoveries sculptural decoration.
from other sites in eastern India. ● Shatrunjay Hills near Palitana in
● Initially influenced by Sarnath and Gujarat house an imposing cluster
Mathura Gupta traditions, these of Jain temples.
sculptures portray Mahayana
Buddhist deities (such as standing
Buddhas, bodhisattvas such as
Manjusri Kumara, Avalokiteshvara
seated on a lotus and
Naga-Nagarjuna).
● In the late 11th and 12th centuries,
Nalanda became a key tantric center,
shifting focus to Vajrayana deities.
Crowned Buddha depictions became Challenges in Preservation
common after the 10th century. ● Sculptures made of silver and gold
● Notably, Nalanda also features likely faced reuse through melting.
non-Sarnath-style Brahmanical ● Fragile sculptures crafted from
images, some of which are still wood and ivory have perished over
worshipped in nearby villages. time.
● Sirpur in Chhattisgarh represents an ● Many sculptures, including likely
early Odisha-style site with both Hindu painted ones, faced challenges in
and Buddhist shrines. pigment preservation over
● Iconographic and stylistic elements in centuries.
Buddhist sculptures at Sirpur are ● The rich tradition of painting during
similar to those at Nalanda. this period is evidenced by
● Nagapattinam, a major Buddhist surviving murals in a few religious
center until the Chola Period, reveals buildings.
Chola influences in bronze and stone
sculptures dating back to the tenth
century
087
Few Iconic Temple Architectures
Mahabalipuram Ravana Shaking Mount Kailasha
● Mahabalipuram is a coastal town with ● Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha is
Pallava temples dating back to the depicted in Ellora’s Kailashnath
seventh and eighth centuries. temple (Cave No.16), dated to the
● The sculptural panel in eighth century.
Mahabalipuram is one of the world’s ● Colossal sculpture with
largest and oldest, measuring nearly multi-faced, multi-armed Ravana
30 meters in length and 15 meters in in the lower tier, showcasing ease
height. in shaking the mount.
● Cleverly utilizing a natural cleft in the ● Three-dimensional space effect
rock, sculptors created a water achieved through detailed
channel that flows down to a massive carvings of multiple hands.
tank in front of the sculpted wall. ● The upper half is divided into three
● Scholars offer different interpretations frames, with the center featuring
of the panel; some believe it Shiva and Parvati; Parvati is
represents the descent of the Ganga, portrayed with a dramatic light and
while others associate it with shade effect, scared by the
Kiratarjuniya or Arjuna’s penance, a commotion.
work by the poet Bharvi. ● Pronounced volume in sculpture,
● There is speculation that the entire attendant figures and gana
tableau serves as a prashasti, praising (dwarf) figures in dynamic action.
the Pallava king, possibly seated in ● Celestial beings above Shiva and
front of the sculpted backdrop. Parvati are frozen in movement.
● The relief prominently features a ● Protrusion of volume and recession
temple with ascetics and worshippers, in space are key features in Ellora
along with an emaciated figure cave images.
identified as either Bhagirath or Arjuna ● Utilization of light and darkness to
engaged in penance. create full-round images,
● Shiva is depicted with one hand in a emphasizing slender torsos and
boon-bestowing gesture, and a dwarf, slim arms.
possibly symbolizing the powerful ● Attendant figures on the sides
pashupata weapon. exhibit angular frontality,
● The artistic style is characterized by contributing to structural harmony.
slender, linear figures in animated
movement, including naturalistically
carved birds and animals, such as
lifelike elephants.
● A humorous element is introduced
with a cat standing on its hind legs,
imitating Bhagirath or Arjuna,
surrounded by rats—possibly a
metaphor for undisturbed penance.
● The overall theme of the sculptural
panel is richly detailed and symbolic,
blending religious and poetic
narratives, potentially serving as a
tribute to the Pallava king. Lakshmana Temple in Khajuraho
● Khajuraho temples, made of
sandstone, were patronized by the
Chandella dynasty.

088
 ● Lakshmana temple, representing the
developed Chandella temple Indian Bronze Sculpture
architecture, was completed in 954 CE ● Indian sculptors demonstrated
by Yashovarman. mastery in bronze medium and the
● Temple plan is panchayana type with cire-perdu or ‘lost-wax’ casting
ardhamandapa, mandapa, maha process.
mandapa, and garbhagriha with ● The knowledge of the ‘lost-wax’
vimana. process dates back to the Indus
● Constructed on a heavy plinth, each Valley Culture, along with the
part has a separate roof rising discovery of alloy-making using
backwards. copper, zinc, and tin, resulting in
● Projected porches on halls’ walls for bronze.
light and ventilation are not accessible ● Bronze sculptures and statuettes of
to visitors. Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain icons
● Outer walls are adorned with span from the second century to
sculptures, especially on garbhagriha the sixteenth century.
and circumambulatory path. ● Beyond ritual worship, bronze was
● Tall shikhara on garbhagriha, known utilized for practical items such as
for erotic sculptures, many carved on utensils, showcasing the versatility
the plinth wall. of the metal-casting process.
● Tier arrangements on walls provide ● Present-day tribal communities
specific spaces for image placement. continue to employ the ‘lost-wax’
● Interior halls were decorated process in their artistic expressions.
profusely, entrance to garbhagriha
was sculpted with voluminous pillars
and lintels. The Lost-wax Process The lost-wax
● Chaturmukha Vishnu image in the process is a technique used for
garbhagriha, four shrines in each making objects of metal, especially in
corner, featuring Vishnu and Surya. Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar,
● Drapery and ornaments receive Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. In
meticulous attention in the sculptures each region, a slightly different
technique is used. The lost-wax
process involves several different
steps. First, a wax model of the image
is made by hand of pure beeswax
that has first been melted over an
open fire, and then strained through a
We have focussed on the dominant art fine cloth into a basin of cold water.
styles and some of the most famous Here, it resolidifies immediately. It is
monuments from different parts of India in then pressed through a pichki or
the medieval period. It is important to realise pharni — which squeezes the wax into
that the enormous artistic achievements noodle-like shape.These wax wires
that we have studied here would never have are then wound around to the shape
been possible if artists worked alone. These of the entire image The image is now
large projects would have brought covered with a thick coating of paste,
architects, builders, sculptors and painters made of equal parts of clay, sand
together. Apart from this, a large number of and cow-dung. Into an opening on
bronze sculptures have been found in the one side, a clay pot is fixed. In this
country. Let’s learn about the bronze molten metal is poured. The weight of
sculptures. the metal to be used is ten times that
of wax.

089
 (The wax is weighed before starting the ● Gujarat and Rajasthan,
entire process.) This metal is largely scrap longstanding strongholds of
metal from broken pots and pans. While Jainism, yielded significant Jain
the molten metal is poured in the clay pot, bronzes.
the clay-plastered model is exposed to ● A hoard of Jain bronzes found at
firing. As the wax inside melts, the metal Akota, near Baroda, dated between
flows down the channel and takes on the the end of the fifth and the end of
shape of the wax image. The firing process the seventh century CE, exemplifies
is carried out almost like a religious ritual the intricacy achieved through the
and all the steps take place in dead lost-wax process.
silence. The image is later chiselled with Influence and Stylistic Features
files to smoothen it and give it a finish. ● The Akota hoard established that
Casting a bronze image is a painstaking bronze casting thrived in Gujarat or
task and demands a high degree of skill. western India between the sixth
Sometimes an alloy of five metals — gold, and ninth centuries.
silver, copper, brass and lead — is used to ● Jain Tirthankaras like Mahavira,
cast bronze images. Parshvanath, or Adinath were
common subjects, depicted in
innovative formats, either single,
combined in groups of three, or
representing the full set of
twenty-four Tirthankaras.
● Female images in bronze
represented Yakshinis or
Shasanadevis associated with
prominent Tirthankaras.
● Stylistically, these bronzes from
Akota reflected influences from
both the Gupta and Vakataka
period bronzes, showcasing a
Early Bronze Art harmonious blend of artistic
● The ‘Dancing Girl’ from Mohenjodaro, traditions.
dating back to 2500 BCE, is perhaps Bronze Casting in Buddhist Centers
the earliest bronze sculpture, ● During the rule of the Pala Dynasty
characterized by simplified tubular in Bihar and Bengal (ninth century),
forms. a school of bronze casting emerged
● Similar bronze statuettes from in Buddhist centers like Nalanda.
Daimabad (Maharashtra) around 1500 ● Sculptors at Kurkihar near Nalanda
BCE showcase unique representations, successfully revived the classical
such as the ‘Chariot’ with elongated style of the Gupta period, evident in
human figures and sturdy bulls. bronzes like the four-armed
● Jain Tirthankara images from Chausa, Avalokitesvara.
Bihar, dating to the Kushana Period in ● The growth of Vajrayana Buddhism
the second century CE, reveal the is reflected in the popularity of
mastery of sculptors in modeling images like Tara, seated on a
masculine physiques and simplifying throne with a curvilinear lotus stalk
muscles. and the right hand in abhaya
● Notable is the depiction of Adinath or mudra.
Vrishabhnath with long hairlocks,
deviating from the usual short curly
hair of Tirthankaras.

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Bronze Sculptures in North India
● Many standing Buddha images with Bronze Sculptures in Central India
the right hand in abhaya mudra were Vakataka bronze images from Phophnar,
cast in North India, specifically Uttar Maharashtra, during the Gupta period,
Pradesh and Bihar, during the Gupta show Amaravati style influences with
and Post-Gupta periods (fifth to unique draping styles.
seventh centuries). Bronze Sculptures in South India
● The sculptors demonstrated mastery ● South India, especially during the
in depicting the sanghati, or monk’s Chola Period in Tamil Nadu (tenth
robe, showcasing refined classical to twelfth centuries), witnessed the
styles. creation of beautiful and exquisite
● Bronze sculptures from Dhanesar bronze statues.
Khera, Uttar Pradesh, exhibit ● The widowed Chola queen,
Mathura-style drapery folds, while Sembiyan Maha Devi, was a
Sarnath-style bronzes feature foldless distinguished patron during the
drapery. tenth century

Bronze Art in Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir

● The eighth to tenth centuries ● The iconography of Shiva in the
witnessed the production of bronze eighth-century Pallava Period and
images of Buddhist deities and Hindu the evolution of the dancing form of
gods/goddesses in Himachal Pradesh Shiva as Nataraja fully developed
and Kashmir. during the Chola Period.
● Notably, the growth of different ● The Thanjavur region showcased a
iconographies, including the worship wide range of Shiva iconography,
of the four-headed Vishnu, including the ingeniously
(Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu) represented Ardhanarisvara murti
showcased a distinct regional style. depicting the union of Shiva and
While the central face represents Parvati.
Vasudeva, the other two faces are ● The ninth-century Kalyanasundara
those of Narasimha and Varaha. Murti is highly remarkable for the
● Dynamic bronze images from manner in which Panigrahana
Himachal Pradesh depict the (ceremony of marriage) is
Narasimha avatar and represented by two separate
Mahishasuramardini Durga, statuettes. Shiva, with his extended
emphasizing dynamic and powerful right hand, accepts Parvati’s (the
portrayals bride’s) right hand, who is depicted
with a bashful expression and
taking a step forward.

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Vijayanagar Period in Andhra Pradesh
● During the sixteenth century
(Vijayanagar Period), sculptors
experimented with portrait sculpture
to preserve the likeness of royal
patrons.
● Life-size standing portrait statues at
Tirupati depicted Krishnadevaraya
with his queens, showcasing both
likeness and idealization in facial
features and physical body modeling.
● The idealisation is further observed in
the manner in which the physical body
is modelled to appear imposing as
well as graceful.
● The standing king and queens are
depicted in praying posture, that is,
both hands held in the namaskara
mudra.

Natraja
Shiva is associated with the end of the
cosmic world, with which this dancing
position is associated. In this Chola period
bronze sculpture, he has been shown
balancing himself on his right leg and
suppressing the apasmara, the demon of Follow us on :
ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of
the same leg. At the same time, he raises
his left leg in a bhujangatrasita stance,
which represents tirobhava, that is kicking
away the veil of maya or illusion from the
devotee’s mind. His four arms are
outstretched and the main right hand is
posed in abhaya hasta or the gesture
suggesting. The upper right holds the
damaru, his favourite musical instrument
to keep on the beat tala. The upper left
hand carries a flame while the main left
hand is held in dola hasta and connects
with the abhaya hasta of the right hand.
His hair locks fly on both sides, touching
the circular jvala mala, or the garland of
flames, which surrounds the entire
dancing figuration.

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 10.Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic POINTS TO PONDER
Architecture Do you think the fusion of Indian
and Islamic architectural styles in
Introduction IndoIslamic architecture was
Indo-Islamic architecture, a fusion of Indian primarily driven by artistic and
and Islamic architectural styles, emerged aesthetic considerations, or did
prominently during the medieval period, socio-political and cultural factors
reflecting the socio-political and cultural play a more significant role in
amalgamation of the two distinct shaping this unique blend?
civilizations. The study of this unique blend
began in earnest during the 19th century, Architecture of Indo-Islamic Structures
particularly under British colonial rule, when ● Over time, India witnessed the
both British and Indian scholars began construction of various
systematically documenting and exploring architectural structures catering to
the vast array of architectural wonders. religious and secular needs.
Indo-Islamic architecture ● Key structures included daily
● Islam arrived in India in the seventh mosques, principal Jama Masjids,
and eighth centuries, it was brought tombs, Sufi Islamic shrines known
by merchants, traders, holy men, and as Dargahs, tall Minars, Hammams
conquerors. By the 8th century CE, or bathhouses, formal gardens,
Islamic construction began in regions educational institutions called
like Sindh and Gujarat. Large-scale Madrasas, resting places for
building commenced in the early 13th travellers named Sarais or
century under the Delhi Sultanate Caravansarais, and roadside
following the Turkish conquest. distance markers termed Kos
● Fusion of Architectural Styles: Muslim Minars.
migrants integrated features of local ● These edifices supplemented the
Indian cultures with their own already existing building types in
architectural practices. It resulted in a the sub-continent
blend of structural techniques, shapes, Factors determined Indo-Islamic
and surface decorations, known as Architecture
Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic ● While Indo-Islamic architecture did
architecture. bear Saracenic, Persian, and
Religious Influences on Architecture Turkish influences, it was
● Hindu Influence: Hindus perceived predominantly marked by Indian
multiple forms of god everywhere. It architectural and decorative forms.
resulted in structures adorned with ● Factors such as the availability of
sculptures and paintings. materials, resource limitations, the
● Muslim Influence: Muslims believe in skillset at hand, and the patrons’
one god, with Muhammad as their aesthetic preferences heavily
Prophet. The Islamic prohibition on influenced the design.
depicting living forms led to the ● Notably, despite the significant role
development of Arabesque method of religion in medieval India,
(Ornamental design using intertwined architectural elements were
flowing lines), Geometrical patterns, borrowed liberally, showcasing a
Calligraphy (Decorative handwriting blend of cultures and traditions.
or handwritten lettering on plaster and
stone) etc

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Styles of Indo-Islamic Architecture
● Indo-Islamic architecture is ● The motifs spanned a range of
traditionally segmented into specific flowers, including those native to
styles for a nuanced understanding. the subcontinent and foreign ones,
● The Imperial Style emerged during the especially from Iran.
Delhi Sultanate era. ● Notably, the lotus bud fringe was
● The Provincial Style is associated with intricately positioned on the inner
regions like Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, curves of the arches. Walls became
and Jaunpur. canvases, displaying trees like
● The Mughal Style is distinctively cypress and chinar, and ornate
present in places such as Delhi, Agra, flower vases. These complex floral
and Lahore. motifs often mirrored those found
● The Deccani Style is attributed to on textiles and carpets.
areas like Bijapur and Golconda. ● Between the 14th and 16th
● These categorizations allow for a centuries, tiles became popular for
clearer grasp of architectural decorating walls and domes,
specificities rather than placing them embracing hues of blue, turquoise,
in fixed slots green, and yellow.
Architectural Influences ● Decorative techniques, such as
● Certain provincial styles in tessellation and pietra dura, were
Indo-Islamic architecture, especially introduced, sometimes even
those from Bengal and Jaunpur, are incorporating luxurious lapis lazuli
recognised for their distinctiveness. into interior walls or canopies.
● Gujarat’s architecture stands out due ● Subsequently, the techniques of
to its integration of regional temple tessellation (mosaic designs) and
traditions. pietra dura were used for surface
● Elements like ornamental gateways decoration, particularly in the dado
known as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, panels of the walls.
carvings of bell and chain motifs, and ● Further enriching the decor were
carved panels displaying trees are elements like arabesque,
prevalent in tombs, mosques, and calligraphy, diverse relief carvings,
dargahs of the region. and abundant use of lattice
● The 15th-century white marble dargah screens or jalis.
of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej in ● Trabeation style includes the use of
Gujarat is a prime example of this brackets, pillars, and lintels to
provincial style and has profoundly support flat roofs or small domes.
influenced the design and decoration ● The design of arches transitioned
of Mughal tombs. over time, from simple structures to
Decorative Forms in Indo-Islamic those ornate with trefoil by the 16th
Architecture century.
● Indo-Islamic architectural decor is ● Arcuate Form includes Voussoirs
distinguished by a rich tapestry of (interlocking blocks used in
designs and techniques that evolved constructing arches), Keystone
through time. Techniques (the central stone piece in an
predominantly involved designing on arch), Domes rested on
plaster using methods such as incision pendentives and squinches,
or stucco, either leaving designs allowing for vast spaces free of
untouched or enhancing them with pillars inside.
vibrant colours. Stone also became a .
canvas where motifs were either
painted or carved.

094
 ● Roofs often combine a central dome
with surrounding smaller domes, ● A fort’s capture often meant the
pavilions, and minarets. The crowning vanquishing of its ruler, causing a
touch to central domes was often an loss of sovereignty or a complete
inverted lotus flower motif diminishment of power.
complemented by a metal or stone ● These fortresses, representing the
pinnacle. epitome of strategic and
Materials in Indo-Islamic Architecture architectural genius, were often
● In the field of Indo-Islamic built on commanding heights,
architecture, the walls of buildings offering both a strategic vantage
stood out for their significant point and an awe-inspiring view.
thickness, primarily built using rubble
masonry. Etymologically, the word “fort” is
● These robust walls were then finely derived from the Latin root fortis or
overlaid with chunam, which is forte which means strong or firm. The
limestone plaster, or adorned with indigenous word for “fort” is durg
dressed stone. which is said to have been derived
● The architecture saw the usage of a from the Sanskrit word durgam,
rich palette of stones, encompassing meaning difficult
quartzite, sandstone, buff, and marble.
● Additionally, polychrome tiles were
strategically used to elevate the Grand Forts of India
aesthetics of the walls ● Chittorgarh: Renowned as the
● By the onset of the 17th century, there largest fort in Asia and holds the
was a marked transition to brick record for the longest duration as a
construction, conferring greater seat of power. It’s rich with various
flexibility to the structures. structures, including victory towers,
● This era also denoted a pronounced or “stambhas”, and numerous
lean towards harnessing local water bodies. Legends of heroism
materials. and valour are deeply interwoven
with its history.
● Golconda: It is characterised by its
POINTS TO PONDER concentric circle walls, requiring
How do you think the availability of enemies to breach multiple
local materials and the skills of barriers before accessing the core
artisans influenced the design and of the fort.
construction of Indo-Islamic ● Daulatabad (formerly Devgiri):
architectural structures in medieval Designed with multiple strategic
India, leading to a unique blend of elements like staggered entrances,
Indian and Islamic architectural making it hard for enemies to
styles? penetrate. It featured twin forts and
a labyrinthine pathway designed to
Form of Indo-Islamic Architecture confound invaders.
Forts ● Gwalior Fort: Its sheer height made
● A Fort means any structure that is it nearly impregnable. Even Babur,
used or built for the purpose of the founder of the Mughal Empire,
defending a territory by repelling was said to be deeply impressed by
external attacks. its magnificence.
● During medieval times, monumental
forts were not just architectural
marvels but also signified the might
and authority of a ruler.

095
 ● Forts were not just defensive
strongholds, but they were also Chand Minar, Daulatabad Fort
residential and official complexes, ● Dating back to the 15th century,
designed to inspire awe and chand Minar rivals in grandeur with
reverence. Intriguingly, within these a height of 210 feet, gracefully
palace complexes, there was a liberal tapering over four storeys. (Refer to
absorption of various stylistic and figure 10.6)
decorative influences, showcasing the ● Its current peach-colored façade
blend of cultures and architectural was once embellished with
philosophies. chevron patterns formed by
encaustic tile work and bold bands
of Quranic verses.
● While its design might hint at
Iranian influences, this towering
edifice is the collaborative
masterpiece of local craftsmen,
along with architects from Delhi
and Iran
Tombs
Mediaeval India witnessed the grand
tradition of constructing monumental
Minars tombs over the graves of esteemed rulers
● The minar is a mix of polygonal and and royalty.
circular shapes. It is largely built of red Prominent Tombs and their Significance
and buff sandstone with some use of ● Key tombs of this period include
marble in the upper storeys. Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun,
● While these towering structures Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in
served a religious function in Delhi, and Akbar and
broadcasting the azaan, or call to Itmaduddaula in Agra.
prayer, their imposing heights also ● Conceptual Inspiration: According
echoed the might of the ruling class. to scholar Anthony Welch, the
Qutub Minar, Delhi principal idea driving these tomb
● The first floor was constructed by constructions pivoted around the
Qutbuddin Aybak in 1199, and the rest promise of eternal paradise for the
by Iltutmish around 1229. Over the true believer during the Day of
years, it was damaged by lightning Judgement.
and earthquakes and repaired by Design Elements Reflecting Paradise
Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Tughluq, ● Quranic Verses: Initially, the walls
Firuz Shah Tughluq and Ibrahim Lodi. of these tombs featured Quranic
The Qutub Minar stands as a verses, symbolising religious
magnificent 234-foot-high tapering reverence.
tower segmented into five storeys. ● Paradisiacal Elements: Over time,
● Showcasing a blend of polygonal and tombs incorporated elements
cylindrical geometries, the structure evoking paradise. Notable
predominantly uses red and buff examples like Humayun’s tomb
sandstone, with marble accentuating and the iconic Taj Mahal exemplify
the upper sections. the charbagh style, where the tomb
● Its renowned beauty is further is surrounded by structured
accentuated by intricately adorned gardens or positioned near water
balconies and bands, where bodies, often combining both
inscriptions intertwine gracefully with elements.
foliated patterns.

096
 ● The intricate designs and expansive
landscapes surrounding these tombs Jama Masjid
were not just spiritual symbols ● Large mosques, or Jama Masjids,
representing peace and happiness in became central fixtures in the
the afterlife. They also functioned as urban fabric of medieval India.
testamentary edifices, radiating the More than just religious sites, these
might, grandeur, and legacy of the structures played multifaceted
individuals interred within roles.
Sarais ● Every Friday, they teemed with life
● These were small resting places, with as congregational prayers were
their straightforward square or held.
rectangular designs, that encircled ● Essential to these gatherings was
urban areas and punctuated the the Khutba, where, apart from
vastness of the subcontinent. religious teachings, the ruler’s laws
● Designed to cater to a wide array of were announced.
individuals, from domestic and ● Interestingly, a city typically has
international travelers to pilgrims and one Jama Masjid, making it a
merchants, they weren’t just mere nexus of both religious and social
structures for accommodation. Their activities.
significance extended much beyond. ● It was not only Muslims but also
● These vibrant public spaces, non-Muslims who thrived in the
brimming with people from various vibrant surroundings of the Jama
cultural backgrounds, became hubs of Masjid, partaking in commercial
cross-cultural exchanges. and cultural exchanges.
● The bustling nature of Sarais allowed ● Architecturally, these mosques
people of different origins and cultures were expansive with open
to mingle, leading to a blending of courtyards. On three sides, cloisters
cultural norms. This emergence of would frame the space, while the
shared or syncretic practices among Qibla Liwan occupied the western
the populace showcased the Sarais’ side. (Refer to figure 10.9) ' It was
pivotal role in shaping the cultural here that the essential mihrab,
tapestry of the era. indicating the direction of the
● Through them, medieval India sacred Kaaba in Mecca, was found,
witnessed a harmonious confluence, guiding worshippers during their
fostering unity and mutual prayers.
appreciation among its diverse Some Examples of Indo-Islamic
inhabitants. Architecture
Structures for Common People Mandu
● Mediaeval Indian architecture ● Mandu, which is about 2,000 feet
witnessed a confluence of styles, above sea level, is a testament to
techniques, and motifs. India’s rich architectural heritage. It
● This fusion was not confined to grand strategically located the Malwa
royal structures but was prominently Plateau to the north and the
visible in spaces used by the verdant Narmada Valley to the
non-royal sections of society. south. Historical Significance and
● These included buildings for domestic Inhabitants
usage, temples, mosques, khanqahs ● Mandu witnessed varied cultural
and dargahs, commemorative influences, with Parmara Rajputs,
gateways, pavilions in buildings and Afghans, and Mughals finding
gardens, bazaars, etc. solace in its natural fortifications.
● It garnered immense fame as the
capital of the Ghauri Dynasty under
Hoshang Shah.

097
 ● The city is also steeped in romance,
echoing tales of Sultan Baz Bahadur Legacy in the Architectural Narrative
and Rani Rupmati, and was a ● While Mandu’s architecture closely
preferred retreat for Mughals during mirrors Imperial Delhi, it uniquely
monsoon interpolates robust Pathan
Architectural Marvel aesthetics with intricate surface
● Mandu stands as a prime details. This balance contributes
representation of medieval provincial significantly to the discourse on
art and architecture. It beautifully Indo-Islamic architectural
amalgamates, official and residential evolution.
palaces, pleasure pavilions, mosques, Taj Mahal
artificial reservoirs and baolis ● Taj Mahal was constructed by Shah
embattlements. Jahan in memory of his cherished
● Despite their monumentality, the wife, Mumtaz Mahal, the Taj Mahal
structures, designed as arched is not only an emblem of enduring
pavilions, are airy and cool. The adept love but also signifies the zenith of
use of local stone and marble further Mughal architectural evolution in
emphasises Mandu’s architectural Agra, India.
affinity to its environment. Aesthetics of the Taj Mahal
Structural Feature of Mandu ● Its structured, simplistic plan is
● Royal Enclave: A romantic collection of coupled with an impressive
structures enveloping two artificial elevation.
lakes. ● Exceptional symmetry and perfect
● Hindola Mahal: Its buttressed design proportions create visual harmony.
resembles a railway viaduct bridge. ● The ethereal luminance of the
The sultan greeted his subjects here. marble bestows upon it an
● Jahaz Mahal: A graceful ‘ship-palace’ otherworldly glow.
crafted by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji, ● The strategic backdrop of the
featuring open pavilions and a terrace encompassing garden (bagh) and
swimming pool. the calm river.
● Rani Rupmati Pavilion: It offers ● Its unique patina allows the
panoramic views of the Narmada monument to shimmer in varying
Valley. hues at different times of the day
● Baz Bahadur’s Palace: It encompasses and night.
a grand courtyard surrounded by halls Structural Design and Layout
and terraces. ● Entrance: Visitors are greeted by a
● Hoshang Shah’s Tomb: It exhibits monumental red sandstone
Afghan robustness, complemented by gateway, through which the
delicate lattice work and toranas. mausoleum is beautifully framed.
● Jama Masjid: Built for mass Friday ● Chahar Bagh Setting: The Taj is
prayers, it showcases red sandstone, nestled within a meticulously
an imposing gateway, and intricately designed garden split by paths and
carved brackets in the mimbar waterways, adorned with serene
pools and lively fountains.
● Riverside Placement: Unlike typical
central placements, the tomb
benefits from its location at the
garden’s northern extremity,
offering an unrivaled view of the
river bank.

098
Key Architectural Highlights
● Minarets: Cornering the terrace are ● Marble Mastery: The structure
four elegant minarets, each soaring to flaunts intricate jali work and
a height of 132 feet. elegant volutes on its pillars.
● Dome and Cupolas: The majestic ● Pietra Dura Technique: Walls and
central dome, surrounded by four tombstones are adorned with
smaller cupolas, crafts an enchanting arabesques made from yellow
skyline. marble, jade, and jasper.
● Balanced Proportions: Every element, ● Sacred Calligraphy: The art of
from the plinth, walls to the calligraphy, employing jasper
drum-dome, is in symmetrical inlaid into white marble, decorates
harmony. the walls with Quranic verses.
● Complementary Structures: A mosque Beyond mere decoration, this
made of red sandstone lies to the calligraphy fosters a continuous
west, balanced by a parallel structure spiritual connection with the divine.
to the east, preserving the
monument’s symmetry.
● Choice of Materials: The pristine white
marble, sourced from Rajasthan’s
Makrana mines, juxtaposes beautifully
against the surrounding red
sandstone structures.
Tomb’s Design
● Shape & Shadow Play: The tomb Gol Gumbad
exhibits a unique chamfered square ● Gol Gumbad stands as an epitome
formation, creating eight distinct of architectural magnificence from
sides. The deep arches and facets the Adil Shahi Dynasty, elegantly
produce dynamic contrasts of light merging various medieval Indian
and shadow. styles and providing a unique
● Measurements: Both horizontal spans space for both historical and
from floor to roof and vertically from architectural enthusiasts.
roof to the pinnacle measure an ● Gumbad is situated in Bijapur in the
identical 186 feet. Bijapur District of Karnataka.
Interior Architecture Historical Context
● Spatial Layout: Beneath lies a crypt, ● It was built as the burial place of
with an octagonal tomb chamber Muhammad Adil Shah, the seventh
above. This is flanked by rooms at Sultan of the Adil Shahi Dynasty
each angle, all interconnected via (1626–1656).
corridors. ● This monumental edifice reflects
● Luminance: The interior is bathed in the architectural legacy of the Adil
natural light filtering through Shahi Dynasty which ruled Bijapur
intricately carved and perforated jalis. between 1489 and 1686.
● Spatial Grandeur: A high ceiling, Architectural Splendour
matching the façade’s height, crafts a ● Gumbad Complex: Beyond the
spacious feel, enhanced by the primary tomb, the complex is
innovative double dome construction inclusive of a gateway, a Naqqar
Masterful Decorations Khana (a ceremonial drum house),
● Stone Artistry: The walls are graced a mosque, and a sarai. All these are
with exquisite stone carvings, both in nestled within an expansive walled
pronounced and subtle relief. garden.

099
Structural Features
● Built using robust dark gray basalt Confluence of Architectural Styles
combined with ornate plasterwork. ● Gumbad is a hallmark of Bijapur’s
● The square building culminates in a monumentality, majesty, and
grand dome, rising over 200 feet in grandeur; it seamlessly integrates
total height, with walls each elements from diverse
measuring 135 feet in length, 110 feet in architectural heritages.
height, and 10 feet in thickness. ● Timurid and Persian influences are
● The dome alone, with its impressive evident in its domes, arches, and
diameter of 125 feet, covers a vast geometric emphasis.
18,337 sq. feet, making it the ● Local materials blend with popular
second-largest in the world. embellishments from the Deccan.
Tomb’s Inner Sanctum ● The corner towers draw parallels
● Royal Resting Place: The tomb with turrets seen in renowned
chamber houses the memorials of the structures like Delhi’s Qila-i Kuhna
Sultan, his wives, and close relatives. Masjid and the Purana Qila.
However, their actual graves are
discreetly located below in a
basement chamber, accessible
through stairs.
● Structural Mastery: Achieving the vast
dome over a square base required
ingenious techniques. Pendentives
played a dual role, providing the dome
with its shape and distributing its
weight to the walls. This mastery was
further emphasized by the innovative Follow us on :
use of arch-nets and stellate
squinches for spanning intersecting
arches.
Acoustic and Aesthetic Innovations
● Sound Dynamics: The whispering
gallery, an acoustic marvel along the
dome’s drum, can magnify and echo
sounds repeatedly.
● Elevated Design: Four seven-storeyed
octagonal spires, mimicking minarets,
grace each corner of the Gumbad.
These towers house staircases,
providing access to the topmost
section of the dome.
● Visual Treats: The drum of the dome is
embellished with fine foliation.
Additionally, the facade features a
pronounced bracketed cornice,
resting elegantly on corbels.

100