Cross cultural psychology

METHODOLOGY OF CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH

- Cross-cultural psychology is the study of cultural effects on human psychology,
drawing conclusions from at least two cultural groups.
- It examines psychological diversity, links between cultural norms and behavior, and
establishes psychological universals.
- Four types of knowledge about psychology are recognized: scientific, popular,
ideological, and legal.
- Cross-cultural psychologists treat all types of knowledge with sensitivity,
understanding, and respect.
- No society is culturally homogeneous, and there are variations even within the same
cultural cluster.
- Cultural dichotomies, such as high- versus low-power distance and collectivism
versus individualism, are conceptualized.
- Sociobiology explores how biological factors affect human behavior and lay a
natural foundation for culture.
- The sociological approach focuses on broad social structures influencing society and
individuals.
- An ecocultural approach emphasizes the inseparability of individuals from their
environmental context.
- The "culture mixtures" approach suggests shifting attention to new cultural mixtures,
contact zones, and multiple cultural identities.
- An "integrative" approach to cross-cultural psychology emphasizes human activity
and its interaction with the environment.
- Human motivation, emotion, thought, and reactions are determined by various
conditions and also change these conditions.
- Presence of and access to resources largely determine the type, scope, and direction
of human activities.
- Indigenous psychology involves the study of human behavior or the mind designed
for a specific cultural group.
- Ethnocentrism involves judging other groups from one's own cultural perspective.
- Multiculturalism supports equality for all cultural and national groups, recognizing
their right to unique paths of development.
**Summary: Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research**

**Research Goals:**
- Cross-cultural psychology research has four main goals: description, interpretation,
prediction, and management.
- The choice of methodology is crucial for achieving these goals effectively.

**Methodological Approaches:**
- Research methodology in cross-cultural psychology can be categorized into
quantitative and qualitative methods.

**Quantitative Research:**
- Quantitative research measures aspects of human activity from a comparative
perspective.
- Variables are studied empirically through observation, using measures of central
tendency like mode, median, and mean.
- Measurement scales include nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales.

**Sampling:**
- Sampling is a crucial step in research, involving the selection of individuals from a
population to test hypotheses or derive population estimates.

**Probability Sampling (Representative Samples):**

- Probability samples increase the likelihood of obtaining representative samples.
- Types include random (equal chance for each individual) and stratified (mini-
reproduction of the population) samples.

**Non-Probability Sampling (Non-Representative Samples):**

- Non-probability samples are less desirable but may be used when random or
stratified sampling is challenging or expensive.
- Types include quota (researcher sets proportions) and purposive (constructed for a
specific need) samples.
- Convenience samples are accidental and lack guided selection.

**Challenges of Non-Probability Samples:**

- Non-probability samples are limited in generalizability as they may not represent the
larger population.
- Validity can be increased by approximating random selection and avoiding bias in
sample selection.

**Sampling Strategies:**
- Availability or convenience sampling, systematic sampling based on theoretical
assumptions, and random sampling are different strategies employed in cross-cultural
research.
**Summary: Problems and Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research**

**Problems Associated with Experimental Research:**

- Artificiality of behavior is a potential issue.
- Subjects may experience stress or pressure.
- Experimental research can be time-consuming and expensive.
- Ethical concerns arise regarding the extent to which subjects should be informed
about the nature of the experiment.

**Statistical Methods in Cross-Cultural Psychology:**

- Correlational methods establish relationships between two variables.
- The t-test for independent samples estimates whether differences between two
samples occurred by chance.

**Qualitative Research:**
- Conducted in natural settings where participants engage in daily activities.
- Used when measuring variables is challenging, subjects cannot use standardized
instruments, or variables are not well-defined.
- Useful when experiences and priorities of participants heavily influence research.
**Analysis of Cross-Cultural Data:**
- Two approaches: Absolutist (similarities with variations) and Relativist
(understanding behavior within cultural context).
- Avoid biases of generalization and acknowledge the need for imagination and
abstraction in cross-cultural psychology.

**Contributions of Cross-Cultural Research to Psychology:**

1. **Contributions to Knowledge:**
- Informs about cultural similarities and differences in various psychological
aspects.

2. **Contributions to Critical Thinking:**

- Encourages critical thinking by questioning whether findings in one cultural group
are applicable to others.

3. **Identification of Psychological Factors for Adjustment:**

- Identifies psychological skills crucial for intercultural adjustment, including
emotion regulation, openness, flexibility, creativity, critical thinking, and autonomy.

**Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research:**

1. **General Principles:**
- Mutual respect and confidence between investigators and participants.
- Recognition of ethical implications for participants' well-being.

2. **Consent:**
- Full disclosure of research objectives to participants.
- Special safeguards for research with children or participants with impairments.
- Informed, real consent required, and pressure on participants to be avoided.

3. **Deception:**
- Unacceptable if participants are likely to object once debriefed.
- Intentional deception should be avoided; strict controls and approval required for
justified cases.
4. **Debriefing:**
- Necessary information provided to participants after the study.
- Discussion to monitor unforeseen negative effects.
- Debriefing does not justify unethical aspects of the investigation.
The text you provided discusses various ethical principles and guidelines for
conducting psychological research, particularly focusing on research involving human
participants. Here's a summary of the key points:

### Ethical Principles for Psychological Research:

1. **Risk:**
- Researchers should be concerned about protecting participants from undue risk in
psychological research.
- Undue risk is defined based on the risks individuals face in their normal lifestyle,
and researchers should not increase the probability of harm during psychological
investigations.

2. **Implementation:**
- The principles were approved in 1990, underwent a two-year provisional period,
and were formally adopted in October 1992.
- Researchers are urged to abide by these principles, which supplement the Society's
Code of Conduct, and violations could lead to disciplinary action.

3. **General:**
- Investigators must consider the ethical implications and psychological
consequences for participants in all circumstances.
- Participants' psychological well-being, health, values, and dignity should be
protected.

4. **Consent:**
- Participants should be informed of the objectives of the investigation.
- Informed consent is crucial, especially when dealing with children or participants
with impairments.
 - Consent from parents or guardians is necessary for participants under 16, and
Ethics Committee approval may be required in certain cases.

5. **Deception:**
- Deliberate misleading of participants should be avoided.
- Intentional deception is acceptable only with strong scientific or medical
justification, and strict controls are required.

6. **Debriefing:**
- Participants should be provided with necessary information after the study to
complete their understanding.
- Debriefing does not justify unethical aspects of the investigation.

7. **Withdrawal:**
- Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw from the research at any
time.
- The right to withdraw consent retrospectively should be acknowledged.

8. **Confidentiality:**
- Information obtained about a participant is confidential, and confidentiality should
be maintained, subject to legal requirements.

9. **Protection of Participants:**
- Researchers have a responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental
harm.
- Risks should not exceed those encountered in normal life.

10. **Observational Research:**

- Observational research must respect privacy and psychological well-being.
- Consent is necessary unless observation is in situations where individuals would
expect to be observed.

11. **Giving Advice:**

- Investigators may need to provide advice if participants' well-being is at risk.
12. **Colleagues:**
- Researchers share responsibility for ethical treatment of participants with
collaborators.
- Ethical concerns should be addressed within the research community.

### Cross-Cultural Psychology:

- **Culture of Gender:**
- Explores the metaphor of "male and female culture" in communication.
- Discusses research on male-female differences in mate selection and personality
traits across cultures.

- **Gender Differences in Personality:**

- Highlights the Big Five personality traits and their similarity across cultures.
- Surprising findings of larger personality differences between men and women in
modern Western societies.

This text emphasizes the importance of ethical considerations in psychological

research and briefly touches on cross-cultural perspectives related to gender and
personality. If you have specific questions or if there's anything more you'd like to
explore, feel free to let me know!

Lesson 3 CULTURAL FACTORS IN

COMPLEX DECISION MAKING
The provided text discusses the concept of decision-making, focusing on the
complexity of decisions and the cultural influences on complex decision-making
(CDD). The text begins by emphasizing the universal nature of decision-making,
ranging from simple choices like ordering food to more significant life decisions.
It mentions the challenges of modeling human decision-making, highlighting the
limitations of simple models and the need to consider the cultural context.
The introduction introduces the idea of "big decisions" and cultural norms
regulating them. It emphasizes that important decisions with far-reaching
consequences are often influenced by social and cultural factors, providing a
balance between individual freedom and the burden of decision-making. The text
also notes the growing interest in studying complex decision-making due to the
significant consequences of technological, ecological, and economic decisions.

The section titled "A Primer on Complex Decision Making (CDD)" outlines the
features that distinguish "big" decisions, including complexity, multiple goals,
dynamics, and opaqueness. It explains that these features have psychological
consequences for decision-makers, leading to time pressure, uncertainties, and
the need for strategic flexibility. The text provides an example of a complex
decision-making situation related to university student representation.

The next section discusses cultural factors influencing complex decision-making,

including predictability and "planability" of the environment, exposure, and
power distance/social hierarchy. It suggests that cultures differ in the extent to
which different spheres of life are predictable, and this influences problem-
solving styles. Exposure to decision-making experiences, influenced by cultural
values, is also considered a factor. Power distance and social hierarchy are
proposed to shape decision-making strategies, with high power distance cultures
being more conservative.

The text then introduces the idea of decision-making in individualistic and

collectivistic cultures. It contrasts normative models (focused on identifying the
best choice) with descriptive models (focused on the decision-making process).
The decision-making process is described as a series of steps, including
recognizing the decision problem, investigating causes and effects, defining and
prioritizing goals, gathering information, planning alternative solutions, and
making a decision.

Finally, the text discusses the cultural dimensions of individualism-collectivism

and power distance, suggesting that these values can influence decision-making
by shaping the perception of the problem, the generation of strategies and
alternatives, and the selection of one alternative.

Overall, the text provides an insightful exploration of decision-making,

highlighting its complexity and the potential cultural influences on this process.

Lesson 4
## THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MORALITY

### Introduction
Questions surrounding human morality pose significant
challenges within the realm of psychology. The
omnipresence of the moral sense, considered
pathological when absent, contrasts with its intricate and
variable nature across individuals, situations, and
cultures. Constructing a comprehensive psychological
theory of morality remains elusive.

### Definitions
The absence of a universally agreed-upon definition for
"moral" in psychological literature prompts an adapted
dictionary definition: morality comprises rules of
conduct based on conscience or the sense of right and
wrong. This introduces critical questions about the nature
of the moral sense, knowledge of right and wrong,
changes over time, variations across individuals and
cultures, and the alignment of behavior with moral sense.

### Psychological Approaches

Four dominant approaches shape psychological theories
of morality: Freud's psychoanalytic theory, learning
theories (including social learning theory), cognitive-
developmental theory, and evolutionary psychology.
Each approach emphasizes distinct aspects, such as
moral feelings, behavior, knowledge, or reasoning.

### Aspects of Morality

Exploring the "sense" of the moral sense raises questions
about knowledge, feelings, and action. The complex
structure of conscience involves cognitive aspects
(knowledge, reasoning), moral feelings, and action. The
major theories diverge in their emphasis on one of these
aspects.

### Morality Theories

While Freud, learning theorists, cognitive-
developmentalists, and evolutionary psychologists
provide unique perspectives, Hoffman's approach
integrates various aspects of morality using the concept
of empathy.

### Source of Morality

The origin of morality, according to various theories, lies
in external influences. Psychoanalysis and learning
theories propose internalization of societal morals,
contrasting with cognitive-developmental theory, which
emphasizes the child's active construction of conscience.

### Development of the Moral Sense

Debates persist on whether morality develops
incrementally or through distinct stages. Psychoanalytic,
cognitive-developmental, and Hoffman's theories support
stage-wise development, while learning theory favors
incremental acquisition. Evolutionary psychology is yet
to take a clear stance.

### Differences in the Moral Sense

Theoretical approaches address individual, gender, and
cultural differences. Freud links severity of conscience to
punishment, learning theory attributes differences to
unique learning histories, Hoffman ties differences to
disciplinary styles, and cognitive-developmental theory
relates them to stage attainment. Gender differences, as
predicted by Freud, face empirical challenges, while
cultural disparities in moral rules provoke debates on
universality.

### Conclusion
Despite varied perspectives, the psychology of morality
remains an intricate puzzle, demanding ongoing
exploration and integration of insights from diverse
theoretical frameworks.

The text you've provided discusses various aspects of bilingualism, language

processing, and memory retrieval, particularly in the context of cross-cultural
psychology. Here's a summary of the key points:

### Evolutionary Psychology and Morality:

1. **Reciprocity Norm:** Evolutionary psychology predicts cross-cultural
similarities, such as the universal norm of reciprocity.
2. **Modular Model:** The modular model of mental processes in evolutionary
psychology allows it to address multiple aspects of morality, including fairness, care,
and sexual behavior within a single theory.
### Behavior and Conscience:
1. **Social Psychology Perspective:** Evidence regarding behavior and conscience
comes more from social psychology.
2. **Moral Knowledge vs. Behavior:** There's a distinction between moral
knowledge and actual behavior, with situational factors playing a significant role.
3. **Influence of Social Institutions:** Social institutions, including families, share
some assumptions of learning theory in influencing moral behavior.
4. **Cognitive Dissonance and Self-Regulation:** Cognitive dissonance and self-
regulation theories indicate that compliance with moral rules is associated with
"insufficient" external justification.

### Bilingualism Across Cultures:

1. **Basic Definitions:** Defining bilingualism involves considering factors like
language proficiency, language modality, age of acquisition, and learning context.
2. **Bilingualism and Memory:** Language serves as a powerful retrieval tool for
memories, and bilinguals may recall personal events differently in their dominant and
non-dominant languages.
3. **Language, Culture, and Emotion:** Emotions are shaped by cultural context,
and bilinguals may express emotions differently in their two languages.
4. **Verbal Expressions of Emotion:** Bilinguals have the flexibility to choose the
language that best captures the essence of their emotions, and switching languages
can serve a distancing function.
5. **Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion:** Cross-cultural differences exist in
interpreting facial expressions and eye contact, influencing the communication of
emotions.

Certainly! Let's delve into more details regarding the conclusions and future research
directions outlined in the text:

### Conclusions (Continued):

3. **Variability in Memory Access:** Bilinguals' ability to switch between languages

may offer a unique perspective on memory access. The variations in language
nuances and variables contribute to the richness and variety of information accessible
through bilingual memory.

4. **Cultural and Emotional Nuances:** The distinction between dominant and

second languages extends beyond simple proficiency. The native language may
encode issues related to culture, socialization practices, or childhood memories, while
the second language may function as a tool for tapping into non-emotional topics or
memories from adulthood.

### Future Research Directions (Continued):

2. **Cognitive Domains Involving Language:** Further investigation is needed into

how different languages can impact various cognitive domains beyond memory. This
could include areas such as problem-solving, decision-making, and creative thinking.

3. **Language and Perception:** Research could explore how language influences

perception, both self-perception and the perception of others. The impact of language
on cognitive processes involved in forming judgments, beliefs, and attitudes is a
potential area of interest.

4. **Neuroscientific Approaches:** Integrating neuroscientific approaches could

provide insights into the neural mechanisms underlying bilingual cognitive processes.
Examining brain activity during cognitive tasks in different languages may shed light
on the neurological basis of language-related cognition.

5. **Developmental Aspects:** Investigating how bilingualism affects cognitive

development across the lifespan could provide valuable insights. This includes
understanding how language acquisition and proficiency in childhood influence
cognitive functions in later stages of life.

6. **Social and Cultural Influences:** Research could explore how social and cultural
factors interact with language in shaping cognitive processes. This includes
examining how societal norms and values reflected in language contribute to
cognitive patterns.
7. **Practical Applications:** The text briefly mentions practical applications of
bilingual research in working with individuals who consider themselves multicultural.
Future research could delve deeper into how understanding bilingual cognition can
inform practices in education, therapy, and intercultural communication.

In summary, the conclusions emphasize the nuanced role of language in shaping

cognitive processes, particularly in the context of bilingualism. The suggested future
research directions aim to expand our understanding of the intricate relationship
between language and cognition across various domains and developmental stages.