OGONILAND AND THE

NIGER DELTA:

HYDROCARBON POLLUTION REMEDIATION PROJECT

(HYPREP)
 OGONILAND AND THE
NIGER DELTA:

Federal Ministry Of Environment

HYDROCARBON POLLUTION REMEDIATION PROJECT
(HYPREP)

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
1. Olof Linden and Nenibarini Zabbey co-authored this report as part of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) Disasters and Conflicts Branch support to the
Hydrocarbon Pollution Remediation Project (HYPREP). Ibby Kakulu and Yves Barthelemy
contributed valuable data to the report, while Mike Cowing and Rita Cozma provided
editorial input. However, the views expressed in the report are solely those of the authors.

CITATION:
The report should be cited as

Linden O. and Zabbey, N. (2023). Ogoniland and the Niger Delta: Mangrove Restoration and
Conservation Strategy. Hydrocarbon Pollution Remediation Project (HYPREP) Technical Report No. 1.
ISBN (plus the link to the report) or DOI XXXX.

COPYRIGHT @
Hydrocarbon Pollution Remediation Project (HYPREP)

All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, stored
in a retrieval system or translated into any language or computer language, in any form or by any
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DOI:

Copyright @ HYPREP 2024

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Acronyms................................................. ....................................................................3

1. Background..........................................................................................................................4
1.1 Wetlands in Nigeria..............................................................................................4
1.2 Ramsar sites and the status of environmental protection in the delta.....................6
1.3 Impacts of the oil industry in the Niger Delta.........................................................11

2. Objectives of the Report....................................................................................................15

2.1 Preparation of a restoration plan.........................................................................16
2.2 Preparation of a conservation plan.....................................................................17

3. Scope of the Report............................................................................................................17

4. Key Elements of Destruction of Wetlands in Ogoniland with Neighboring

Areas to the West and South .................................................................................................18
4.1 Oil exploration and production activities..............................................................20
4.2 Artisanal refining activities.................................................................................21
4.3 Road construction, sand mining and settlements................................................23
4.4 Nipa palm invasion............................................................................................25
4.5 Other impacts.....................................................................................................26

5. Current Status....................................................................................................................28
5.1 Mangrove areas are shrinking............................................................................28
5.2 Ongoing restoration activities.............................................................................28

6. Future Threats to the Mangroves and Swamp Forests of the Niger Delta.......................31
6.1 Oil exploration and production............................................................................31
6.2 Expansion of settlements and the road network..................................................31
6.3 Expansion of farmland........................................................................................33
6.4 Climate change..................................................................................................33

7. Restoration Plan................................................................................................................37
7.1 Creating the desired hydraulic situation for restoration........................................37
7.2 Creating the desired sociological situation for restoration, including
community involvement.....................................................................................37
7.3 Stopping ongoing threats...................................................................................38
7.4 Mapping of areas needing restoration and tools for such mapping......................38
7.5 Removal of hydraulic barriers.............................................................................38
7.6 Approaches to restoration.................................................................................40
7.7 Ecologically sensitive restoration.......................................................................41
7.8 The use of remote sensing to support mangrove restoration and monitoring...42

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 01
8. Conservation Plan for the Niger Delta..............................................................................43
8.1 Objective of a conservation plan........................................................................43
8.2 Scope of the conservation areas.......................................................................44
8.3 Key stakeholders..............................................................................................46
8.4 Water management..........................................................................................46
8.5 Sustainable management of economic activities in the area..............................46
8.6 Management and buffer zones..........................................................................47
8.7 Preparing a management plan in consultation with stakeholders.......................47

9. Summary and Recommendations...................................................................................49

9.1 Restoration Plan for the Wetlands of Ogoniland.................................................49
9.2 Summary..........................................................................................................49
9.3 Recommendations...........................................................................................49
9.4 Conservation Plan for the Niger Delta...............................................................52
9.5 Summary..........................................................................................................52
9.6 Recommendations...........................................................................................52
10. References......................................................................................................................54

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 02
 LIST OF ACRONYMS
BMI Bodo Mediation Initiative

CEHRD Center for Environment, Human Rights And Development

CSO Civil society organization

Environmental impact assessment

GIS Geographic Information Systems

HYPREP Hydrocarbon Pollution Remediation Project

LGA Local Government Area

NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission

NDES Niger Delta Environmental Survey

NEMA National Emergency Management Agency

NGO Non-governmental organization

NNPC Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation

NOSDRA National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency

NUPRC Nigerian Upstream Petroleum Regulatory Commission

SCAT Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Technique

SPDC Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 03
 1 BACKGROUND
This Mangrove Restoration and Conservation Strategy has the following two objectives:

1. The first objective is to discuss and describe the need for, and the content of, a
Restoration Plan for the mangroves in the Niger Delta with a focus on the four Local
Government Areas (LGAs) of Ogoniland and neighboring mangrove areas. It seeks to
provide a roadmap to address diminishing natural ecosystems, increasing.
environmental contamination and loss of traditional livelihoods. It will provide a strategy
for environmental restoration in part through rehabilitation of mangroves in areas which
have been devastated by decades of oil spills and other factors. Planting alone will not
achieve rehabilitation of productive mangrove forests. As the report points out, planting
must be supported by several other interventions.
2. The second objective is to widen the perspectives beyond Ogoniland, and to describe
what is needed in order to develop a Conservation Plan for a network of nature reserves
in the Niger Delta as a whole. This will seek to address the increasing exploitation and
destruction of the natural vegetation, in particular mangrove forests. Ultimately, the
Conservation Plan should seek registration of parts of the region as one or several
Ramsar sites.

1.1 Wetlands in Nigeria

Wetlands are some of the most productive and diverse ecosystems on the planet. According to
the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) they are "areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or
water whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing,
fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water of which at low tides does not exceed 6
meters".

Wetlands play an important role in the environment, a few of the more important functions are
purifying water in the landscape and retaining particles and nutrients, regulating the flow of
water through the drainage area, and providing habitat for numerous species of invertebrates
and vertebrates (Griffiths et al., 2021; Mitsch et al., 2014). In addition, wetland vegetation such
as mangroves are extremely effective in taking up CO₂ from the atmosphere and depositing it in
sediments (Mariano et al., 2022Figu; Sreelekshmi et al., 2022). Mangroves are at least about
five times more effective than ordinary forests in sequestering Co₂.

The drainage basin of the Niger River is well over 2 million km² (Figure 1). There are several
wetlands in Nigeria, the largest being the Niger River Delta which is about 21,000 km² in size
measured as the area which hydrologically falls under the definition as the river delta 1. As such
it is the largest wetland in Africa and the third largest in the1 Borders between different areas is a
complex subject. Administrative boarders often do not coincide with borders determined by
nature types. Hence the area of the states that falls under the administrative definition of the
Niger Delta is about 70,000km². However, from a hydrological standpoint the river Niger delta is
about 21,000km².
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 04
world. The Niger River Delta stretches about 450 km from the Benin River in the west to Imo
River in the east. The delta is a vast flood plain built up by the accumulated sediments washed
down the Niger and Benue rivers.

From south to north, the Niger Delta consist of a thin margin of coastal rainforest on elevated
scattered barrier islands, then followed by mangrove swamps which are intersected by
numerous estuaries, creeks, small rivers and manmade channels (Figure 2). Continuing
northwards the brackish mangrove environment turns into freshwater swamps and rainforest
gradually transforming into woodlands and savanna grassland at higher elevations (NDES,
1997; Kuenzer et al., 2014, Zabbey et al., 2019)

The Niger Delta wetlands are dominated by freshwater swamp forests in the central and
northern parts, and by mangrove forests in the southern and southwestern parts. The freshwater
swamp forests and mangroves are intersected by numerous channels and creeks which are to a
varying extent influenced by the tidal fluctuations. The tides are semi-diumal and the range in
Port Harcourt is around 2m

Figure 1 Map showing the Niger River drainage basin which is about 2274 million km²
The mangroves of Ogoniland, and the Niger Delta in general, become inundated during tidal
flood conditions although elevated areas within the mangroves may be flooded only at spring
floods (UNEP, 2011; Gundlach, 2018). Such areas are often characterized by high salinity
conditions and the mangroves in such upper areas are often sparse, dwarf and not well
developed Central areas of the mangroves are entirely drained during spring low-tidal
conditions while at neap tides water will remain in low-lying parts of the mangroves.
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 05
The mangrove vegetation consisting of trees and shrubs are the keystone organisms in an
ecosystem consisting of numerous species of insects (butterflies, bees, ants, mosquitos), a
number of mollusks (periwinkles, cockles, oysters), crustaceans (crabs, shrimps), and fish. In
addition, several birds and mammals are inhabitants of the mangrove ecosystem

Figure 2: Map showing the Niger Delta with numerous rivers and creeks

1.2 Ramsar sites and the status of environmental protection in the delta
A few sites in the delta have been recognized on the Ramsar list (Figure 3). These are Apoi
Creek, which is a tidal swamp forest in upper Bayelsa State, and the Upper Orashi Forest which
is a freshwater swamp forest located in Rivers State. Each of these sites are about 250 km² in
size (NDES, 1997; Phil-Eze and Okoro, 2009)

In addition, there are about 70 sites in the Niger Delta which are formally protected or proposed
either as forest reserves (90%) or nature parks, nature reserves or game reserves. One is
Andoni which has populations of Heslop's pygmy hippopotamus and African elephant.

The protection or management regime of the Ramsar sites, nature parks as well as other
reserves in the Niger Delta is grossly ineffective. They are "paper-parks" as there is little to no
management action on the ground to safeguard critical wildlife (e.g., red colobus, white-throated
guenon) at the sites. Only Apoi Creek has a management plan although it is yet to be
implemented..

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 06
A sustainable co-management framework is needed to effectively drive or strengthen
community conservation actions that will complement active monitoring and supervisory
oversight of government.

Real time data on the health integrity (e.g, status of the charismatic wildlife) of the sites are
necessary for informed adaptive management decisions. Presently, such key datasets are
sketchy or lacking.

Figure 3 Map showing the Niger Delta and the Ramsar sites.

The management regime in place is ad-hoc and tied to fragmentary annual budgets; that is, site
specific annual budgets Government intervention usually includes enrichment planting,
supporting communities with apiculture and orchard, provision of fishing boats and nets. Apoi
Creek and the Upper Orashi are reported to have not had any of the above government
interventions in the past four years.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 07
 SOCIOECONOMIC DATA FOR OGONILAND
Population
The 2006 National and Household Population Census (NPHC) placed the population of the four
Ogoniland LGAs in Rivers State at 831,726 consisting of 428,560 males and 403,166 females.
Based on an average annual growth rate of 3.4% (NHDS, 2018) the estimated current
population of Ogoniland is approximately 1,216,986 people consisting of 627,071 males and
589,915 females as at 2021.

Healthcare
There are 670 health facilities in Rivers State consisting of 343 primary healthcare facilities all of
which are publicly owned. There are 321 secondary healthcare facilities of which 300 are
privately owned and 21 publicly owned, and six tertiary healthcare facilities of which four are
publicly owned, one owned by the Federal Government and one privately owned. Ogoniland
has 71 primary healthcare facilities spread across the four LGAS, four secondary healthcare
facilities and nine private secondary healthcare facilities. There are 562 medical doctors in
Rivers State. The infant mortality rate in 2021 is 48/1,000 live births, 117/1,000 for women aged
15-50 and 122/1000 for men aged 15-50 (NDHS, 2018). Utilization of healthcare facilities in
Ogoniland in 2019 comprising facility attendance and outpatient care was as follows: Eleme
LGA 113,551; Gokana LGA 97,100; Khana LGA 158,986; and Tai LGA 55,174 (RSMOH, 2019).

Labor force and employment

The labor force for Nigeria out of an estimated population of 206,139,587 in 2020 is 30.19%. This
data, although not disaggregated to states or LGAS, can be assumed to be applicable in
Ogoniland, Labor force comprises people aged 15 and older who supply labor for the production
of goods and services during a specified period. It includes people who are currently employed
and people who are unemployed but seeking work as well as first-time job-seekers. During the
fourth quarter of 2020, employment rates in Nigeria were as follows: total unemployment at
33.3%; total underemployment at 22.8%; youth unemployment at 42.5%; and youth
underemployment 21.0%. Labor force participation rate is the proportion of the population aged
15 and older that is economically active: all people who supply labor for the production of goods
and services during a specified period - this stood at for Nigeria in 54.92% in 2019.

Education
The NDHS 2018 also reports on the educational attainment of males in Rivers State: 4.9% have
no education, 17.5% have some primary education, and 11.7% have completed primary
education. In terms of secondary education, 17% have some secondary education, 33.9% have
completed secondary education and 15% have more than secondary education. As for females
in Rivers State that, 7.5% have no education, 14.6% have some primary education, and 12.1%
have completed primary education.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 08
In terms of secondary education, 17% have some secondary education, 37.9% have completed
secondary education and 15.8% have more than secondary education. Although this data is not
disaggregated to LGAs it is safe to assume that it applies to Ogoniland. In Rivers State there are
over 5,222 schools ranging from nursery through to primary, junior secondary and senior
secondary schools.

Figure 4: Vegetation of the Niger Delta (1 and 2) aerial view of the wetlands, (3)
mangroves, palm trees and nipa palm, and (4) farmland. (Maxime Paquin, UNEP, 2019),

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 09
 MANGROVES OF THE NIGER DELTA
The mangrove ecosystem consists of a relatively few species of true mangrove plants and
associates. The true mangrove plants consist of five families represented by nine species.
These are Rhizophoracea (Rhizophora racemosa, R. mangle and R. harissonii - the red
mangroves), Avicennacea (Avicenna germinas - black mangrove, called white mangrove in
Nigeria), Combretacea represented by two species, Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove,
called black mangrove in Nigeria) and Conocarpus erectus (button wood), and Araceae (Nypa
fruticans -nipa palm, an invasive species and alien in the Niger Delta), and the mangrove fern
Pteridaceae (Acrostichum aureum and A. danaeilfolium) (Jackson and Lewis, 2000; Duke,
2017; Zabbey, 2020; Norman Duke, 2022 personal communication).

Overall, R. racemosa is the dominant mangrove in the Niger Delta, constituting about 70% of
the total abundance of the true mangrove plants. The mangrove associated plants are the plants
that can grow within and outside mangrove swamps. The mangrove associates include Hibiscus
tillaceus, Thespesia populnea, Drepanocarpus lanatus, Chrysobalanus spp., Pandanus
candelabrum (screw palm), Phoenix reclinata (date palm), Pasparum vaginatum (sedge) and
Cyperus articulates.

Mangrove forests in the Niger Delta are home to many invertebrates (e.g., swim, hairy purple
and fiddler crabs), fin fishes (e.g., mud skipper, sleeper gobiids), reptiles (e.g., Nile crocodile,
West African black mud turtle), birds (e.g., parrots, cormorants, kingfishers and the endemic
and endangered Anambra waxbill) and a number of mammals (e.g., Mona monkey, speckle-
spotted otter, long-nose mongoose).

The Niger Delta environment has changed dramatically during the last decades as a result of
population growth and human activities. The population in Ogoniland is now estimated at about
1.5 million, compared to 832,000 in 2006, which is a doubling of the population in 15 years.

Most of the lowland rainforests that used to characterize the areas landward from the swamp
forests are now derived savannah where agriculture including plantations dominates (Ayanlade
and Drake, 2016; Ayanlade and Howard, 2017; Enaruvbe and Atafo, 2014 (Figure 4). Only small
areas of more or less degraded coastal rainforest are left. Agriculture has encroached into the
wetlands.Fifty years ago, humans lived in few villages on elevated land in the mangrove areas.
Now the mangrove swamps are crisscrossed with canals and roads often with more or less
continuous houses, workshops and industrial activities along the sides of the roads. This
development requires sand to elevate the land where housing, roads, etc., are built. The sand
comes in most cases from unregulated dredging in rivers and canals.

The area covered with typical mangrove vegetation in the delta which in 2010 was estimated to
about 10,515 km² (Spalding et al., 2010) decreased to about 8,240 km² in 2020, a reduction of
about 230 km² per year (Table 1). Also, about 20% of the freshwater swamp forests have been
logged between 2000 and 2020 (GMW Dataset

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 10
the freshwater swamp forest have been logged between 200 and 2020 (GMW Dataset and
NASA satellite boundary). Figure 5 shows the extent of mangrove vegetation in the Niger Delta
(including Calabar region) in 2020. About 10% of the total area covered by mangroves can be
estimated to consist of nipa palms.

The high rainfall and river discharge during the rainy season combined with the low, flat terrain,
and poorly drained soils cause frequent and widespread flooding and erosion. Often over 80%
of the delta is affected by seasonal floods stretching from the Benin River in the west to Bonny
River in the east. The tidal range at Port Harcourt is on average 2.0 m.

Figure 5: The extent of mangrove vegetation (8,240 km²) including nipa palm
(about 10%) in 2020 based on GMW Dataset and NASA satellite images.

1.3 Impacts of the oil industry in the Niger Delta

Oil spills have occurred repeatedly for decades in the Niger Delta since commercial oil
production started in 1956 and significant parts of the land and wetlands are more or less
chronically affected by oil spills (see below). Due to the influence of the tides and floods in
connection with the wet seasons, spilt oil is remobilized and distributed over larger areas (UNEP,
2011; Gundlach et al., 2021, Obida et al., 2021).

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 11
The oil originates from leaking pipelines, wellheads, and flow stations; from spills in connection
with transport of stolen oil; from spills in connection with illegal tapping of the pipelines and
wellheads, and from artisanal refining under very primitive conditions (Linden and Palsson,
2013).

As a result of the contamination of oil in mangroves and other wetlands as well as on land, oil has
penetrated soils down to several meters and has contaminated ground waters over large areas.
This has resulted in the contamination of domestic water- wells as a particularly serious concern
from a human health perspective (UNEP, 2011).

The widespread oil contamination of wetlands and forests has caused deterioration and
mortality of plants, bushes and trees and their associated animals in Ogoniland. Figure 6 shows
the oil infrastructure in the 4 LGAs which constitute Ogoniland. At present (2021), based on
recent satellite images, the reduction in the areas covered with mangroves can be estimated to

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 12
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 13
The corresponding figure for mangrove reduction in the Niger Delta as a whole is 23,000 hectares
(Table 1). The topic of mangrove degradation due to oil spills and other oil industry related activities is
discussed below (Sections 4 and 5).

Oil contamination is not the sole reason for degradation of the natural vegetation in the delta. As
pointed out above, cutting of mangroves, small trees and bushes, and logging of larger trees for fuel
wood and timber is taking place in many areas. Road construction and building of houses have also
affected the natural vegetation as the hydraulic cycle is changed aside direct removal of the
vegetation through reclamation (Numbere, 2021a; Zabbey et al., 2021). Roads and canals are
important for transport and communication in the delta. However, their construction has led the way
for extensive environmental degradation as farmers establish new plots in the natural forest and
loggers and hunters gain access to the forests and swamps.

Another factor causing serious damage to the mangroves of the delta is sand mining which is carried
out on a semi-industrial scale (Osuji et al., 2010; Akani et al., 2018; Numbere, 2021b). The sand
mining is leading to erosion along the creeks and rivers leading to loss of sediment in mangrove areas.

Since the last decades the invasive nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) has spread into the delta from the
east. Areas along the Imo River and creeks and tributaries connected to the Imo River have been
seriously affected. Areas of native mangroves which are already stressed are particularly sensitive to
the invasion of the nipa palm (Nwobi et al., 2020; Adekola and Mitchell 2011, Zabbey and Tanee, 2016;
Zabbey et al., 2021).

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 14
 2 OBJECTIVES OF THE REPORT
The present report has two objectives. The first objective is to discuss and describe the need for,
and the content of, a restoration plan for the wetlands in Ogoniland with a focus on the four LGAs
(Eleme, Gokana, Khana and Tai) with neighboring mangrove areas to the west and south
(Figure 9). As in the Niger River Delta as a whole, the area which falls under these four LGAs has
undergone dramatic changes during the last 50 years. Much of this change has resulted in
diminishing natural ecosystems, increasing environmental contamination and loss of traditional
livelihoods. In order for the human population of Ogoniland to be able to enjoy life in a cleaner
and healthier environment in the future, changes will have to take place when it comes to how
human activities expand at the expense of the natural environment. The report will serve as a
roadmap which will provide a strategy for how the vegetation in the area, in particular the
mangrove environment, can be restored through plantation of mangroves in areas where the
vegetation has been lost due to pollution by oil or other factors.

The second objective of this report is to widen the perspectives beyond Ogoniland and describe
what is needed in order for the Niger Delta as a whole to change the course of increasing
exploitation and destruction of the natural vegetation, in particular mangrove forests. The people
of the Niger Delta can only look forward to a prosperous future if the destruction of the
environment soon comes to an end. A vision for the future may be that the people of the Niger
Delta should adopt a plan to improve the state of the environment in the delta in order to be able
to seek registration of parts of the region as a Ramsar site. Such a vision may not be impossible
to achieve on the ground in the delta. There are a number of factors that could contribute
positively, for example the environmental conditions with temperatures and humidity that favors
rapid degradation of contaminants, and the fact that the population overall is educated and
aware of the need for a more sustainable way of developing their societies. This topic is
discussed further in Chapter 8.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 15
 Figure 9: Overview of the LGAs of Ogoniland within the focus area of the
restoration plan, the first objective of this report.

2.1 Preparation of a restoration plan

The restoration plan will discuss and describe the strategy for restoration of the vegetation in
Ogoniland and neighboring areas to the west and south (Figure 9). The plan will focus on
mangroves and related plants that have suffered from oil spillages and other anthropogenic
impacts.

An obvious prerequisite for successful rehabilitation of mangroves is that the oil spills are
stopped (UNEP, 2011). The degree of oil contamination on the surface and deeper down within
the soil profile must be assessed in advance of any planting. If the substrate is heavily oil
contaminated, cleanup is necessary prior to any planting. The approaches and techniques for
this has been described in detail by Gundlach et al. (2021).

Also, the bio-physical factors must be determined in advance. It is necessary that the
hydrological regime is still reasonably intact, that is, the sites chosen for restoration are exposed
to tidal fluctuations of the water on a regular basis (Lewis et al., 2019; Zimmer et al., 2022).

However, it is not only chemical and physical factors that are of importance. The attitudes in the
local communities must be evaluated in advance of any activity related to rehabilitation. It is
necessary that local people are positive towards activities related to the restoration of mangrove
forests and that there is a willingness to take a part in the rehabilitation and protection of the
planted mangroves. To achieve positive attitudes often requires targeted information campaigns
that provide data regarding

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 16
the benefits to the society and to individuals of recreating the natural vegetation, and the
inclusion of the locals in the entire restoration process (i.e., from planning to execution and
monitoring).

2.2 Preparation of a conservation plan

A conservation plan (to be developed) is a wider and more holistic plan than the strategy plan.
The focus of the conservation plan is the Niger Delta as a whole. Obviously, the mangroves and
other ecosystems of the Niger Delta are closely interlinked with those of Ogoniland and
therefore the two plans are to some extent connected. The conservation plan for the Niger Delta
will discuss and describe what needs to be done in the delta in terms of protection of the
environment and rehabilitation of mangroves and other natural ecosystems in order to promote
sustainability and improve the living conditions for present and future generations. For further
discussion about the conservation plan for the Niger Delta, see chapter 8.

3 SCOPE OF THE REPORT

The present report is geographically focused on Ogoniland for the mangrove restoration part.
This means primarily the four LGAs Eleme, Gokana, Khana and Tai - and the mangroves to the
south and west (Figures 6 and 9). The more visionary and ambitious section of the report is
targeting the Niger Delta as a whole.

The report concentrates on the conditions necessary for successful rehabilitation of the
mangrove environment, and how to carry out the restoration of this environment in areas that
have been affected by oil spills, but also in areas where the mangroves have been degraded due
to other reasons. Hence the report will discuss the effects of oil contamination of the soils, the
requirements in terms of how much contamination the vegetation can tolerate, the need for
viable and healthy seedlings, the need for protection from invasive species as well as from
people who may damage the plants. The report will also discuss socio-economic aspects,
awareness building, and Information sharing.

The conservation plan focuses on the Niger Delta as a whole. To a large extent the rest of the
delta has suffered from similar environmental degradation as Ogoniland. Therefor
environmental protection must be stepped up. Areas that still contain diverse biodiversity must
be protected as a matter of urgency. In Chapter 8, examples of such areas which may form a
network of protected sites which, to some extent, meets the criteria for being designated as
Ramsar sites, are discussed.
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 17
 KEY ELEMENTS OF DESTRUCTION OF WETLANDS IN OGONILAND
4 WITH NEIGHBORING AREAS TO THE WEST AND SOUTH

Figure 10. Land cover changes in Ogoniland between 2000 and 2019. Note the very
significant increase in built up areas and agricultural land and the corresponding
decrease in vegetation mosaic which stands for more or less forested areas.
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 18
As can be seen in Figures 10, 11 and 12 there have been dramatic changes in the Niger Delta
landscape in the last decades. The changes are greatest when it comes to deforestation
including reduction of areas covered by swamp forests ("flooded forests") and mangroves,
expansion of farmland ("secondary/open tree covered areas and "tree/grass mosaic") and the
expansion of housing and settlements. The main explanation for these dramatic changes is
obviously related to the rapid population increase in the country including the Niger Delta and
poorly regulated resource exploitation (Ayanlade and Howard, 2017; Enaruvbe and Atafo,
2014). The population increase is around 2.6% per year which means a doubling in a little more
than ten years. This explains the increase in urban/built up areas and the increase in agriculture
and farmland.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 19
 Figure 12: Land cover class changes year 2000 and 2019 as a
percentage (source: NASA).

4.1 Oil exploration and production activities

Oil exploration in Ogoniland started in the 1950s and extensive production facilities were
established during the following three decades. The most important export facility is the Bonny
Terminal. The operations are managed by Shell Petroleum Development Company (Nigeria)
Ltd (SPDC), a joint venture between Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and Shell
International, Elf and Agip.

During the exploration phase, long before any oil had been produced, a number of
environmental impacts may have occurred. Hence land surveying, clearance for roads, housing
of staff, seismic lines, etc., all cause direct impacts on the environment. Indirect impacts are
caused by increasing pressure from other human activities in the areas which become
accessible due to the exploration activities. Accordingly, hunting and agriculture will expand as a
result of oil exploration in previously more or less virgin areas.

When exploratory drilling starts there will be impacts due to exhaust from machinery, deposition
of drilling-muds (often containing a range of more or less toxic chemicals) and produced water,
gas flares, and eventually also oil spills.The activities related to oil exploration and production
have taken place in all types of environments throughout the delta. However, the types of
activities carried out in freshwater swamp forests and mangroves often lead to oil spills which
are easily spread by tidal water movements and flooding in connection with heavy rains (UNEP,
2011; Linden and Palsson, 2013; Gundlach, 2018).

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 20
The oil exploration and production of oil in Ogoniland came to a stop in 1993 after several years
of protests by the local communities against oil spills and gas flares (Mitee, 1999; UNEP, 2011;
Zabbey and Uyi, 2014). Even though no oil has been produced in Ogoniland since 1993, spills of
oil have continued from old installations and from pipelines carrying oil produced outside of
Ogoniland and passing through the area (see Figure 5).

Spilis may be caused as the result of corrosion and badly maintained oil infrastructure but also,
to a large extent, from stolen oil in connection with "tapping". Tapping is the term used in the delta
to describe how oil from an oil installation is removed for example by drilling a hole in a pipeline
and putting a tap over the hole (SDN, 2012; Katsouris and Sayne, 2013; Naanen and Tolani,
2014; Social Action, 2014). Unfortunately, often no tap is installed, and the site is left after
buckets and drums have been filled. The leaking oil contaminates the surrounding environment
and often substantial areas are affected.

4.2 Artisanal refining activities

Artisanal, or illegal, refining of crude oil at a village level to produce fuel oil, kerosine, and diesel
has been going on for less than two decades in the Niger Delta. The distillery process is simple
using drums and pipes. The crude oil in a drum is heated from an open fire fed either by wood,
petroleum or vehicle tires or a combination of these. The volatile part of the oil is led through
pipes to other drums for cooling and condensation. The crude oil comes from illegal tapping of
pipelines or other oil infrastructure.

The process of artisanal refining is extremely dangerous to those involved in the activity.
Explosions and fires are common and there are frequent fatalities every year. In addition,
artisanal refining extraordinarily contaminates the environment resulting in air pollution and local
spills around the sites where the activity takes place. Also, when oil is tapped from the source
such as a pipeline and transported to the artisanal refinery, spills occur frequently (Linden and
Palsson, 2013, Little et al., 2018, Naanen, 2019). The quantities of oil spills into the mangrove
areas due to oil theft and illegal refining is probably significant but independent estimations are
not available.

At present it is possible from satellite images to identify more than 200 sites within Ogoniland
where this type of refining of crude oil is going on or did so until very recently (Figure 13). Reports
as of 2021 suggest that several of the artisanal refineries have stopped operating probably due
to high presence of military personnel. Other reports indicate that the sites have shifted to new
locations (Figure 16).

Oil theft and illegal artisanal oil refineries within the Niger Delta creating areas void of any
vegetation (UNEP, 2019).Oil theft and illegal artisanal oil refining is a major threat to the
environment and health of the people of the Niger Delta. The 2011 UNEP report on the
environmental assessment of Ogoniland highlights the challenge of achieving effective and
sustainable cleanup, remediation and restoration of degraded environment while pollution from
oil theft and artisanal refining subsist "mopping the floor while the tap is on”.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 21
 Figure 13: Illegal oil refineries within the Niger Delta Creating
area void of any vegetation (UNEP, 2019)

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 22
Artisanal oil refining contributes to poor air quality (soot pollution) in the region with numerous
health effects. While there is variability in the number of area specific artisanal refining camps in
the region, the average (region-wide) trend (as of 2021) shows an increasing number of the
camps and an escalation to further inland and upland areas.

For example, in Rivers State, new refining camps have been established in Emouha, Abua-
Odua, Ahoada West and Ahoada East LGAS. Such is the case in the Ohaji- Egbena area of Imo
State. In the Ogoni area, there is significant reduction in the number of camps due to high
security presence in the Bodo Creek in support of the ongoing Bodo Mediation Initiative (BMI)
Cleanup. Bodo Creek was one of the major hubs of refining camps in Ogoniland.

In addition, there is the Operation Crocodile Smile (operations by the Nigerian Army). in the form
of troops based in four houseboats stationed between K.Dere and Boro. The military presence
has reduced the incidence of artisanal refining in that axis. However, it is reported that some
bunkerers queue up to pay "license fees" to the military. It appears that most of the refiners from
these hitherto major hubs have migrated to other less military patrolled zones.

The reduced incidence in the neighbouring Bayelsa State has relapsed as new camps now exist
in the Southern Ijaw and Otuasega area as well as other riverine communities with low policing.
There are two new refining camps at Agbaa and Orkarki, south of Mbiama on the Orashi River.
Spills from these inland freshwater areas will impact on mangroves downstream in the coastal
zone. The industry is emerging (but not yet aggressive) in the Ibeno area of Akwa Ibom State.

Despite the Federal Government's modular refinery policy response intended to create, in part,
new oil related jobs, it is likely that the incidence of artisanal oil refining will soar when the
planned government policy of no subsidy for petroleum products would be enforced. This will be
exacerbated within Ogoniland with the completion of the BMI activities within the next 12 months
or so. Therefore, a robust and sustainable framework is needed to tackle the menace of oil theft
and artisanal refining in the Niger Delta. To achieve this objective, it is necessary for HYPREP to
initiate a national dialogue on the topic, involving representatives from all key stakeholders - and
seeking the highest level of political support, both nationally and locally.

4.3 Road construction, sand mining and settlements

Despite the relatively moderate geographical extent of the Niger Delta, there are anumber of
challenges when it comes to travelling within it. As mentioned above, thereare numerous rivers
and creeks crisscrossing the landscape (Figure 14) and the waterlevel in these waterways
varies significantly depending on rains and the tidal situation.

The mangrove ecosystem consists of species of plants (trees, shrubs, palms and ferns) that are
adapted to fluctuations in salt concentrations and the water table induced by tides. If these
oscillations cease for example due to the construction of a road-bank between the sea and the
mangrove swamp, the typical mangrove vegetation will not survive. Instead, either a freshwater
swamp will develop if the areais dry, terrestrial plants and trees will gradually encroach.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 23
Similarly, the dredging of channels in mangrove areas will often change the local hydrology so
that the mangrove ecosystem will start to evolve into a new type of ecosystem. Many parts of the
Niger Delta have been affected by road construction and the dredging of channels, dykes, etc.,
for example in the form of increasing the waterflow in the dredged areas which will increase the
erosion of sediments in mangrove areas. Road building proposals should adopt a more holistic
approach involving the effects of the road banks on the local hydrology.

Another related problem is extensive mining of sand from the riverbeds and creeks. Such
activities increase erosion and may degrade existing mangrove areas. In section 6.2, the
implications of the expanded road networks which leads to expansion of the settlements and
farmland are discussed.

Figure 14: Roads and waterways within the Niger Delta.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 24
4.4 Nipa palm invasion
In 2025, it will be 100 years since nipa palm was introduced to the coast of Nigeria with the
erroneous intention to protect the shoreline against erosion. Nipa seedlings from Singapore
were first planted on the shores of Calabar in 1906, followed by transplanting to Oron and Opobo
in 1912, and the additional planting of 6,000 seedlings imported from Malaysia in 1945.

Being an invasive mangrove palm, and coupled with degrading human activities, nipapalm
keeps spreading tremendously (see key references in Zabbey and Tanee, 2016) (Figure 15). A
recent estimate indicates nipa palm now occupies 11,447 ha in the Niger Delta, an alarming
600% increase between 2007 and 2017 (Nwobi et al., 2019).

Tidal currents aid the distribution of nipa palm fruits to new areas (Figure 16). Several human
activities contribute to nipa dispersal. These include pollution, fragmenting of mangrove
swamps with roads, pipeline and electric powerline, deforestation, and unregulated logging.
These undermine the resilience and resistance of native mangroves and create access for nipa
to invade and spread further.

Another driver of nipa spreading in the delta that is potent, but less emphasized, is the use of
nipa fruits in falling gear fishing. Fishers in the delta throw pawpaw, coconut or nipa fruit into the
river water and cast their nets on it. The fruit landing in the water attracts fishes that congregate
around it, and they get captured by the cast net. The cast net fishers in the delta prefer to use
nipa fruits since they are accessible in the creeks and underutilized in the region. The nipa fruit is
usually either abandoned at the last fishing ground or discarded during the return trip or at the
landing site where it will sprout and establish a colony

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 25
4.5 Other impacts
Figures 10 to 12 illustrate dramatic changes that have taken place in Ogoniland including the
mangrove areas in the south and west during the last 20 years. What is particularly obvious is the
increase in built-up areas which are no longer confined to higher elevations but have now
expanded into the mangrove areas. What also stands out is the dramatic increase in agricultural
areas. Farmland (called "agricultural land" in Figure 10 and "tree/grass mosaic" in Figure 11) has
increased more than four times between 2000 and 2019, from 18,000 hectares to 80,000
hectares.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 26
The agricultural productivity in soils of the common type in the delta is often low. The limited use
of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers means that yields are relatively low. A consequence of the
rapidly increasing population is an increasing demand for products from farming for example
cassava and yam. The result is the expansion of arming into marginal areas. The degradation of
agricultural land has a central role in causing deforestation and exhausting soil fertility.
Therefore, actions to address soil degradation are critical. The potential benefits are increasing
agricultural output and prevention of expansion into mangroves and other forests.

VALUABLE AND UNDISTURBED MANGROVE STANDS

The Niger Delta, with its complex mangrove and swamp forest ecosystems, has a rich
biodiversity of plants and animals. The delta is, in fact, a center of endemism in Africa (Luiselli et
al., 2015). The opening up of the mangrove and freshwater swamp forest areas as a result of
road construction and dredging of channels is a threat to the biological diversity of the delta
(Zabbey et al., 2021). Increasing pressures from hunting and collection of forest products
accompany improved access. Hunting is still a traditional source of income for many rural
households. In a few cases, communities have protected small pockets of original forest for
traditional reasons or religious purposes (shrines).

There is no mangrove conservation and restoration policy in Nigeria. Mangroves in the Niger
Delta are communal resources, characterized by open access. The harvesting of mangrove
wood for energy and other uses (e.g., net mending sticks, axe handles) as well as the reaping of
the rich animal component for food is poorly regulated. However, few communities in the region
have taken bold steps to conserve pockets of mangroves to sustain the numerous benefits
(ecosystem goods and services) they get from them. A case in point is the Nwenua Mangrove
Conservation Area in the Kono Creek, Khana LGA of Rivers State. Much of the Kono Creek
mangrove area has been colonized by the invasive nipa palm since the late 1950s (NEDECO,
1961), except the Nwenua Mangrove Conservation Area, which has been precluded from
exploitation and the protection is still subsisting (Zabbey and Tanee, 2016, HOMEF and CEHRD,
2021). The location of the Nwenua Mangrove Conservation Area and the contiguous farmlands
is locally believed to be under the protection of Yor-ue Alior, an ancestral deity. Nobody is allowed
to harvest the Nwenua mangroves. It has intact and luxuriant mangrove trees and it is a "safe"
space for a rich colony of the grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) that is now scarce in the Niger
Delta. The complex root architecture of the Nwenua mangrove conservation area provides a
secure space for a myriad of other species (e.g., juvenile fishes). It is a unique buffer zone for
Kono Creek's productivity.

From the Industrial Directory of Rivers State there are few major industries in the Niger River
Delta with the exception of the oil refinery and the fertilizer company. However, there are a
number of small to medium size industries which may have a significant environmental footprint.
These companies deal with transportation, service stations, workshops, etc., as well as wood
products, plastics and synthetic fibers, rubber, cement and food industries.

Most of these industries are small and even if their waste management is not appropriate, the
pollution footprint is in most cases small and local. The only industrial pollution of regional
importance originates from the petroleum sector.
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 27
 5 CURRENT STATUS
5.1 Mangrove areas are shrinking
Since UNEP's report in 2011, oil spills have continued from leaking pipelines and from tapping,
spills from the transport of stolen oil and from artisanal refining. The frequency of spills and the
number of locations where refining takes place has varied over the years. At present
(October/November 2021) it is reported that the number of recent spills in Ogoniland as well as
at locations where artisanal refining takes place in the area is comparatively low (Figure 17).

The National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) Oil Spill Monitor? published
data that shows nine times reduction in the number of oil spill incidents in 2021 compared to
2019 (36 in 2019 compared to four in 2021).

However, a large number of sites are heavily contaminated with oil and tar. There are at least 200
sites where artisanal refining has taken place in the area to the east of Bonny River. The maps
show the location of oil damaged mangrove areas and the location of artisanal refineries.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 28
Based on the images (Figures 10 and 17) it is possible to calculate the size of the area in
Ogoniland where mangroves and freshwater forests have disappeared in 2019 compared to
2000 to an area of approximately 16,000 hectares in size. If the areas that are tagged as "bare
soils" are added the figure increases to over 21,000 hectares.

Also, in the Niger Delta as a whole, there have been very significant changes in the land-use
similar to what has taken place in Ogoniland. Large areas of mangroves and freshwater forests
have been degraded and the biodiversity is being lost at a rapid pace due to various human
activities.

One way of halting the loss is by designating and maintaining as many Ramsar sites as possible.
UNEP (2011) recommends declaring mangrove wetlands in Ogoniland as Ramsar sites as one
of the pathways to sustainability. This report reinforces that recommendation.

In addition, there are several sites in the larger Niger Delta that meet, at least, one of the nine
criteria for designating Ramsar sites. This topic with concrete examples of at least nine
geographical sites is discussed further under section 8.2 below.

5.2 Ongoing restoration activities

In some places in the Delta, attempts have been made to rehabilitate the vegetation. The most
significant such case is the BMI (Figure 18). Here about 817 ha of mangroves are being planted
at this moment. This means planting of 1.5 to 2 million seedlings. During the last five to six years,
the BMI has developed methods and strategies to restore the mangrove vegetation in areas
where this ecosystem has been destroyed. There are a number of lessons from the BMI that are
highly relevant to a larger restoration initiative in Ogoniland, see for example Gundlach et al.
2021.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 29
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 35
 FUTURE THREATS TO THE MANGROVES AND
6 SWAMP FORESTS OF THE NIGER DELTA
A large number of factors are negatively affecting the mangrove vegetation, freshwater forests
and in general the biodiversity in the delta. From the satellite maps it is easy to see how the
urbanization and expansion of farmland are changing Ogoniland and the larger Niger Delta
(Figures 10, 11 and 12). Urbanized areas have more than doubled in size since the year 2000.
The conversion to agriculture is even greater.

6.1 Oil exploration and production

At present the future plans for exploration and production in the Niger Delta are somewhat
unclear. Shell International has announced it intends to divest from SPDC and talks are reported
to be taking place with the Government and potential buyers (see for example Nairametrics
2021). The focus of Shell's divestment is the onshore facilities with the intention of keeping its
offshore activities. However, the divestment has reportedly been challenged in court (Offshore
Technology 2022).

6.2 Expansion of settlements and the road network

Several major road projects are presently planned or being implemented in the Niger Delta.
When completed, these roads will lead to the expansion of settlements as a result of improved
accessibility. Work on two major projects within two major LGAS and extending beyond
Ogoniland are expected to significantly improve the socio- economic outlook of the region in the
coming years but at the same time will increase the pressure on the local environment. During
the construction phase debris and sediment will find its way into swampland. Along the roads,
settlements will expand and the natural environment will be transformed into farmland.

The Saakpenwa-Bori-Kono Road is a new construction which runs from Tai LGA through
Gokana LGA to Khana LGA (Figure 19). Phase two of the road project which starts from Bori to
Kono has now commenced. It is a 17-kilometre road and cuts. through several Ogoniland towns
and communities.

The Bodo-Bonny Road, Rivers State, is the first road link between Bonny Island to therest of
Rivers State. It is a very large infrastructure development project in the Niger Delta and will result
in the continued development of Bonny Island which is considered a key industrial area in
Nigeria as it is tied to the economic development of the nation as a whole.

Technically, this road is a very significant undertaking with many constructionchallenges due to
the low-lying marshy area, muddy and swampy soil conditions and considerable tidal
movements. The scope comprises construction of a 39 km long road, cross culverts and two mini
bridges with a span of 23 m each as well as two creek bridges, "Afa Creek" Bridge of about 530 m
length and Nanabie Creek Bridge of about 640 m length, in addition to the construction of a major
river bridge of about 750 m length over the Opobo Channel.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 31
Substantial dredging activities and a number of specialized soil stabilization methodologies are
being carried out. The road runs 38 km across mangrove terrain. The road embankment may
alter the hydrology of the network of creeks and mangrove swamps locally. In total 17 small and
large bridges, 36 m to 713 m in length, will be built. About 3.1 million m³ of sand are being
dredged for the road construction activities. It is also anticipated that settlement expansion and
farmland expansion will occur as a result of improved accessibility, as well as a major expansion
in socioeconomic activities for Ogoniland communities along the entire road stretch.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 32
There are also plans for several railroads which will affect the Niger Delta (Figure 20). One
railroad is planned from Port Harcourt to Calabar with an arm to Onne in Ogoniland. Another
coastal railroad is planned from Lagos to Calabar. These are Federal Government projects.
Several Ogoniland communities in Eleme LGA are likely. to be affected. Settlements will expand
as well as farmlands.

Figure 20: The plans for rail roads through the Niger River Delta.

6.3 Expansion of farmland

As communities expand into new areas opened up by road expansion, the likelihood of farming
settlements expanding is very high as subsistence agriculture remains the predominant method
of farming in Ogoniland.

The communities flanking either side of the newly constructed roads and bridges are expected to
see development and construction activities moving outwards from currently habited areas
towards the direction of new infrastructure. For further discussion about this topic, see section
4.3 above.

6.4 Climate change

The changing climate is affecting the Niger Delta as well as the entire country. Flooding as well
as erosion along the coast and the barrier islands have characterized the environment of the
delta for millions of years.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 33
However, recent climate change has led to longer seasons of drought and more frequent and
heavier rains which are affecting the natural environment, agriculture, and people's lives. Floods
are now regular phenomena in the delta, affecting millions of people every year. In 2019 and
2020 about 1.9 million and 1.3 Nigerians respectively were temporarily displaced due to floods
according to the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA 2020).

With increased urbanization, flooding during the last several years has affected more people
than ever and resulted in loss of agricultural land as well as damage to houses and infrastructure
(Figure 21). The deforestation and the loss of swamp forests and mangrove vegetation amplifies
the problems related to floods.

Large parts of the delta are only a few meters above sea level. With increasing sea levels,
increasing portions of the delta will experience more problems with floods. The maps (Figure 22)
show future decadal scenarios illustrating the sea level rise. According to the IPCC scenario for
the Niger Delta, a one-meter increase of the sea level would cause flooding over about 18,000
km² or 2 percent of the land area of the country.

Figure 21: (a) Settlement in Ogoniland

prone to flooding (UNEP 2019),

(b) Photo from 2018 of Niger River

floods in Bayelsa State
(Modupe Gbadeyanka, 2018).

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 34
However, it should be pointed out that catastrophic flooding may happen long before what the
IPCC scenarios predict or are indicated on the maps below. This is because it is the combination
of wind direction and speed, high tides and excess river water that cause the catastrophic
situations.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 35
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 36
 7 RESTORATION PLAN
BMI provides the basis for a roadmap for the methods and strategy for an expanded remediation
and rehabilitation project in Ogoniland with surrounding mangroves to the south and west
(Gundlach et al. 2021).In order for restoration of mangrove vegetation to be successful a
number of factors related to the selection of sites, the combination of species, the engagement
of local communities, future threats, etc., have to be considered.

The selection of suitable restoration sites is critical. Site assessment may start with satellite
imagery, aerial overflights or drones to determine possible sites, the extent of the sites, possible
threats to the planted mangrove seedlings, etc.

Possible sites must be confirmed by thorough ground-truthing (field confirmation). During such
field investigations, data should be collected regarding the extent of oiling on the surface as well
as how deep the oil has penetrated into the subsurface layers (down to 25-40 cm). Surviving
plants as well as other biota shall be examined.

7.1 Creating the desired hydraulic situation for restoration

As mentioned previously, mangrove ecosystems are adapted to tidal variations and can only
exist where there are suitable variable water conditions. The mangrove seedlings should be
planted at sites where there is an influence of tides so that the plants are partially inundated
several hours per 24 hours. The tides in the delta are diurnal. If the tidal influence is too weak,
other species of trees and bushes will gradually take over the area.

7.2 Creating the desired sociological situation for restoration, including

community involvement
For restoration to be successful, participation of the local community is key. Representatives
from the local communities should be involved in deciding on the objectives of the work, the
technical planning for restoration as well as monitoring of the success of the effort. Informed
community representatives (i.e., individuals with indigenous or technical knowledge) should be
included in the planning, operational, and monitoring teams of the restoration project. Such
community delegates should include direct users or beneficiaries of the ecosystem goods and
services of the intended restoration sites (e.g., fisherfolks, especially women) who integrate
their expectations into the recovery framework.

Community participatory approaches will enable communities to drive the development and
take ownership of the process in a manner that enables them to protect its implementation
process and progress. Community participation can be promoted through intensive awareness
building and information campaigns which should target all groups.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 37
7.3 Stopping ongoing threats
The importance of stopping ongoing oil spills cannot be overemphasized. Mangroves can
tolerate quite high concentrations of oil in the sediment, but fresh oil contaminating prop-roots,
pneumatophores, propagules and leaves will very often kill the mangroves. Therefore, new and
fresh oil spills must be prevented if the restoration should succeed.

Clean-up of heavily oiled sediments can be done through flushing of the sediment with water
under high pressure. The water is pumped from a boat with a high-pressure pump which pushes
water through hoses equipped with a metal one-meter-long nozzle. The nozzle is inserted into
the sediment and the pumped water will liberate contained oil and transport it in the sediment to
the surface. The oil can then be collected by absorbents or using shovels.

Floating oil must be contained and concentrated by oil containment booms. Clean-up of oil on
the surface of the sediment can be done using raking and tilling as well as flushing. The surface
of the sediment is often covered by tar and a mat of algae. It is important to remove such tar and
algae in order to oxygenate the sediment. Tilling may also support natural degradation by
oxygenating the contaminated sediments. Manual shovels may be used but care must be taken
not to push surface oil into the sediment. Therefore, heavy equipment cannot be used, neither
should chemicals such as dispersants or hot water because of the negative impacts such
treatment will have on the environment.

It is important to collect and remove any oil or tar that is removed from the site in order to prevent
the contamination of new areas. Oil and contaminated material shall be assembled at a
temporary central storage facility and from this storage facility transported to a government
approved treatment facility.

7.4 Mapping of areas needing restoration and tools for such mapping
In order to map areas in need of restoration, a workplan should be developed using Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and site observations to determine the variations in the elevation of
the area in question. A technique which may simplify the work, and subsequent monitoring
activities, is to grid and map the areas to be planted. The Bodo Mediation Project has developed
such techniques for the Niger Delta (Gundlach et al. 2021).

7.5 Removal of hydraulic barriers

In areas where the normal water fluctuation has stopped due to road construction for example, it
may be possible to restore some of the previous conditions by opening the road bank and
putting in bridges and road drums/culverts. To achieve conditions that resemble the natural
situation, several bridges and road drums should be established to allow enough volumes of
water to flow. Recommendations for such restoration should be prepared by the Federal
Ministry of Environment and submitted to the Ministry of Works for implementation.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 38
Furthermore, when new roads are planned, the circulation of water must be secured by building
bridges and installing culverts. In planning new road construction, it is important that the
planners and developers are educated about the importance of these aspects.

Figure 23: Patrick's Landing (Sivibilagbara) is the point of departure for Bodo cleanup
operations. It is located between the bridge in construction (right) and newly planted
mangroves (across the water to the left).

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 39
7.6 Approaches to restoration
Restoration of mangrove areas has been attempted in many regions around the world where
mangroves have been degraded or destroyed. There are many reasons for undertaking such
restoration measures, which include the benefits ("goods and services") that well-developed
mangrove areas provide to local communities.In addition, there is a growing interest to plant
mangroves in order to utilize their capacity to sequester carbon. Mangroves may have been
destroyed because of cyclones/hurricanes, flooding, or overharvesting (Marois and Mitsch,
2015; Smith e al., 2009).

Furthermore, mangroves are sometimes planted in attempts to restore areas where aquaculture
for fish or shrimp has been carried out (Primavera and Esteban, 2008; Zimmer et al., 2022).
Restoration of mangrove vegetation after oil spills has also been carried out in some cases in
different parts of the world, including in Panama, Mozambique, Kenya and the Philippines.

The world's largest mangrove restoration project as a result of oil spills is presently carried out in
the Bodo community in Gokana, Ogoniland the BMI project. The planning for this project started
in 2013 and the actual field work in the oil contaminated areas started in 2015. At present
(September 10, 2022) 817 ha have been cleaned from oil and partly planted with 1.5-2 million
plants.

Before any restoration is started the existing oil contamination of the area must be investigated
and, if necessary, removed. Based on the results from such an investigation the strategy and
techniques for mangrove restoration can be determined.

There are various techniques for such initial surveys. In the Bodo project, a Shoreline Cleanup
and Assessment Technique (SCAT) has been adapted to the Niger Delta conditions and applied
in the work. SCAT is an internationally accepted scientific method for assessing oil
contamination levels and suitable clean-up techniques for shorelines.

The SCAT method applied in the Bodo project, developed by the BMI in its SCAT Manual (Story
et al., 2022) determines the level of contamination at each location and, based on this
assessment, the best clean-up technique for the different areas can be determined. SCAT teams
should also monitor the effectiveness of the clean-up and recommend changes if necessary.

Clean-up methods vary depending on degree of oiling and the characteristics of the site under
consideration. Heavily oiled soft muds may have to be cleaned using water flushing where water
is pumped through a nozzle into one meter below the surface. Thereby most of the oil in the
sediment will flow to the surface. If the degree of oiling is less, it may be enough to use rakes and
shovels and possibly also low-pressureflushing to remove oil and avoid sediment removal.In
order to prevent re-oiling, it is important to apply booms and use sorbents to preventspreading of
the oil to new areas. Some agricultural waste material such as bagasse,straw from rice
production, etc., may be used as sorbents. For this stage of the clean-up to be effective it is
important that the booms are constantly monitored andadjusted so that shifting currents and
tides will not make the booms ineffective.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 40
A key principle that has been established within the BMI is to prioritize areas near communities
before starting with more distant areas. Cleaning areas near settlements as the first priority will
create goodwill among residents who have suffered from oil contamination.

Even after very intensive clean-up there will always be some oil left and it is important to
remember that at some stage further clean-up will do more harm than good when the integrity of
the environment such as the sediment structure is highly altered.

It is also important to understand that mangroves are quite hardy and can tolerate certain levels
of oil in the sediment. Overtime, the mangrove plants also help to reduce the level of residual oil
in the sediment by increasing air inputs and thereby stimulating biodegradation
("phytoremediation").

7.7 Ecologically sensitive restoration

A mangrove forest is a complex ecosystem comprising the unvegetated low tidal mudflats,
mangrove bushes and trees, and associated salt tolerant plants, as well as many invertebrates
and vertebrates, and the interacting abiotic parts of the ecosystem. (e.g., salinity, temperature,
sediment).

It is important that restoration efforts broadly target the return of the complex system. The
restoration should not create a simple ecosystem with only one or two species of mangrove
plants. It is also wrong to try to vegetate, or plant in, the naturally unvegetated low tidal flat. More
so, a community such as a mangrove forest exhibits structural and functional attributes that
should be targeted during the restoration. There are mangrove species with varied relative
abundance depending on distance to the seafront. Therefore, the restoration should try to mimic
the zonation pattern in natural mangrove forests.

In addition, the restoration should aim at preserving the local species and not be based on
species taken from distant areas. In the Niger Delta, the multiflorous red mangrove (R.
racemosa) constitutes at least 70% of the mangrove plants. Other common species are R.
mangle, R. harisonii, and A. germinas. L racemosa is less common, while C. erectus is rare.

However, because it is easier to nurse or plant directly the pencil-like propagules of the red
mangroves, several restoration programs in the region have focused on planting red mangroves
only. This practice must change to include all native species of mangroves. More so, the
mangrove ferns (Acrostichum aureum and A. danaeilfolium) grow mostly in the high
(landward) intertidal zone of the mangrove forest. The ferns can also grow at the channel fringes
on elevated (berm) sediment and may survive an oil pollution assault. In some cases, ferns have
been cut during the attempts to plant the woody mangrove species. However, the above ferns
are mangroves and should not be removed when efforts are made to restore the
woodymangrove species.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 41
7.8 The use of remote sensing to support mangrove restoration and
monitoring
Mapping mangrove extent is rather simple as mangrove signature is very characteristic and
artificial intelligence already gives the possibility to produce accurate mangrove cover maps. In
the future, it will be possible to merge information coming from multiple satellite sensors and
combine more effectively optical and radar sensors to produce up-to-date and new generation
mangrove maps with more details such as mangrove species, height of the vegetation,
mangrove health, etc.

In the past years, Google has developed the Google Earth Engine platform where users from
around the world can process thousands of satellite images directly in the cloud without
downloading a single image. Google Earth Engine combines a multi-petabyte catalog of satellite
imagery and geospatial datasets with planetary-scale analysis capabilities. Scientists,
researchers, and developers use the Google Earth Engine to detect changes, map trends, and
quantify differences on the Earth's surface.

If satellite imagery can provide timely and actionable information on large territories, the use of
drones for mangrove restoration monitoring will be key at all phases of the Niger Delta
restoration, Drones can help plan restoration, monitor rehabilitation activities happening in the
field and monitor the success of seedlings on the longer term.

Drones will also complement satellite imagery by providing sufficient details for training remote
sensing algorithms. Drones will also provide new digital livelihood opportunities in the delta.
Current drone regulation in Ogoniland and the Niger Delta should be reviewed, along with
recommendations to regulators (the Military) to ensure they will authorize drone operations for
Niger Delta restoration purposes.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 42
 CONSERVATION PLAN FOR
8 THE NIGER DELTA
8.1 Objective of a conservation plan
As in Ogoniland, the Niger Delta as a whole, is experiencing increasing pollution, coupled with
decreasing natural environments and biodiversity. In order to halt this negative development and
enter a path towards sustainability, a conservation plan for the Niger Delta should be developed.

A Conservation Plan is a wider and more holistic plan than the Restoration Plan for Ogoniland,
discussed above. The focus of the conservation plan is the Niger Delta as a whole. Obviously, the
mangroves and other ecosystems of Ogoniland are closely interlinked with the environment in
the delta as a whole.

The conservation plan (to be developed) should discuss and describe what must be done in the
Niger Delta in terms of protection of the natural environment and restoration of the ecosystem
including mangroves, freshwater swamp forests and other natural environments in order to
protect biodiversity and promote sustainability and thereby improve the living conditions for the
human population.A vision for the future should be to improve the management of the
environment in the Niger Delta as a whole and make it possible for the human population to
improve their standard of living in ways that do not lead to environmental degradation or
endanger the biodiversity of the delta. Such a vision may entail the goal that a large portion of the
Niger Delta in the future would qualify to become a site under the Convention on Wetlands, also
called the Ramsar Convention.

The Convention on Wetlands is an inter-governmental environmental treaty established in 1971

by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The treaty
came into force in 1975. It provides for national action and international cooperation regarding
the conservation of wetlands, and wise sustainable use of their resources. As of July 2021, there
are 2,424 Ramsar sites around the world, protecting some 255 million hectares, and 171
governments are participating.

For a wetland area to be considered under the Ramsar Convention, one or several of the criteria
listed below must apply:
Ÿ Criterion 1: 'it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural
wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.”
Ÿ Criterion 2: 'it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or
threatened ecological communities.”
Ÿ Criterion 3: "it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining
the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.”
Ÿ Criterion 4: "it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles or
provides refuge during adverse conditions.”
Ÿ Criterion 5: "it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.”
Ÿ Criterion 6: "it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or
subspecies of waterbird.”
OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 43
Ÿ Criterion 7: "it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or
families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are representative of
wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.”
Ÿ Criterion 8: "it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or
migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.”
Ÿ Criterion 9: "it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or
subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal species.”

Several of the characteristics of the Niger Delta make it a unique environment with very
extensive natural wetlands supporting a number of vulnerable and threatened ecosystems and
species, such as:
Ÿ Intertidal mud, sand and salt flats;
Ÿ Intertidal marshes;
Ÿ Intertidal mangroves and forested wetlands;
Ÿ Coastal brackish lagoons and estuaries;
Ÿ Permanent inland river deltas;
Ÿ Rivers, creeks and streams;
Ÿ Lakes and pools, and
Ÿ Freshwater swamp forests.

This means that several parts of the Niger Delta already meet one or more of the key criteria for
becoming a Ramsar site under the Convention on Wetlands, However, there are a growing
number of threats to the environment of the delta.

8.2 Scope of the conservation areas

More urbanized areas of the Niger Delta cannot be included in a Niger Delta conservation area.
However, there are several parts of the Niger Delta that still possess valuable biodiversity often
in the form of more or less intact mangroves and freshwater forests. Fourteen such sites are
listed below.

Figure 24 below is the suggested locations of this assemblage of Niger Delta conservation
areas. These would be areas where human activities must be managed in such ways that the
economic development is not causing environmental degradation.

Depending on the commitments by local and central governments and the acceptance and
willingness of the local communities to actively support and participate, the goal would be to be
able to declare and effectively manage these parts of the Niger Delta as a network of protected
conservation areas which may become Ramsar sites, before the end of the decade. The
potential sites include:
Ÿ Andoni Game Reserve;
Ÿ Bonny Island Nature Park (Finima Nature Park);
Ÿ Lower Orashi River Forest Reserve;
Ÿ Taylor Creek Forest Reserve;
Ÿ Lower Imo River Forest Reserve;

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 44
Ÿ Upper Imo River Forest Reserve;
Ÿ Otamiri Forest Rreserve,
Ÿ Sombreiro River Forest;
Ÿ Ikwerre Estate Area Forest;
Ÿ Biseni Forest Reserve;
Ÿ Udoda Forest Reserve;
Ÿ Yar Forest Reserve;
Ÿ Akassa Coastal Wetland; and
Ÿ Ramos-Dodo-Pennington-Digatoro Area.

These prospective protected sites have special ecological attributes that fit the Ramsar
designation criteria. For example, the African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), flocks of the white-
face whistling duck (Dendrocygna viduata) and the African grey parrot (P. erithacus) have been
sighted at the Finima Nature Park. The white-collared mangabey, the chimpanzee, the West
African manatee, the African elephant, the olive colobus and the white throated guenon have
been reported at the Taylor Creek Forest Reserve, while the Andoni Game Reserve has African
elephants and hippopotamus.Figure 24. There are 14 sites which may qualify as Ramsar in the
Niger Delta provided that effective management plans can be established and implemented

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 45
8.3 Key stakeholders
Stakeholders which need to be engaged within the process of establishing the rules and
regulations which are required to be able to declare the "Niger Delta Conservation Area" include
the following:
Ÿ Central, regional and local governments;
Ÿ Local communities and community groups including NGOS;
Ÿ Representatives of the business community, and
Ÿ Academia.

8.4 Water management

Water is key to preserve and manage the environment of the delta. Activities that will, or may,
affect water quality and water-flow through the delta must be assessed in advance through a
rigorous environmental impact assessment (EIA) process. The current application of the
existing EIA regulation (EIA act 86/1992) is not adequate. The EIA processes as applied in the
delta are mostly seen as an administrative formality rather than a serious attempt to avoid
environmentally destructive activities.

What is necessary for future sustainable development is that ElAs are carried out by competent
parties with the highest ethical standards. The organization/ experts must be independent and
with no ties to the investors and proponents of the proposed activity and the resultant
environmental management plan be effectively implemented. The ElAs should be available at
the State Ministry for Environment and the host LGA headquarters for the public to review them.
Announcements should be made when such documents are available.

At the Rivers State level, the Department of Environment Planning, Research and Statistics of
the Rivers State Ministry of Environment supervises ElAs of proposed projects with a view to
determining the likely environmental impact(s) of such projects on the human environment.
Rivers State Environmental Protection and Management Bill No. 7 of 2019 is the enabling law.

8.5 Sustainable management of economic activities in the area

Sustainable management is the application of sustainable practices in the different categories of
economic activities (such as agriculture, industry, society) in a way that will benefit current and
future generations and the living environment. Sustainable management includes aspects such
as water management, management of air pollution, waste management, hazardous waste
management as well as compliance management.

Over the past few decades, the importance of implementing sustainable development
provisions into all types of economic activities including industrial and agricultural, has been
constantly increasing. The goals of sustainable development are that the enterprises must be
responsible to the society and future generations for their impact on the environment, the
rational use of natural resources, as well as the safety of goods and services offered on the
market.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 46
Environmental problems are both global and local in nature, and industrial activities are obliged
to develop environmental management systems that consider the total impact of the activities.
Due to the increasing demand for even better performance, and the challenges because of the
variability in the external environment, environmental management of industrial activities
requires regular improvements and stricter monitoring and enforcement on the part of the
government actors.

Environmental management systems, or action plans, relevant for the activities of small and
medium size industries as well as agriculture in the Niger Delta have been published in various
documents. These include the Regional Master Plan of the Niger Delta Development
Commission (NDDC), the Niger Delta Environmental Survey report (NDES), and UNEP's
Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland report. There is a need to articulate the recommended
piecemeal action plans to form a composite framework for environmental sustainability of the
Niger Delta.

8.6 Management and buffer zones

Particularly valuable conservation areas must be surrounded by buffer zones which in effect
extend the habitat contained within the protected area into the buffer zone.Examples of human
activities that may be tolerated in such buffer zones can include selectively logged forests,
hunting areas, or natural forests for firewood collection, agriculture or grazing.

When deciding on suitable buffer crops it is important to consider the feeding habits of local
wildlife. For instance, bananas and maize may not be suitable near populations of monkeys.
Such buffer zones must be continuously surveilled by the relevant authorities (Department of
Environment) in order to ensure that encroachment into the conservation areas is not taking
place or that the human activities in the buffer zones do not cause indirect damage to the species
and habitats in the conservation area.

When deciding on the management needs of buffer zones the following factors should be
considered:
Ÿ The behavior of threatened wildlife such as the Niger Delta red colobus monkey, the pygmy
hippopotamus, the white-throated guenon, Sclater's guenon and other mammal and reptile
species to roam into the buffer zones;
Ÿ The habits of such species will give an indication of how large such buffer zones should be;
Ÿ The disturbance caused by wildlife which enter into the buffer zones must be determined in
dialogue with surrounding communities;
Ÿ Procedures should be developed to compensate farmers for damage to crops in the buffer
zones for example, Buffer zones may also serve other protective functions, such as water or
soil conservation.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 47
8.7 Preparing a management plan in consultation with stakeholders
A management plan for each of the conservation areas mentioned under section 8.2 is a
document which sets out management approaches and goals, together with a framework for
decision making, to apply in a specific protected area over a given period of time. Critical to the
plan is the widest possible participation of all stakeholders in order to consider and adapt to their
needs and circumstances. Objectives must be developed, agreed and adhered to by all who
have an interest in the use and ongoing survival of the area concerned. Participants in this
process should be the stakeholders, including local communities, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), representatives of the local, state and federal government as well as the
business community and academia. The management plan should be based on global best
practice drawn from different areas, in particular from elsewhere in the Niger Delta.

The Niger Delta is undergoing development, and infrastructure and housing are developing
rapidly. A prerequisite for success in the development of protected sites such as the ones
discussed here is that the local communities are involved in the different stages of the process
leading up to the designation of a protected area, and particularly in having a commitment from
local people to take an active part in keeping it protected.

A positive attitude towards environmental protection can only be achieved if communities are
involved in the planning and the development of measures that will protect the area in question
(Rodriguez-Izquierdo et al., 2010). Community participatory approaches will enable the
communities to drive the process and take ownership of the development. Community
participation can be promoted through fair and honest engagement and awareness building
which develop capacity for making contributions to decision making.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 48
 SUMMARY AND
9 RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1 Restoration Plan for the Wetlands of Ogoniland

Summary
A significant portion of Ogoniland and the Niger Delta at large are covered with mangroves and
freshwater swamp forests. Such wetlands are some of the most productive and diverse
ecosystems on the planet. If in good condition, they provide numerous ecosystem goods and
services. For example, they act as feeding and nursery grounds for commercially important fish
and shellfish which can be fished in surrounding creeks, rivers and coastal waters. They play an
essential role in protecting land against erosion, buffering flooding, filtrating, and thereby
retaining particles, nutrients and contaminants, and they are effective in taking up CO₂ from the
atmosphere and storing it in the sediment

However, the wetlands of Ogoniland, as well as the Niger Delta as a whole, are under severe
pressure from decades of oil spills and a multitude of other human stress factors including
unregulated resource exploitation, urbanization, road construction and agriculture.

Since the year 2000, there has been a loss of about 20% of the mangrove and freshwater forests
in Ogoniland. Such a loss of valuable ecosystems must be taken very seriously and with a sense
of urgency. The time to act is now to reverse the degradation trend towards sustainability.
Accordingly, this report provides a number of contextual recommendations.

Recommendations
1. An obvious prerequisite before starting activities related to mangrove rehabilitation is that
all oil spills cease. For that to happen, adequate integrity check and maintenance of oil
infrastructures is imminent to prevent avoidable oil spills. Concurrently, stealing of oil from
oil infrastructures in order to refine it in remote parts of the delta must be prevented. The
existing regime for surveillance of oil pipelines needs comprehensive overhauling and
strengthening for effective protection. The use of state-of-the-art technology (e.g., drones
and random overflights by helicopter) will help in policing remote areas and to identify
suspected sites where artisanal refining are carried out and to stop such activities.
However, the problems cannot simply be addressed by enhanced enforcement. Part of
the solution must address the livelihoods problems faced by the youth and alternative
means of employment stimulated. An effective partnership between the Office of the
National Security Adviser, the Ministry of Petroleum, the Nigerian Upstream Petroleum
Regulatory Commission (NUPRC), NOSDRA, HYPREP, UNEP, state government and
the oil companies is necessary to achieve this goal.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 49
2. Mangrove environments in the delta have, in several cases, been lost due to poor planning
in connection with road construction, Road banks have been built without consideration of
their effects on the hydrology of the surrounding areas. Any new road construction must
consider the impacts on the flow of water in the surrounding landscape and construct
bridges and tunnels in order to compensate for the blockage that otherwise will prevent the
free flow of water. In cases where already-existing road banks are causing obstruction to
the flow of water with the result that mangrove environments have died, it is meaningless to
restore the mangroves unless the previous water regime is re- established. A close
collaboration between the Federal and State Ministries of Works and Environment is a first
step to achieving this. It will drive a robust and effective EIA regime whereby the resultant
environmental management plan will be better implemented.
3. Any mangrove restoration must be preceded by careful planning both related to the
strategy to be used in different areas, and the exact fit-for-purpose methods to be applied.
Mapping based on remote sensing coupled with ground-truthing should help in producing
maps with a grid network which will facilitate the work on the ground. Laboratory analysis,
or as an alternative, field measurements will determine the degree of contamination. Based
on such results the method of clean-up that will precede the restoration can be determined.
The national and sub-national Ministries of Environment should provide overarching
coordination of ecosystem restoration in active partnership with the Ministry of Niger Delta,
the NDDC, HYPREP, the private sector, civil society organizations (CSOs), and the local
communities. It is important to stress that the private business community operating in the
delta, particularly the oil and gas companies whose operations have impacted mangroves
in the region, should invest in mangrove restoration. The rehabilitation initiative could form
an integral part of their remedial efforts, biodiversity offset or climate action programmes.
The role of CSOs in sensitizing the citizens about the importance of proactive participation
in mangrove restoration and management cannot be overemphasized.
4. Successful restoration of mangrove vegetation does involve the reforestation of the native
mangrove species in the Niger Delta. Hence several species should be planted to protect
genetic diversity depending on the local situation, which must consider aspects such as
elevation, distance to the waterfront, etc. The decision on which species to be planted
where should be made in advance and should be informed by sound science of mangrove
ecology. This needs to be reflected in the mangrove species being produced within local
nurseries.
5. Concurrently with the mapping, local communities in and near the areas to be rehabilitated
should be fully involved in the process starting from the initial stage of formulating the
objectives. The locals have historical knowledge on the sites that will be invaluable to the
restoration effort. The goals of the work and the workplan should be shared with the
community members and their views and inputs integrated into the plan to facilitate
community ownership. Community members shall be invited to take part in the work and
ideally the communities should take on the work as a community-based
rehabilitationproject. In so doing, it will create much needed alternative employment
forcommunity members.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 50
6. Due to the variation in tides, careful planning of the clean-up is essential. Clean- up and
planting can only be done during a period between high and low tides or low and high tides
when the tidal flats where mangroves occur are exposed. This window of time may be
rather limited depending on the local conditions. Therefore, it is essential that the logistics
have been worked out in advance and that personnel and equipment are ready at the right
time.
7. The clean-up methodology to be used for the removal of oil and tar in mangrove areas in
Ogoniland, as well as in the Niger Delta, and mangrove restoration procedures have been
described in various reports and manuals, including the CEHRD Mangrove Restoration
Manual, the BMI Clean-up Protocol and the upcoming Mangroves in the Niger Delta:
Restoration Manual. It is important that the clean-up of one site does not mobilize oil that
will contaminate other areas. Therefore, it is essential that effective booms are used to
contain any floating oil which should be collected and transported to the designated storage
sites for subsequent evacuation.
8. Planting of mangroves is obligatory to re-establish lost mangrove forests in the delta due to
prevailing conditions (e.g., oil contamination, limited seedlings to facilitate natural
recruitment). Planting of mangroves shall be done according to the instructions in a number
of manuals. In order to drive the re- establishment of a natural mangrove ecosystem, it is
important that the choice of species is made based on the location where planting is carried
out. The hydrology and degree of exposure to waves and currents are key factors to
consider.
9. Monitoring of the survival and production of the planted mangroves is an essential element
in restoration and should be carried out during several years after the planting started.
Often a certain percentage of the original plants die and should be replanted. The initial
five-year monitoring should be carried out by the organization that undertakes the
restoration project in conjunction with designated units in the local universities. Such an
arrangement will allow the universities to carry out long-term monitoring and research
related to mangrove ecosystem restoration.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 51
9.2 Conservation Plan for the Niger Delta

Summary
During the last decades large portions of the natural environment in the Niger Delta have been
transformed into agricultural land, production forests, and built-up areas. Natural mangroves
and forests have been cut or otherwise degraded or destroyed.

However, there are still some areas with relatively intact ecosystems consisting of mangroves,
freshwater forests, intertidal marshes, etc. Considering the rapid pace of change in the delta the
development and implementation of a Conservation Plan for the Niger Delta is of outmost
importance. The small pockets of relatively intact remaining ecosystems must be protected
before they disappear.

A Conservation Plan should be developed to outline the strategy for the protection of about 14
areas in the delta which had been identified as particularly important to protect. A vision for the
future is that, when these areas have effective management measures in place, they can form a
network of protected reserves that may qualify as sites under the Convention on Wetlands, also
called the Ramsar Convention. Furthermore, some areas targeted for restoration, like the
mangrove wetlands in Ogoniland, meet certain criteria to be designated Ramsar sites. The
UNEP (2011) Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland identifies this opportunity.

Recommendations
1. A working group should be established to draft a Conservation Plan for the Niger Delta. The
Working Group should be chaired by the Minister of Environment and consist of all
stakeholders including the federal, state and local governments, local communities and
civil society groups including NGOs, representatives of the business community, the
academia, the Niger Delta Ministry, and the NDDC. The funding for this work should come
from the national budget.
2. The Conservation Plan should be developed by the end of 2024 and should seek to
improve the protection of key sites with high ecological value in the Niger Delta. It must be
developed in close collaboration with local communities. Consideration of the needs and
wishes of local people are critical to the success of any conservation plan. The plan should
have co-managementprinciples and practices in order to be sustainable. This means that
the local people will not only participate in the design of the Conservation Plan but will also
own and lead its implementation under the coordination of the Ministry of Environment.
3. A prerequisite for the successful conservation and management of the remaining
ecosystems including the network of protected areas is the maintenance of water flow
through the delta. The water quantity and quality must be guaranteed through a rigorous
EIA process, whereby all activities that may have an effect on the water flow, water quality,
or cause contamination must be assessed for effective mitigation. An EIA must be much
more than just an administrative formality. Competent expert organizations with the highest
ethical standards, certification, and experiences that meet international best practices shall
carry out the EIA for the Federal and State Ministry of Environment. The local communities
should be actively involved in the EIA process.

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 52
4. There is growing demand for improved environmental performance among oil and gas
industries and agriculture in the Niger Delta. Several action plans for improved
environmental sustainability focusing on the local and regional levels have been presented
but there has been little action in terms of improvements due to weak government
institutions. There is an urgent need to step up the speed of concrete action led by the
Ministry of Environment in partnership with the Ministries of Petroleum, Works, and
Transportation, in order to halt the destruction of biodiversity hotspots and sensitive
ecosystems throughout the delta.
5. Surrounding each protected site, a buffer zone must be established. In the buffer zone
certain human activities may be allowed, activities that are not destructive to the ecosystem
in the protected area. The type of activities to be allowed have to be determined in each
case depending on the local socio- ecological conditions. The Ministry of Environment
should oversee the buffer zones with funding from the national budget. The private sector
should contribute funding as part of their commitments to environmental sustainability as
well as corporate social responsibility

OGONILAND AND THE NIGER DELTA: MANGROVE RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY. 53
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