COS105 Organisation Behaviour

MODULE II: Nature Of Human Behaviour

Individual Behaviour And Personality : Factors Influencing Individual
Behaviour; Personality – Determinants Of Personality, Theories And Types
Of Personalities, Personality Traits Influencing Behaviour, Management
Of Emotions; Perception– Perceptual Process, Factors Affecting
Perception, Perceptual Errors And Distortion; Values And Attitudes –
Features Of Values, Types Of Values, Sources Of Values, ABC Model Of
Attitudes, Features Of Attitudes, Functions Of Attitudes, Sources Of
Attitudes, Formation Of Attitudes, Job-related Attitudes, Cognitive
Dissonance; Motivation – Theories Of Motivation; Learning – Learning
And Maturation, Theories Of Learning, Learning Organisations

Pushpa Prajapati
Assistant Professor
 Individual Behaviour

FOLLOWING
POSITIVE
WORKPLACE
ATTITUDE
Courteous ETIQUETTES
GOOD
and
ATTENDANCE
Friendly
RESPONSIBLE
Individual Behaviour

What a Person Does

OVERT COVERT
 Process of Behaviour

 Behaviour is caused and not autonomous

 Three models of behaviour:
1. S-R Model
2. S-O-R Model
3. S-O-B-C Model
 Models of Behaviour: S-R Model

Stimulus Response

Internal Feeling Behaviour

External Environment
 Models of Behaviour: S-O-R Model

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

Stimulus Organism Response

Receptors
Internal Feeling Behaviour
External Environment Connectors
Effectors
 Models of Behaviour: S-O-B-C Model

Stimulus Physiological Behaviour Consequences

Overt Being and Overt Overt
Covert Cognitive Covert
Covert
Mediator

Feedback
 Individual Differences

i. Differences in behaviour in an individual over

time (intra-individual)
ii. Differences in behaviour among individuals
given the same set of stimuli (inter-individual)
 Factors Affecting Individual Behaviour

Physiological Socio-Psychological
Age Personality
Gender Perception,
Looks Learning
Attitudes and Values
Emotional Intelligence
Motivation
 Factors Affecting Individual Differences

Individual Variables Situational Variables

1. Physiological 1. Organisational
Age, Gender, Looks Structure, Processes,
Culture
2. Socio-Psychological
Personality, Perception, 2. Job
Learning, Attitudes and Nature of Job, Work
Values, Emotional Intelligence, Environment
Motivation
 Behaviour Self-Awareness
Personality Culture Interest
Perception Emotion
Intellect Motivation
Attitude Power
Heredity
Learning
Confidence
Family
Creativity Orientation
 Personality

• Personality takes
the whole man
concept.
• A general sum of
traits (or)
• A unique mode of
response
 Personality

 Latin : ‘Persona’ means ‘To Speak Through’

 To
common man – External appearance and
Behaviour
 Psychologists– Inner awareness of self as a permanent
organising force
 Manager– Measurable traits – both inner and outer
which can predict the performance in an organisation
 Personality

 Personalityrefers to the long-standing traits and

patterns that propel individuals to consistently think,
feel, and behave in specific ways.
 Allport– “Personality is the dynamic organisation
within the individual of those psychological systems
that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment.”
 Arisesfrom within an individual and remains fairly
consistent throughout life.
 Personality

Ruch : Personality should include

1. External appearance and behaviour or social stimulus
value;
2. Inner awareness of self as a permanent organising
force; and
3. The particular pattern or organisation of measurable
traits, both inner and outer.
 Determinants of Personality
Heredity
Processes: Brain
Socialisation Physical Features
Identification
Biological Factors

Family and Social Personality Situational Factors

Factors
Influenced by:
Home Environment Cultural Factors
Family Members
Social Groups
 Theories of Personality
(Personality Development)
1. Psychoanalytical Theory
2. Erickson Stages (non-Freudian Stages)
3. Chris Agyris’s Immaturity-Maturity Continuum
1.Psychoanalytical Theory
Conscious Mind
Contact with outside world.

Preconscious Mind
Just beneath the surface of awareness

Unconscious Mind
Below the surface of awareness
Personality Theories – Psychoanalytic Theory

 CONSCIOUS MIND: Contains all the thoughts, memories, feelings and wishes
which we are aware of at any given moment. Aspect of our mental processing
that we can think and talk about rationally. It also includes our memory which is
not part of our consciousness but can be retrieved easily and can be brought
into awareness. Contact with outside world.
 SUBCONSCIOUS/PRECONSCIOUS MIND: It contains anything that could
potentially be brought into the conscious mind, but not currently thinking about.
Material just below the surface of awareness.
 UNCONSCIOUS MIND: It is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories
that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents
that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, trauma, anxiety
or conflict, desires and instincts. Difficult to retrieve, well below the surface of
awareness.
1. Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud – Three Stages
 Personality Theories – Psychoanalytic Theory

Id
 The Id is the impulsive and unconscious part of our
psyche which responds directly and immediately to
basic urges, needs and desires. The Id is not affected
by reality, logic or the everyday world, as it operates
within the unconscious part of the mind.
 Personality Theories – Psychoanalytic Theory

Ego
 TheEgo develops to mediate between the unrealistic
Id and the external real world. It is the decision-making
component of personality.
 The Ego operates according to the reality principle,
working out realistic ways of satisfying the Id’s
demands. The Ego considers social realities and norms,
etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
 Personality Theories – Psychoanalytic Theory
Super Ego
 Consists of two systems: The Conscience and the Real Self.
 The conscience can punish the ego through causing
feelings of guilt.
 The ideal self or ego ideal is an imaginary picture of how
you ought to be, and represents career aspirations , how to
treat other people and how to behave as a member of
society.
 If the Ego gives in to the Id’s demands, the Super Ego may
make the person feel bad through guilt.
Conscious Mind
Contact with outside world.

Preconscious Mind
Just beneath the surface of awareness

Unconscious Mind
Below the surface of awareness
 Conscious Mind
Contact with outside world.

Reality Principle

Preconscious Mind
Just beneath the surface of awareness
-Moral Imperatives
-Societal or
personal Norms Pleasure Principle
-Ethical constraint Wish Fulfillment
on behaviour Psychic Energy (Instincts)
-Guides the ego to
determine what is Unconscious Mind
right or wrong. Below the surface of awareness
 2. Erickson Stage (8 Stage of Life)

1. Infancy (First year) - Child resolves the basic criteria of trust

and mistrust
2. Early Childhood (2-3 Yrs) – Assert Independence, Capable of
controlling, Sense of Autonomy – Constant disapproval by
elders creates a sense of self-doubt and shame.
3. Play Age (4-5 Yrs) – Discover just how much a child can do, If
encouraged can develop sense of initiative, If blocked
develop guilt and lack of self-confidence.
 2. Erickson Stage

4. School Age (6-12 Yrs) – Learns new skills develop social

abilities, if experiences real progress then develops a sense of
enterprise, If not develops a sense of inferiority.
5. Adolescence (Teenage) – Gain a sense of identity rather than
to become confused, rapid biological changes, Try to
establish as socially separate from the parents; Autonomy,
initiative and enterprise developed in early stages helps to
resolve crisis and prepare for adulthood.
 2. Erickson Stage

6. Early Adulthood (twenties) – Faces crisis of intimacy and isolation,

Sense of identity developed earlier allows the young adult to
begin developing deep and lasting relationships.
7. Adulthood – faces the crisis of generativity or self-absorption in
career advancement and maintenance, never have concern for
future generations/ welfare of organisations for which they work
for/ or the society to which they belong to. Productivity and
societal advancement become important – through innovation
and creativity they exert influence that benefits the organisations.
 2. Erickson Stage

8. Mature Adulthood – Highly mature person, Gained a sense of

wisdom and perspective that can guide the younger
generations.
 3. Chris Agyris’s Immaturity-Maturity Continuum

Immaturity Characteristics Maturity Characteristics

Passivity Activity

Dependence Independence

Capable of behaving in a few ways Capable of behaving in many ways

Shallow Interest Deep Interest

Short-term perspective Long-term perspective

Subordinate position Superordinate position

Lack of Self-Awareness Self-awareness and Control

 Immaturity Maturity

Extremely Poor Neutral Good Extremely

Poor Good
 Types of Personality
(Personality Traits affecting Behaviour)
1. Catell’s 16 Factor Theory
2. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
3. The Big Five Traits Model
4. Other Traits
 Catell’s Primary or Source Traits Exhibit
Reserved Outgoing
Less Intelligent More Intelligent
Affected Feelings Emotionally More Stable
Submissive Dominant
Serious Happy-Go-Lucky
Types of Personality Expedient Conscientious
Timid Venturesome
Tough-Minded Sensitive
Catell’s 16 Factor Trusting Suspicious
Theory Practical Imaginative
Forthright Shrewd
Self-assured Apprehensive
Conservative Experimenting
Group dependent Self-dependent
Uncontrolled Controlled
Relaxed Tense
 Types of Personality
The Myers-Briggs Indicator

MBTI classifies human beings into four categories

of opposite pairs (Dichotomies)
1. Extroverted or Introverted ( E or I)
2. Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
3. Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
4. Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

16 combinations based on above 4 dichotomies

S.No Code
1 ISTJ Introverted Sensing Thinking Judging
2 ISFJ Introverted Sensing Feeling Judging
3 INFJ Introverted Intuitive Feeling Judging
4 INTJ Introverted Intuitive Thinking Judging
5 ISTP Introverted Sensing Thinking Perceiving
6 ISFP Introverted Sensing Feeling Perceiving
7 INFP Introverted Intuitive Feeling Perceiving
8 INTP Introverted Intuitive Thinking Perceiving
9 ESTP Extroverted Sensing Thinking Perceiving
10 ESFP Extroverted Sensing Feeling Perceiving
11 ENFP Extroverted Intuitive Feeling Perceiving
12 ENTP Extroverted Intuitive Thinking Perceiving
13 ESTJ Extroverted Sensing Thinking Judging
14 ESFJ Extroverted Sensing Feeling Judging
15 ENFJ Extroverted Intuitive Feeling Judging
16 ENTJ Extroverted Intuitive Thinking Judging
 Types of Personality
The Big Five Traits Model
Sn
Core Traits Desriptive Characteristics of High Scorers
o
Dependable, Hardworking, Organised, Self-
1 Conscientiousness
Disciplined, Persistent, responsible
Emotional Stability
2 Calm, Secure, Happy, Unworried
(Neuroticism)
Cooperative, Warm, Caring, Good-natured,
3 Agreeable
Courteous, Trusting

4 Extroversion Sociable, Outgoing, Talkative, Assertive, Gre-garious

Curious, Intellectual, Creative, Cultured, Artistically

5 Openness
sensitive, Flexible, Imaginative, Novel
Types of Personality
Other Traits

1. Self-Esteem
2. Locus of Control
3. Authoritarianism
4. Machiavellianism (Mach)
5. Introversion and Extroversion
6. Type ‘A’ and Type ‘B’
 Management of Emotions

• Emotions – to move, to excite, to agitate, to stir

• Emotional expression is a powerful mode of
communication.
• Emotions can be positive and negative.
Management of Emotions

Most common positive and negative emotions

at work:
1. Comfortable
2. Satisfied
3. Enthusiastic
4. Frustrated
5. Stressed
6. Anxious
Management of Emotions

Positive emotions at work

• Positive emotions aren’t limited to only

optimistic and hopeful feelings.
• Examples of positive emotions could include
calm, comfortable, energetic, enthusiastic,
excited, happy, joyful, peaceful, relaxed, and
satisfied.
Management of Emotions

Negative emotions at work

• Examples of negative emotions could include

annoyed, anxious, bored, disinterested,
dissatisfied, frustrated, gloomy, miserable, sad,
stressed, tired, uncomfortable, unhappy,
upset, and worried.
Management of Emotions

Negative moral emotions at work

• Much more complex

• Good and bad behavior, and they vary from
person to person.
• Emotions like guilt, regret, and shame
Management of Emotions
Emotional Intelligence

• “EI is the ability to command respect by

building relationships or the ability to get
along with the people and situations”.

-Daniel Goleman

• Measured with Emotional Quotient (EQ)

Managing Emotions at Workplace

• Self-Awareness
• Control of Emotions
• Empathy
• Cooperation
• Resolving Conflicts
PERCEPTION
 Why consider perception?

 Visual representations can be misinterpreted.

 The visual may or may not have been intended to be misinterpreted.
 Understanding human perception and illusions can guide us in the
design of visualizations.
 Perception:
 recognition -- awareness
 organization -- gathering and storing
 interpretation -- binding to knowledge
1. Three ≠ four
Non-realizable image with four planks on the left
and three on the right.
A cluttered visualization might cause a miscount of
data on a graphic.
 What was the very first thing you
saw?
 Then what all did you pick out?
 such images are meant to be
illusionary
 draws further study to see what
you can see, unlike the non-
realizable image to the left.
 we will talk about levels of detail
in visualization that are good
 see the big picture
 thensee the details which
can also be informational
Hermann grid illusions
 Kanizsa Triangle
 An optical illusion,
illustrated above, in
which the eye
perceives a white
upright equilateral
triangle where
none is actually
drawn.
 PERCEPTION

A psychological process whereby a person select,

organise and interpret sensory stimulations into
meaningful information about the environment.
 Determined by their needs,
 Closely related to personality
 Potential to influence behaviour
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
Characteristics of
Situation

Perceptual
Perceptual Outputs
Inputs Perceptual Mechanisms
or Stimuli -Attitudes Behaviour
Selection Interpretation -Opinions
-Objects -Feelings
-Events Organisation -Beliefs
-People

Characteristics of
the Perceiver
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM

ORGANISATION:
(a) Figure Ground
(b) Perceptual Grouping
(c) Simplification
(d) Closure
FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION

I. Characteristics of the Perceiver:

a) Needs and Motives
b) Self-Concept
c) Beliefs
d) Past Experience
e) Current Psychological State
f) Expectations
FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION

II. Characteristics of the Target or Perceived:

a) Size
b) Intensity
c) Frequency
d) Status
e) Contrast
FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION

III. Characteristics of the Situation – Location, Light,

Heat, etc.
IV. Factors in Perceptual Organisation
a) Similarity
b) Proximity
c) Continuity
d) Context
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

a) Selective Perception
b) Projection
c) Stereotyping
d) Halo Effect
e) Impression
f) Inference
g) Attribution
h) Perceptual Set
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Selective Perception
When we see a person, object or event; some
particular thing stand out
Example – Judging a movie based on only the
actor or actress or the music or the director.
You may miss the story line or the quality of
direction.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Projection
Our tendency to feel and see others are like us.

Example – A manager is a hard-worker and work long

hours. Mr. A is also like him, but Mr.B does not work late
hours but the output of Mr. B is the best in empirical
terms. However, the manager will rate Mr.A higher
than Mr.B because of projection.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of our perception of
the group to which he or she belongs.
Example – He is an aged senior executive and so he
mat not be able to understand the computers.

A labour belongs to a troublesome labour union and

so he too is of the same kind.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Halo Effect
Previous success creates a halo and we feel that
he/she will be successful again.
Example – Mr. A is a university topper but is not able to
convey his views clearly in an interview. But still based
on his university performance and results he gets
selected.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Impression
First Impression (Primacy Effect): In an interview, the
interviewers make up their mind in the first six seconds
based on your initial looks and gestures.
Recent Impression (Recency Effect): Always the end is
remembered.
The efficiency of a salesman during the last few days
of the month is considered rather than all through the
month.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Inference
Tendency to judge others on limited information.

Example – An employee might be sitting on his desk

throughout the working hours without doing anything
but it may be inferred that he is very dedicated and
hard-working and may be rated high by his superior
during performance appraisal without taking his
output into consideration.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Attribution
Cause and Effect explanation to the observed
behaviour.

Example – Attribute their behaviour to situation.

A nurse who drops the medical tray may be excused if
the incident occurred due to slippery floor but not if
caused by her clumsiness.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Perceptual Set
Previously held beliefs.

Example – Manager may have developed the

general belief and attitude that the workers are lazy
and shirkers but want to gain from the organisation.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Tendency for someone’s expectations about another
to cause that person to behave in a manner
consistent with those expectations.
Pygmalion Effect (Positive Instance) – On reference
check, it was found that Mr.A is good team player.
Though people in his team do not like him the
manager grades him high because he expects him to
be so.
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS AND DISTORTION

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Golem Effect (Negative Instance) – The same
manager evaluates his top performer as third,
because his expectation from him is not high although
the employee has given best results.
 Values

 Modern Business Practices:

Diligence, Zero Defect, Money-back guarantee, etc.

VALUE SYSTEM
 Day-to-Day Life :
Integrity, freedom, Security, Privacy
 Social Life :
Relationships, Trust, Faith, Compassion, Sharing, etc.
 Work Life:
Efficiency, Productivity, Fairness, Flexibility, Achievement,
Loyalty, Order, etc.
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF VALUES

 Milton Rokeach has defines values as global beliefs

that guide actions and judgements across a variety of
situations.
 Values are relatively stable and enduring.
 Value is basic conviction and notions about what is
right and wrong or what is more or less desirable.
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF VALUES
Features of Values

 Reflect standards of morality.

 Most central to the core of a person.
 Relatively permanent and resistant to change.
 Transcend specific objects, situations and persons.
 Values have two attributes – Content and Intensity.
 Content – Stresses that a particular code of conduct is
important
 Intensity – Specifies how important that particular code of
conduct is.
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF VALUES
Types of Values

 Allport’s Classification:
1. Theoretical – Discovery of truth through reasoning and
systematic thinking
2. Economic – Interest in usefulness and practicality, including the
accumulation of wealth.
3. Aesthetic – Emphasis on beauty, form, artistic harmony.
4. Social – Interest in people and human relationships
5. Political – Interest in gaining power and influencing others
6. Religious – Interest in unity and understanding the cosmos as a
whole.
 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF VALUES
Types of Values

 Rokeach’s Classification:
1. Terminal Values :
o What a person is ultimately striving to achieve
o Lead to ends to be achieved
o E.g., Comfortable Life, Family Security, Self-respect, Sense of
Accomplishment.
2. Instrumental Values;
o Relate to means of achieving the desired ends.
o E.g., Ambition, Courage, Honesty, Imagination
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF VALUES
Sources of Values

 FamilialFactors
 Social Factors
 Personal Factors
 Cultural factors
 Religious Factors
 Life Experiences
ATTITUDE

A predisposition to respond in a positive or negative

way to someone or something, in one’s environment –
Schermerhorn,et. al.
 The way a person feels about something – a person, a
place, a commodity, a situation or an idea.
ATTITUDE – ABC Model
(Components of Attitude)

AFFECTIVE COMPONENT
Ideas, Beliefs, Values
(Emotional)

BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT
Feelings

COGNITIVE COMPONENT
Tendency to Behave
(Informational)
ATTITUDE - Features of Attitudes:

 Attitudes affects behaviour

 Attitudes are Invisible
 Attitudes are Acquired
 Attitudes are Persuasive
ATTITUDE -Sources of Attitudes:

Direct Personal
Experience
Social
Association Learning

Attitudes
ATTITUDE – Functions of Attitudes

 Adjustment Function –Adjusting to work environment

 Ego Defensive Function – Protect own self-image
(Feeling of threat or guilt)
 Value Expressive Function – based on value system
 Knowledge Function – Standards and Frames of
reference that allow people to organise and explain
the world around them.
ATTITUDE – Formation of Attitudes

 Psychological factors
 Family Factors
 Social Factors
 Organisational Factors
 Economic Factors
 Political Factors
ATTITUDE – Job-Related Attitudes

ATTITUDES

Job Job Organisational

satisfaction Involvement Commitment

ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
ATTITUDE – Cognitive Dissonance

 Proposed by Leon festinger (1950)

 Cognitive Dissonance means an inconsistency.
 Cognitive Dissonance refers to any incompatibility
that an individual might perceive between two or
more of his attitudes or between his behaviour and
attitudes.
 Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and
individuals attempt to reduce the dissonance and
hence the discomfort.
ATTITUDE – Cognitive Dissonance

 Thetendency to reduce the dissonance (dissonance

cannot be avoided) is strong under the following
circumstances:
i. The concerned decision is important.
ii. There are a number of foregone alternatives
iii. The foregone alternatives have many positive
features
ATTITUDE – Cognitive Dissonance

 In order to minimise dissonance, the individual may:

i. Seek information that confirms the wisdom of the
decision
ii. Selectively perceives(distort) information in a way that
supports the decision.
iii. Adopts a less favourable attitude towards the
foregone alternatives
iv. Downplay the importance of any negative aspects of
the choice and magnify the positive aspects.
 LEARNING

 Learning is relatively a permanent change in

behaviour that occurs as a result of prior experience.
A change in behaviour through education, training,
practice and experience.
 LEARNING - THEORIES

 Classical Conditioning Theory (Pavlon Watson) : S-R

 Operant Conditioning Theory (B.F.Skinner): R-S
 Cognitive Learning : S-S-S-S...
 Social Learning
LEARNING – THEORIES
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Dog Experiment
LEARNING – THEORIES
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Dog Experiment
 LEARNING – THEORIES
Operant Conditioning

 Operant is defined as behaviour that produces effect.

 Based on the work of B.F.Skinner
 Individuals emit responses that are rewarded and not emit
responses that are either not rewarded or are punished.
 Voluntary or learned behaviour
 Determined, maintained and controlled by its
consequences.
 Stimuli are used to shape behaviour.
 LEARNING – THEORIES
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement Model (Shaping Behaviour)
Four strategies to reinforce desirable behaviour:

1. Positive Reinforcement
2. Negative Reinforcement (or) Avoidance Learning
3. Extinction
4. Punishment
 LEARNING – THEORIES
Cognitive Learning

 Achievedby thinking about the perceived relationship

between events and individual’s goals and expectations.
 Cognition refers to an individual’s ideas, thoughts,
knowledge, interpretations, understandings, etc., about
himself and his environment.
 The role of an organism in receiving, memorising,
retrieving and interpreting the stimulus and reacting to it.
 LEARNING – THEORIES
Social Learning or Vicarious Learning

 Learning
achieved through the reciprocal interactions
between people, behaviour and their environments.
 Integrates cognitive and operant conditioning.
 People acquire new behaviours by observing and
imitating others.
 Learn through observations and direct experiences.
 LEARNING
Social Learning

BOBO DOLL
experiment by
Bandura
 LEARNING – THEORIES
Social Learning or Vicarious Learning
Bandura identified three basic models of observational
learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual
demonstrating or acting out a behaviour.
2. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional
characters displaying behaviours in books, films,
television programs, or online media.
3. A verbal instructional model, which involves
descriptions and explanations of a behaviour.
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS

 An organisation which aims at transferring, creating

and acquiring knowledge for modifying the behaviour
in order to reflect new insights and knowledge.
 An individual has the chance to expand and
enhance his/her skills and knowledge.
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS

According Gephart the essence of organisational

learning is:
 Systematic critical thinking
A spirit of experimentation and flexibility
 Centred towards people (community)
 Continuous learning at the systems level
 Emphasis is on knowledge sharing and generation
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS

Five Factors of Interaction in Learning

Organisations People

Learning

Knowledge Technology
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.
 Apple’s core businesses include software production, online
music market, consumer electronics, mobile advertising,
digital video editing, and personal computers.
 Its corporate culture encourages imagination, intelligence,
creativity and innovation.
 Its organizational structure enhances flexibility and
adaptability, and
 The management facilitates the creation of a work
environment that promotes innovation and change
(Lashinsky, 2012)
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.
 Steve Jobs was a visionary leader who saved Apple from
collapsing and transformed it into a market leader.
 Jobs came in with a consumer-first approach.
 After the death of Jobs, Tim Cook took over the leadership of
Apple.
 The company exhibits organizational learning through its
common vision, application of mental models, development
of knowledge workers and knowledge-based products and
services, and the utilization of enterprise intellectual capital.
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.

 The company’s learning cycle involves four main steps

namely
1. generation of information (needs, wants, and interests of
customers)
2. integration of information into organization context,
3. interpretation of information (collection of ideas and
opinions from employees), and
4. implementation of gained knowledge (Argote, 2012)
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.

 According to Senge (2010), there are five disciplines that

characterize organization learning
1. systems thinking
2. personal mastery
3. mental models
4. shared vision, and
5. team learning
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.

Systems thinking

Assimilation of the iPhone into the company’s related

products.
Through the iPhone, the company developed a method to
integrate an online music store with a system to manage the
digital rights of artists and an app store for customers.
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.

Personal Mastery

Development of knowledge workers

 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.

Mental Models
Enhance learning and adaption of new concepts in order to
compete effectively with other companies. It has expanded
its operations from production of computers only to other
industries such as music and communications. It has
revolutionalized the phone and music industries within a short
time because of the ability to innovate and adapt to new
concepts.
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.

Shared Vision
Employees work towards a vision of building products that
ultimately change the world by improving the lives of
customers.
 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
CASE STUDY – APPLE INC.
Team Learning
It involves dialogue, discussion, and exchange of ideas. At
Apple, employees hold regular meetings to discuss the
progress made by different teams during the process of
developing a new product.

For instance, the design, software, and hardware teams meet

to discuss the progress attained by each division. During these
meetings, members exchange ideas and give opinions that
are aimed at improving the design, manufacture, marketing,
and sale of the new product.
MOTIVATION
 Motivation - Definition

 Motive – Any idea, need or emotion that prompts a

person into action
 Core of Management – Rensis Likert
 Will to Work
 Motivationis an effective instrument in the hands of a
manager for inspiring the workforce and creating a
confidence in it.
 Motivation - Definition

 Motivation refers to the way in which urges,

drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs
direct, control or explain the behaviour of
human beings.
– Dalton E. McFarland
 Motivation – Theories of Motivation
APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION

COGNITIVE MODELS NON-COGNITIVE MODELS

OR
REINFORCEMENT MODEL
 Motivation – Cognitive Models

 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

 McGregor’s Participation Theory (Theory X and
Theory Y)
 Alderfer’s ERG Model
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Model
Motivation – Content Theories
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model

Mission in Life, Desire for personal achievement 5.

Self-confidence, Independence, Achievement, Self
4. Actualisation
Success, Knowledge
Self
3. Esteem
Social
2. Needs
Safety
1. Needs Recognition, Belongingness, Companionship
Physiological
Needs Job Security, Personal Safety, Income, Old Age, Insurance

Food, Cloth, Shelter, Air, Water

Motivation – Content Theories
McGregor’s Participation Theory
(Theory X and Theory Y)
Theory X (Autocratic Managers)
• People are basically lazy and dislike work and so shirk work.
• People do not take initiative. They like to be directed.
• People avoid responsibility whenever possible.
• For getting things done, people must be supervised strictly.
• Autocratic style of leadership is likely to be more effective.
• Applicable to illiterate, unskilled and lower level workers.
• Believes in mental sickness and so negative motivation of
employees.
• Motivation occurs at psychological and Safety Needs Level.
Motivation – Content Theories
McGregor’s Participation Theory
(Theory X and Theory Y)
Theory Y (Democratic or Participative Managers)
• People like work as children like play.
• People like to take initiative. They seek self-direction.
• People assume responsibility gladly if conditions are favourable.
• People do not require close and strict supervision.
• Democratic or participative style of leadership likely to be more
effective.
• Applicable to educated and skilled people who occupy higher
positions.
• Believes in mental health and so positive and intrinsic motivation of
employees.
• Motivation occurs at Social, Esteem and Self-actualisation Levels.
Ouchi’s Theory Z (A Hybrid Model)
(US-Japanese System of Management)
Japanese Organisations American Organisations
Lifetime Employment Short-Term Employment
Slow Advancement Rapid Advancement
Collective Decision-Making Personal Decision Making
Group responsibilities Individual Responsibilities
Holistic Concern for Employees Segmented Concern for Employees

General Career Specialisation Career

Ouchi’s Theory Z (A Hybrid Model)
US-Japanese System of Management)
Features:
 Strong bond between the Company and the Employees
 Employees’ Participation
 Mutual Trust
 Integrated Organisation (No formal structure, Team
Work)
 Human Resource Development
Application: Maruti Udyog in collaboration with Suzuki Motors
implemented Theory Z
Alderfer’s ERG Model

 Condensed Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model:

1. Existence Needs: Material and Physiological Needs

(Maslow’s first two level needs)
2. Relatedness Needs : Relationships (Maslow’s Social Needs
and Self-Esteem Needs Level)
3. Growth Needs : Creative efforts to achieve full potential
(Maslow’s Self-Actualisation Needs Level)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Model
Maintenance or Hygiene Factors Motivation Factors
1. Company Policy and Administration 1. Achievement
2. Technical Supervision 2. Recognition
3. Inter-personal relations with Supervisor, 3. Advancement
Peers, Subordinates 4. Work itself
4. subordinates 5. Possibility of Growth
5. Salary 6. Responsibility
6. Job Security
7. Personal Life
8. Working Conditions
9. Status
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Model

MOTIVATION
DEMOTIVATION
(If absent ) (If present )
 Motivation – Reinforcement Model

 Based on B.F.Skinner’s concepts of operant

conditioning
 Behaviour of people is largely determined by its
consequences.
 Actions with positive or pleasant consequences –
Repeated
 Actions with negative or unpleasant consequences –
Less likely to be repeated.
 Motivation – Reinforcement Model

Four strategies to reinforce desirable behaviour:

1. Positive Reinforcement
2. Negative Reinforcement (or) Avoidance Learning
3. Extinction
4. Punishment