RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
 BASICS OF RESEARCH
⚫ Introduction of Research
⚫ Objectives of Research
⚫ Terminologies
⚫ Characteristics of scientific research
⚫ Types of Research
⚫ Uses of research in healthcare
⚫ Criteria for good Research
 INTRODUCTION
⚫ Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find
answers to a question. The word research has two parts re
(again) and search (find) which denote that we are taking up
an activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to
look for some new information about something.
⚫ “Search of knowledge”
⚫ “It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on specific topic”.
⚫ Redman and Mory define research as “a systematized effort
to gain new knowledge”.
⚫ “A careful inquiry specially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge” (Rocco, 2011)
⚫ According to Clifford Woody research comprises
defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solution; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusion; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.
⚫ According to (Creswell, 2008), "Research is
systematic investigation to establish the facts." In
the broadest sense of the word, the definition of
research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of
knowledge.
⚫ Search for knowledge through objective &
systematic method of finding solution to a
problem.

⚫ Research can be defined as the search for

knowledge or as any systematic investigation
to establish facts. The primary purpose of
research is discovering, interpreting, and the
development of methods and systems for the
advancement of human knowledge on a
wide variety of scientific matters of our
world and the universe.
⚫ D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson define research as
"The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for
the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art." The
authors have a different view of research as they
suggest that it can be taken up by modifying,
challenging and changing; available knowledge either
to prove a process being appropriate or to develop it in
entirety.
⚫ Research is the systematic process of
collecting and analyzing information to
increase our understanding of the
phenomenon under study. It is the function
of the researcher to contribute to the
understanding of the phenomenon and to
communicate that understanding to others
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
⚫ The principal objective or purpose of research in any
field of inquiry is to add to what is known about the
phenomenon under the investigation through the
application of scientific methods.
⚫ The purpose of research is the following-
⚫ Exploration
⚫ Description
⚫ Causal Explanation
⚫ Prediction.
 Exploration
⚫ Exploration is finding out about some previously unexamined
phenomenon. It is particularly useful when researchers lack a
clear idea of the problems they will meet during the course of the
study. Through exploration, researchers –
⚫ Develop concepts more clearly
⚫ Establish priorities
⚫ Develop operational definitions
⚫ Formulate research hypotheses, and
⚫ Improve the final research design.
⚫ Examples: Dengue cases is increasing in the city at an alarming
rate, the reasons for which remain unknown. The problem is
ambiguous and what is actually happening is to be cleared.
⚫ A new product is to be marketed, the manufacturer remains in
worry if the product will be accepted by the people or not.
 Description
⚫ Description refers to the data based information-gathering
activities. The situations and events which are described
through studies are referred to as descriptive studies.
⚫ Descriptive studies try to discover answers to the questions
who, what, when, where and sometimes how.
⚫ Examples:
⚫ What are the characteristics of the people who are affected ?
Are they young? Middle aged? Poor? Urban people or rural
people?
⚫ Who are the potential buyers of the new product? Men or
women? Urban people or rural people?
 Causal Exploration
⚫ An explanatory study goes beyond description and
attempts to establish cause and-effect relationship
between variables.
⚫ It explains the reason for the phenomenon that
describes study observed.
⚫ Thus, if a researcher finds that communities having
higher family size have higher child death, s/he is
performing a descriptive study. If researcher is
explaining why it is so and tries to establish
cause-and-effect relationship.
Prediction
⚫ Prediction seeks to answer when and in what
situations the event will occur, if it can be provided
plausible explanation for the question.
⚫ In addition to being able to explain an event after it has
occurred, it will be able to predict when the event will
occur.
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
⚫ To gain familiarity with a phenomenon & to achieve
insights into it (Exploration).
⚫ To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (Description).

⚫ To portray accurately the characteristics of a

particular individual, situation or a group.
⚫ To identify the casual relationship between
variables (Causal Explanation).
⚫ Know and understand a phenomenon with a
view to formulating the problem precisely in
advance (Prediction).
 SOME TERMINOLOGIES
Data: Measurement of records of facts and statistics
collected together made under specific conditions
for reference or analysis.
⚫ Raw or primary data: Information collected and
recorded fresh for the first time as notes, images,
video footage, paper surveys, computer files, etc.,
pertaining to a specific research project.
⚫ Secondary /Processed data: Data which is
collected by other researchers for their study
and which has already been passed through
certain statistical procedures.

⚫ Data collected from books, journals,

databases, analyses, descriptions, and
conclusions prepared as reports or papers
Qualitative/ Quantitative data
⚫ Qualitative data is a categorical measurement
expressed not in terms of numbers, but rather by
means of a natural language description. In
statistics, it is often used interchangeably with
"categorical" data.

⚫ Examples: Favorite color, favorite food, type of car.

⚫ Quantitative data is a numerical measurement
expressed not by means of a natural language
description, but rather in terms of numbers.

⚫ Example: Height of a person is 160cms, Weight of a

person is 60 Kgs.
Characteristics/Hallmarks of scientific research

⚫ Purposiveness
⚫ Rigor
⚫ Testability
⚫ Replicability
⚫ Precision & confidence
⚫ Objectivity
⚫ Generalizability
⚫ Parsimony
 Purposiveness
⚫ A definite aim or a purpose of conducting research
should be there
⚫ A purposive focus
⚫ Example Research on finding out ways to increase
commitment of hospital employees towards hospital.
⚫ Purpose/Aim – More patient footfall, less absenteeism,
Increased performance level of employees.
 Rigor
⚫ Carefulness
⚫ Scrupulousness(thorough/precise/principled)
⚫ Degree of exactitude in research investigations
⚫ A good theoretical base and a sound methodological
design add rigor to a purposive research.
⚫ One must be careful in ensuring that the procedures
followed to find answers to questions are relevant,
appropriate and justified.
Let us say the manager asks 10-12 employees how to
increase the level of commitment. If solely on the basis
of their responses the manager reaches several
conclusions on how employee commitment can be
increased, the whole approach to the investigation
would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the
following reasons:
1. Based on few employees whose opinions may
not be representative of those of the entire
workforce
2. Bias and incorrectness, due to the manner of
framing and addressing the questions,
 Thus, Rigorous research involves a good
theoretical base and a carefully thought-out
methodology.
⚫ These factors enable the researcher to collect
the right kind of information from an
appropriate sample with the minimum degree
of bias, and facilitate suitable analysis of the
data gathered.
 Testability
⚫ In scientific research, there is an important need
to test the hypothesis to understand and find out
the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables. Therefore, testability is
one of the important characteristics of
scientific research.
⚫ A logical hypothesis capable of being tested
should be there.
⚫ Statistical tests can be applied upon.
⚫ Data collected should support the hypothesis.
 Replicability
⚫ Results of the tests of hypothesis should be supported
again and again when same type of research is repeated in
other similar circumstances.
⚫ Let us suppose that the manager/researcher, based on the
results of the study, concludes that participation in
decision making is one of the most important factors that
influences the commitment of employees to the hospital.
we will place more faith and credence in these findings and
conclusion if similar finding emerge on the basis of data
collected by other hospitals employing the same methods.
 Precision & Confidence
Precision
⚫ Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to
“reality” based on a sample.
⚫ It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of
the results of the sample.
Confidence
⚫ Confidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.
⚫ That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but
it is also important that we can confidently claim
that 95% of the time our results would be true and
there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.
⚫ This is also known as confidence level.
 Objectivity
⚫ The conclusions drawn through the interpretation
of the results of data analysis should be objective;
that is, they should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not on our
subjective or emotional values.

⚫ The more objective the interpretation of data the

more scientific the research investigation
becomes.
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that
greater participation in decision making will
increase hospital commitment and this was not
supported by the results, it makes no sense if the
researcher continues to argue that increased
opportunities for employee participation would
still help!
The more objective in the interpretation of the
data, the more scientific the research investigation
becomes.
 Generalizability
⚫ Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability
of the research findings in one organization setting
to other settings. Obviously, the wider the range of
applicability of the solutions generated by
research, the more useful the research is to the
users.
⚫ Results obtained from research must be acceptable
and applicable worldwide.
⚫ The more generalized the research, more will be its
usefulness and value.
⚫ For a wider generalizability research sampling
design has to be logically developed.
⚫ Example: If a researcher’s findings that
participation in decision making enhances
organizational commitment are found to be true in
a variety of manufacturing, industrial, and service
organizations, and not merely in the particular
organization studied by the researcher, then the
generalizability of the findings to other
organizational settings is enhanced. The more
generalizable the research, the greater its
usefulness and value.
 Parsimony
⚫ Research framework should be simple and meaningful.
⚫ Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that
occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is
always preferred to complex research frameworks that
consider an unmanageable number of factors.
⚫ The achievement of a meaningful and parsimonious, rather
than an elaborate and cumbersome, model for problem
solution is another hallmark in research.
Induction
⚫ Induction is a process where we observe certain
phenomena and on this basis make generalizations.

In other words, in induction we

logically establish a general
proposition based on observed facts.
Deduction
⚫ Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a
reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known fact.

Example: we know that all high performers are

highly proficient in their jobs.
If John is a high performer, we then conclude that
he is highly proficient in his job
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Descriptive research
2. Analytical research
3. Applied research
4. Basic research
5. Conceptual research
6. Experimental research
 1.DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
⚫ Information is collected without changing the
environment (i.e., nothing is manipulated).
Sometimes these are referred to as observational
studies.
⚫ Purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists
at present.
⚫ Researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
⚫ Surveys & fact finding enquiries of different kinds
⚫ In human research, a descriptive study can provide
information about the naturally occurring health
status, behavior, attitudes or other characteristics of a
particular group.
⚫ Can be Longitudinal or cross-sectional.
⚫ Cross-sectional studies involve a one-time interaction
with groups of people and information is collected at
one point in time.
⚫ Longitudinal studies take place over a significant
period of time or follow individuals over time.
SUBIVISIONS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

⚫ Survey research

⚫ The case study

⚫ Observational research
 Surveys
⚫ In survey research, participants answer questions
administered through interviews or questionnaires.
After participants answer the questions, researchers
describe the responses given. In order for the survey to
be both reliable and valid it is important that the
questions are constructed properly. Questions should
be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.
 Case study
⚫ Case study research involves an in-depth study of
an individual or group of individuals. Case studies
often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to
study rare phenomena.
 Observational Research
⚫ With the observational method animal and human
behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories
of the observational method — naturalistic observation
and laboratory observation.
⚫ The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of
research is that researchers view participants in their
natural environments. This leads to greater ecological
validity (the extent to which research can be used in
real-life situations)than laboratory observation.
⚫ Due to more control in the laboratory, the results are more
meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic
observation.
⚫ Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming
and cheaper than naturalistic observations.
 Observational Research

Non
Participant
participant
 2.ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
⚫ Involves in-depth study and evaluation of available
information in an attempt to explain complex
phenomenon.
⚫ The researcher has to use facts or information already
available and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
⚫ This form of research is often undertaken by
researchers to uncover some evidence that supports
their present research and which makes it more
authentic.
A researcher wants to know why individuals in Community
A have a higher rate of a rare form of cancer when
compared to those living in Community B. To find out the
reasons for the differences in cancer rates in these two
communities, the investigator surveyed residents about
their lifestyle, noted the types of businesses that were
present in the community and searched medical records.
The researcher found that a Chemical Plant is located in
Community A, there is a higher rate of cigarette smoking in
this community and residents tended to delay or skip going
to the doctor for an annual checkup. In Community B, the
largest employer was a department store and on average,
residents did not smoke as much as residents from
Community A. However, like individuals from Community
A, Community B residents tended to delay or skip their
annual checkup with their doctor.
SUBDIVISIONS OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
⚫ Historical research
⚫ Philosophical research
⚫ Review
⚫ Research synthesis ( meta analysis i.e. analysis the
review that already published)

K
3.APPLIED / ACTION RESEARCH

⚫ Finding a solution an immediate problem

⚫ Research aiming at certain conclusion (solution)
facing a concrete business problem

SUBTYPES
⚫ Marketing research
⚫ Evaluation research- research to identify social,
economic & political trends that may affect a
particular institution
4.BASIC /PURE/ FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH
⚫ Research concerned with generalization and the
formulation of theory
⚫ Natural phenomenon and mathematics are the
examples of basic research
⚫ Finding information in broad base.
⚫ Gathering knowledge for knowledge sake
⚫ Research studies concerning human behavior
⚫ Finding information that has a broad base of
applications & adds to already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge.
 5.CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH
⚫ Related to some abstract ideas / theory experiment
⚫ Attempt to establish cause and effect relationship
⚫ Used by philosophers & thinkers to develop new
concepts
6.EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
⚫ Relies on experience without due regard to system &
theory
⚫ Data based research coming up with conclusions
capable of being verified by experiment
⚫ Working hypothesis is required to guess probable
results.
⚫ Enough facts (data) are required to prove or disprove
his hypothesis. Such research is thus characterized by
the experimenter’s control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them
to study its effects
SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF PROBLEM SOLVING /
RESEARCH PROCESS

⚫ Formulating research problem

⚫ Review of literature
⚫ Developing hypothesis
⚫ Preparing research and sample design
⚫ Collecting data
⚫ Execution of project
⚫ Analysis of data
⚫ Hypothesis testing
⚫ Discussion
⚫ Preparation of report or thesis
FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEM

⚫ Problems are divided two types

⚫ Problems which relate to state of nature
⚫ Those which relate correlation between variables
• Subject of interest to be selected as a problem
• Always select unsolved problem
• Initially, may propose in Broadway and ambiguities may
resolved
• Feasibility
FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEM
⚫ Understanding the problem thoroughly
⚫ Rephrasing the same into meaningful term
⚫ Discuss the problems with colleagues
⚫ Staff members and guide
⚫ Take a view of old reviews
⚫ The final question should be precise and
grammatically correct and should state exactly what
you expect to learn as a result of a study.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

⚫ Journals
⚫ References
⚫ Reports
⚫ Books
⚫ Library is good friend
⚫ Internet and websites
DEVELOPING HYPOTHESIS
⚫ It should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested.
⚫ The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the
right track.
DEVELOPING HYPOTHESIS
⚫ Discussion with colleagues and experts about the
problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking
solution
⚫ Examinations of data and records
⚫ Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies
on similar problems
⚫ Personal investigation which involves original field
interviews.
PREPARING RESEARCH AND SAMPLE DESIGN

⚫ State the conceptual structure within which research would

be conducted
⚫ Type of research design
⚫ Experimental , quasi experimental and non experimental
⚫ Setting of the study
⚫ Population
⚫ Criteria for selection
⚫ Variables
⚫ Sample selection
COLLECTING DATA

⚫ Several ways are there to collect the appropriate data

⚫ Primary data and secondary data
⚫ By observation
⚫ Personal interview
⚫ Telephone interview
⚫ Questionnaires
⚫ Survey
EXECUTION OF PROJECT
⚫ It is a very important step in research process
⚫ If it is proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable.
⚫ The step should be taken that the data should be in
the control of statistics so that the collected
information is in accordance with the pre defined
designed to tackle this problem
ANALYSIS OF DATA
⚫ The analysis of data requires a number of closely
related operations such as establishment of categories,
the application of theses categories to raw data
through tabulation, coding and editing like statistical
interference.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
⚫ Coding: this operation is usually done at this stage
through which the categories of data are transformed
into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
⚫ Editing: it is the procedure that improves the quality
of the data for coding
⚫ Tabulation: It is a part of the technical procedure
wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
⚫ After analyzing the data, the researcher is in position
to test the hypothesis.
⚫ Inference
⚫ Student ‘t’ test, Chi-square, F- test are the examples of
statistical techniques
⚫ At end, researcher have reject or not reject the null
hypothesis.
DISCUSSION

⚫ Chapter or section of a research report that explains

what the results mean.
⚫ Its very important section to add the appropriate
supportive literatures.
PREPARATION OF REPORT OR THESIS

⚫ The layout of the report should be as follows.

⚫ Preliminary pages
⚫ The main text
⚫ The end matter
CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH
⚫ The purpose of the research should be clearly defined
and common concepts be used
⚫ The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat
the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
⚫ The procedure design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that tare as objectives
as possible.
⚫ Common concepts should be used that can be
understood by all.
CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH
⚫ The researcher should report with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects
upon the findings.
⚫ The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to
reveal its significance and the method of analysis used
should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of
the data should be checked carefully.
CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH
⚫ Conclusions should be confined to those justified by
the data of the research and limited to those for which
the data provide an adequate basis.
⚫ Greater confidence in research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN
INDIA

⚫ The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of

research
⚫ There is insufficient interaction between university
and the companies
⚫ Confidentiality
⚫ Research studies overlapping one another are
undertaken quire often for want of adequate
information
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY
RESEARCHERS IN INDIA
⚫ Does not exist a code of conduct
⚫ Improper library management and functioning
⚫ Improper delivery of government orders, reports and
etc.,
⚫ Time availability improper
⚫ Funding source
SURVIVAL & GROWTH THROUGH RESEARCH
⚫ Health care professionals unable to prove that they
prevent disease, improve health or restore function
will not be reimbursed for their service
⚫ Physical therapy cannot justify its existence on the
basis of what it does for patients, it will cease to be a
profession in all too short time.
SURVIVAL & GROWTH THROUGH
RESEARCH
⚫ Instead of viewing increased accountability as a
problem or threat, we must view it as an opportunity
to document the positive contributions physical
therapy makes to the public it serves.
⚫ The bridge between what physical therapists believe
they contribute to improving patient function and the
documentation of those improvements is clinical
research.